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Handbook of 
Meat Processing
Handbook of 
Meat Processing
Fidel Toldrá
EDITOR
A John Wiley & Sons , Inc., Publication
Edition fi rst published 2010
© 2010 Blackwell Publishing
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of meat processing / edited by Fidel Toldrá.
   p. cm.
  Includes bibliographical references and index.
  ISBN 978-0-8138-2182-5 (hardback : alk. paper )  1.  Meat—Handbooks, manuals, etc.  2.  Meat 
industry and trade—Handbooks, manuals, etc.  I.  Toldrá, Fidel. 
 TS1960.H36 2010
 664′.9—dc22
2009037503
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.
Set in 10 on 12 pt  Times by Toppan Best -set Premedia Limited
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The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or 
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Further, readers should be aware that Internet  Websites listed in this work may have changed or disap-
peared between when this work was written and when it is read.
1 2010
Contents
Preface 
ix
List of Contributors 
xi
About the Editor 
xv
PART I.  Technologies 
3
 1.  Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat 
5
Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan
 2.   Technological Quality of Meat for Processing 
25
Susan Brewer
 3. Meat 
Decontamination 
43
Panagiotis N. Skandamis, George-John E. Nychas, and John N. Sofos
 4. Aging/Tenderization 
Mechanisms 
87
Brian C. Bowker, Janet S. Eastridge, Ernie W. Paroczay, 
Janice A. Callahan, and Morse B. Solomon
 5. Freezing/Thawing 
105
Christian James and Stephen J. James
 6. Curing 
125
Karl O. Honikel
 7. Emulsifi cation 
143
Irene Allais
 8. Thermal 
Processing 
169
Jane Ann Boles
 9.  Fermentation: Microbiology and Biochemistry 
185
Spiros Paramithiotis, Eleftherios H. Drosinos, John N. Sofos, and 
George-John E. Nychas
10.   Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation 
199
Pier Sandro Cocconcelli and Cecilia Fontana
11. Drying 
219
Endre Zukál and Kálmán Incze
v
vi    Contents
12.  Smoking  
231
Zdzisław E. Sikorski and Edward Kol
´akowski
13. Meat 
Packaging 
247
Maurice G. O’Sullivan and Joseph P. Kerry
14.   Novel  Technologies for Microbial Spoilage Prevention  
263
Oleksandr Tokarskyy and Douglas L. Marshall
15.   Plant Cleaning and Sanitation 
287
Stefania Quintavalla
PART II.  Products 
299
16. Cooked 
Ham 
301
Fidel Toldrá, Leticia Mora, and Mónica Flores
17. Cooked 
Sausages 
313
Eero Puolanne
18.  Bacon  
327
Peter R. Sheard
19.  Canned Products and Pâté 
337
Isabel Guerrero Legarreta
20. Dry-Cured 
Ham 
351
Fidel Toldrá and M. Concepción Aristoy
21.  Mold -Ripened 
Sausages 
363
Kálmán Incze
22.  Semidry and Dry Fermented Sausages 
379
Graciela Vignolo, Cecilia Fontana, and Silvina Fadda
23. Restructured 
Whole -Tissue 
Meats 
399
Mustafa M. Farouk
24.   Functional Meat Products 
423
Keizo Arihara and Motoko Ohata
PART III.  Controls 
441
25.   Physical Sensors for Quality Control during Processing 
443
Marta Castro -Giráldez, Pedro José Fito, Fidel Toldrá, and Pedro Fito
26.  Sensory Evaluation of Meat Products 
457
Geoffrey R. Nute
27.  Detection of Chemical Hazards  
469
Milagro Reig and Fidel Toldrá
28.  Microbial Hazards in Foods : Food-Borne Infections and Intoxications 
481
Daniel Y. C. Fung
Contents    vii
29.   Assessment of Genetically Modifi ed Organisms (GMO) in Meat Products 
by PCR 
501
Marta Hernández, Alejandro Ferrando, and David Rodríguez-Lázaro
30.   HACCP : Hazard   Analysis Critical Control Point 
519
Maria Jo ã o Fraqueza and António Salvador Barreto
31. Quality 
Assurance 
547
Friedrich-Karl Lücke
Index 
561
 Preface 
      For  centuries,  meat  and  its  derived  products 
worldwide meat products such as cooked 
have constituted some of the most important  
ham and sausages, bacon, canned products 
foods consumed in many countries around  
and  p â t é ,  dry - cured  ham,  mold - ripened  sau-
the world. Despite this important role , there  
sages, semidry and dry fermented sausages, 
are few books dealing with meat and its 
restructured meats, and functional meat prod -
processing technologies. This book provides 
ucts. The third part presents effi cient strate-
the reader with an extensive description of 
gies to control the sensory and safety quality 
meat processing, giving the latest advances 
of meat and meat products, including physi-
in technologies, manufacturing processes , 
cal sensors, sensory evaluation, chemical 
and tools for the effective control of safety 
and microbial hazards, detection of GMOs, 
and quality during processing. 
HACCP, and quality assurance. 
 To achieve this goal, the book contains 31 
 The chapters have been written by distin-
chapters distributed in three parts. The fi rst 
guished international experts from fi fteen 
part deals with the description of meat chem -
countries. The editor wishes to thank all the 
istry, its quality for further processing, 
contributors for their hard work and for 
and the main technologies used in meat 
sharing their valuable experience , as well as 
processing, such as decontamination, aging, 
to thank the production team at Wiley 
freezing, curing, emulsifi cation, thermal pro-
 Blackwell. I also want to express my appre-
cessing, fermentation, starter cultures, drying, 
ciation to Ms. Susan Engelken for her kind 
smoking, packaging, novel technologies, 
support and coordination of this book. 
and cleaning. The second part describes the 
manufacture and main characteristics of 
   Fidel  Toldr á  
 
ix
 Contributors 
 Irene Allais 
 Susan Brewer 
 Cemagref, UMR Genial, Equipe  Automat  
 Food Science and Human Nutrition, 
 &  Qualite Alimentaire, 24 Av Landais, 
University of Illinois, USA. 
F - 63172  Aubiere  1,   France . 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Janice A. Callahan 
 Keizo Arihara 
 Food  Technology and Safety Laboratory , 
  Department of  Animal Science, Kitasato 
Bldg 201, BARC -  East , Beltsville, Maryland 
University,  Towada - shi,  Aomori  034 - 8628, 
20705, USA. 
Japan . 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 E - mail:   [email protected] - u.ac.jp  
 Marta Castro - Gir á ldez 
 M. Concepci ó n Aristoy 
 Institute of Food Engineering for 
 Department of Food Science, Instituto de 
Development ,  Universidad  Polit é cnica  de 
Agroqu í mica   y  Tecnolog í a  de  Alimentos 
Valencia , Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 
(CSIC), PO Box 73, 46100 Burjassot 
Valencia, Spain . 
(Valencia), Spain. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Pier Sandro Cocconcelli 
 Istituto di Microbiologia, Centro Ricerche 
 Ant ó nio Salvador Barreto 
Biotecnologiche, Universit à  Cattolica del 
 Faculdade  de  Medicina  Veterin á ria, 
Sacro Cuore, Piacenza - Cremona, Italy . 
DPASA, TULisbon, Av. da Universidade 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Tecnica, Polo Universit á rio, Alto da Ajuda, 
1300 - 477  Lisboa,  Portugal. 
 Eleftherios H. Drosinos 
 Laboratory of Food Quality Control and 
 Jane Ann Boles 
Hygiene , Department of Food Science and 
 Animal and Range Sciences , 119 
Technology, Agricultural University of 
Linfi eld Hall, Bozeman, Montana 
Athens, Iera Odos 75, Votanikos, 11855 
59717, USA. 
Athens, Greece . 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Brian C. Bowker 
 Janet S. Eastridge 
 Food Technology and Safety Laboratory, 
 Food Technology and Safety Laboratory, 
Bldg 201, BARC - East, Beltsville, 
Bldg 201, BARC - East, Beltsville, Maryland 
Maryland 20705, USA. 
20705, USA. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
xi
xii    Contributors
 Silvina Fadda 
 Maria Jo ã o Fraqueza 
 Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos 
 Faculdade  de  Medicina  Veterin á ria, 
(CERELA), CONICET., Chacabuco 145, 
DPASA, TULisbon, Av. da Universidade 
T4000ILC  Tucum á n,   Argentina . 
Tecnica, Polo Universit á rio, Alto da Ajuda, 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
1300 - 477  Lisboa,  Portugal. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Mustafa M. Farouk 
 AgResearch MIRINZ, Ruakura Research 
 Daniel Y. C. Fung 
Centre , East Street, Private Bag 3123, 
 Department of Animal Sciences and 
Hamilton 3240, New Zealand . 
Industry, 207 Call Hall, Kansas State 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, 
USA. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Alejandro Ferrando 
 Departamento  de  Bioqu í mica  y  Biolog í a 
Molecular, Facultad de Biolog í a, 
 Isabel Guerrero Legarreta 
Universidad de Valencia, Dr Moliner, 50, 
 Departamento  de  Biotecnolog í a, 
Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain. 
Universidad Aut ó noma,  Metropolitana, 
Unidad Iztapalapa, San Rafael Atlixco 186, 
Del. Iztapalapa, Apartado Postal 55 - 535, 
 Pedro Fito 
C.P. 092340, Mexico City. 
 Institute of Food Engineering for 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Development,  Universidad  Polit é cnica  de 
Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 
Valencia, Spain. 
 Marta Hern á ndez 
 E - mail:   pfi [email protected]  
 Laboratory of Molecular Biology and 
Microbiology,  Instituto  Tecnol ó gico 
Agrario de Castilla y Le ó n (ITACyL), Ctra. 
 Pedro Jos é  Fito 
Burgos km.119, Finca Zamadue ñ as, 47071 
 Institute of Food Engineering for 
Valladolid, Spain. 
Development,  Universidad  Polit é cnica  de 
Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 
Valencia, Spain. 
 Karl O. Honikel 
 E - mail:   pjfi [email protected]  
 Max  Rubner - Institut,  Arbeitsgruppe 
Analytik, Kulmbach, Germany . 
 E - mail:   karl - otto.honikel@t - online.de  
 M ó nica Flores 
 Department of Food Science, Instituto de 
Agroqu í mica  y  Tecnolog í a  de  Alimentos 
 Elisabeth Huff - Lonergan 
(CSIC), PO Box 73, 46100 Burjassot, 
  Muscle Biology, Department of Animal 
Valencia, Spain. 
Science, Iowa State University, 2275 Kildee 
 E - mail:   mfl [email protected]  
Hall, Ames, IA 50011 USA. E - mail: 
 [email protected]  
 Cecilia Fontana 
 Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos 
 K á lm á n Incze 
(CERELA), CONICET., Chacabuco 145, 
  Hungarian Meat Research Institute, 1097 
T4000ILC  Tucum á n,  Argentina. 
Budapest, Gubacsi  ú t 6/b, Hungary . 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Contributors    xiii
 Christian James 
 Douglas L. Marshall 
 Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering 
 College of Natural and Health Sciences, 
Research Centre (FRPERC), The Grimsby 
University of Northern Colorado, 
Institute of Further and Higher  
Campus Box 134, Greeley, Colorado 
Education(GIFHE), HSI Building, Origin  
80639 USA. 
Way, Europarc, Grimsby, North East 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Lincolnshire, DN37 9TZ UK. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Leticia Mora 
 Department of Food Science, Instituto de 
Agroqu í mica  y  Tecnolog í a  de  Alimentos 
 Stephen J. James 
(CSIC), PO Box 73, 46100 Burjassot 
 Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering 
Valencia, Spain. 
Research Centre (FRPERC), The Grimsby 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Institute of Further and Higher 
Education(GIFHE), HSI Building, Origin 
Way, Europarc, Grimsby, North East 
 Geoffrey R. Nute 
Lincolnshire, DN37 9TZ UK. 
 University of Bristol , School of Clinical 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Veterinary Science, Division of Farm  
Animal Science, Bristol BS40 5DU, Avon, 
England . 
 Joseph P. Kerry 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Department of Food and Nutritional 
Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland. 
 George - John E. Nychas 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Laboratory of Food Microbiology  &  
Biotechnology, Department of Food 
 Edward Ko ł akowski 
Science   &   Technology,  Agricultural 
University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 
 Department of Food Science and 
11855, Greece. 
Technology, Agricultural University of 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Szczecin, Papie  a Paw ł a VI St. 3, 71 - 459 
Szczecin, Poland. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Motoko Ohata 
 Department of Animal Science, Kitasato 
University,  Towada - shi,  Aomori  034 - 8628, 
 Catherine M. Logue 
Japan. 
 Department of Veterinary and 
Microbiological Sciences, North Dakota 
 Maurice G. O ’ Sullivan 
State University, 1523 Centennial Blvd, 
 Department of Food and Nutritional 
130A Van Es Hall, Fargo, North Dakota 
Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland. 
58105, USA. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Spiros Paramithiotis 
 Friedrich - Karl L ü cke 
 Laboratory of Food Quality Control and 
 Hochschule Fulda (University of Applied 
Hygiene, Department of Food Science and 
Sciences), P.O. Box 2254, 36012 Fulda, 
Technology, Agricultural University of 
Germany. 
Athens, Iera Odos 75, 11855 Athens, 
 E - mail:   friedrich - karl.luecke@t - online.de  
Greece. 
xiv    Contributors
 Ernie W. Paroczay 
 Panagiotis N. Skandamis 
 Food Technology and Safety Laboratory, 
 Laboratory of Food Quality Control and 
Bldg 201, BARC - East, Beltsville, 
Hygiene, Department of Food Science and 
Maryland 20705, USA. 
Technology, Agricultural University of 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Athens, Iera Odos 75, Votanikos, 11855 
Athens, Greece. 
 Eero Puolanne 
 Department of Food Technology, Viikki 
 John N. Sofos 
EE, P.O. Box 66, 00014 Helsinki, Finland. 
 Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 
 E - mail:   [email protected]   
Colorado 80523, USA. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Stefania Quintavalla 
 Department of Microbiology, SSICA, V.le 
Tanara 31/A, 43100, Parma, Italy. 
 Morse B. Solomon 
 E - mail  address:   [email protected]  
 Food Technology and Safety Laboratory, 
Bldg 201, BARC - East, Beltsville, Maryland 
 Milagro Reig 
20705, USA. 
 Institute of Food Engineering for 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Development,  Universidad  Polit é cnica  de 
Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 
 Oleksandr Tokarskyy 
Valencia, Spain. 
 Department of Food Science, Nutrition, and 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
Health Promotion, Mississippi State 
University, Box 9805, Mississippi State 
 David Rodr í guez - L á zaro 
University, Mississippi 39762 USA. 
 Food Safety and Technology Group, 
Instituto Tecnol ó gico Agrario de Castilla y 
 Fidel Toldr á  
Le ó n (ITACyL), Ctra. Burgos km.119, 
 Department of Food Science, Instituto de 
Finca  Zamadue ñ as,  47071  Valladolid, 
Agroqu í mica  y  Tecnolog í a  de  Alimentos 
Spain. 
(CSIC), PO Box 73, 46100 Burjassot, 
 E - mail:   ita - [email protected]  
Valencia, Spain. 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Peter R. Sheard 
 Division of Farm Animal Science, School 
of Clinical Veterinary Science, University 
 Graciela Vignolo 
of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, Avon, UK. 
 Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
(CERELA), CONICET., Chacabuco 145, 
T4000ILC  Tucum á n,  Argentina. 
 Zdzis ł aw E. Sikorski 
 E - mail:   [email protected]  
 Department of Food Chemistry, Gda n´ sk 
University of Technology 
 Endre Zuk á l 
 E - mail:   [email protected]   OR 
 Hungarian Meat Research Institute, 
 [email protected]  
Budapest 1097, Gubacsi  ú t 6/b, Hungary. 
 
 About the Editor 
      Fidel  Toldr á ,  Ph.D.,  is  a  research   professor   at 
years , including  
Handbook of Muscle 
the Department of Food Science, Instituto de 
Foods Analysis  and  Handbook of Processed 
Agroqu í mica  y  Tecnolog í a  de  Alimentos 
Meats and Poultry  Analysis 
 (2009),  
Meat 
(CSIC), and serves as European editor of 
Biotechnology 
 and  
Safety of Meat and 
  Trends in Food Science  &  Technology ,  editor 
Processed Meat  (2008, 2009),  Handbook of 
in chief of   Current   Nutrition   &   Food  Science, 
Food Product Manufacturing  
(2007), 
and as section editor of the   Journal of Muscle 
 Advances in Food Diagnostics , and  Handbook 
Foods 
. He is also serving on the editorial 
of Fermented Meat and Poultry  (2007, 2008). 
board of the journals  Food Chemistry ,   Meat 
Professor Toldr á  also wrote the book  Dry -
Science ,    Open Nutrition Journal ,   Food 
 Cured Meat Products   (2002). 
Analytical Methods ,   Open Enzyme Inhibition 
 Professor Toldr á  was awarded the 2002 
Journal  and  Journal of Food and Nutrition 
International Prize for meat science and tech -
Research . He is a member of the European 
nology by the International Meat Secretariat 
Food Safety Authority panel on fl avorings, 
and was elected in 2008 as Fellow of the 
enzymes, processing aids, and materials in 
International Academy of Food Science  
& 
 
contact with foods. 
Technology (IAFOST) and in 2009 as 
 
Professor Toldr 
á 
 has acted as editor or 
Fellow of the Institute of Food Technologists 
associate editor of several books in recent  
(IFT).      
xv
Handbook of 
Meat Processing
Part I
 Technologies 
Chapter 1
 Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat  
 Elisabeth   Huff - Lonergan  
 
  Introduction  
content is 75% of the weight of the muscle; 
however , can vary , particularly in postmor-
 Muscle cells are among the most highly orga -
tem muscle (range of 65 – 80%).  Within the 
nized cells in the animal body and perform a 
muscle, it is the primary component of extra -
varied array of mechanical functions . They 
cellular fl uid. Within the muscle cell, water 
are required for the movement of limbs, 
is the primary component of sarcoplasmic  
for locomotion and other gross movements, 
(cytoplasmic) fl uid. It is important in thermo -
and they must also perform fi ner  tasks 
regulation ; as a medium for many cellular 
such as maintaining balance and coordina-
processes; and for transport of nutrients 
tion. Muscle movement and metabolism  
within the cell, between cells, and between 
are associated with other diverse functions 
the muscle and the vascular system.  
such as aiding in movement of blood and 
 The second largest component of muscle 
lymph and also in maintaining body tempera -
is protein (U.S. Department of  Agriculture  
ture. All of these functions are dependent  
 2008 ). Protein makes up an average of 18.5% 
on cellular metabolism and the ability of the 
of the weight of the muscle, though that 
cell to maintain energy supplies. Few cells 
fi gure can range from 16 to 22%. Proteins 
are required to generate as much force and 
serve myriad functions and are the primary 
undergo as dramatic shifts in rate of metabo-
solid component in muscle. The functions of 
lism as muscle cells. The ability of living  
proteins are quite varied. Muscle proteins are 
skeletal muscle to undergo relatively large 
involved in maintaining the structure and 
intracellular changes also infl uences  its 
organization of the muscle and muscle cells 
response to the drastic alterations that occur  
(the role of highly insoluble stromal pro-
during the fi rst few hours following exsan-
teins). They are also important in the contrac-
guination. Thus the organization, structure, 
tile process. These proteins primarily are 
and metabolism of the muscle are key to its 
associated with the contractile organelles, the 
function and to the maintenance of its integ -
myofi bril, and are thus termed myofi brillar 
rity both during contraction and during the 
proteins. In general, the myofi brillar proteins 
early postmortem period . Ultimately, these 
are not soluble at low ionic strengths found  
postmortem changes will infl uence the suit -
in skeletal muscle (ionic strength  ≤ 0.15),  but 
ability of meat for further processing.  
can be solubilized at higher ionic strengths 
( ≥ 0.3). This class of proteins includes both 
the proteins directly involved in movement 
 Muscle Composition  
(contractile proteins) and proteins that regu-
 
The largest constituent of muscle is water 
late the interactions between the contractile 
(Table  1.1 ; U.S. Department of Agriculture 
proteins (regulatory proteins). There are also 
 
2008 
). In living tissue, the average water 
many soluble proteins (sarcoplasmic pro-
5
6    Chapter 1
 Table 1.1.    Composition of Mammalian Muscle 
complex lipid found in muscle. In this class 
of lipids, one of the hydroxyl groups of glyc-
   Component  
   %  of  Muscle  Weight  
erol is esterifi ed to a phosphate group, while  
  Water  
  75%  (65 – 80%)  
  Protein  
  18.5%  (16 – 22%)  
the other constituents are fatty acids. The 
  Lipid  
  3%  (1 – 13%)  
fatty acids associated with phospholipids are 
  Carbohydrate  
  1%  (0.5 – 1.5%)  
typically unsaturated. Phospholipids in skel -
  Non - Protein  Nitrogenous 
  1.7%  (1 – 2%)  
Substances  
etal muscle are commonly associated with 
  Other  Non - Protein 
  0.85%  (0.5 – 1%)  
membranes. The relative high degree of 
Substances (minerals, 
unsaturation of the fatty acids associated with 
vitamins, etc.)  
the phospholipids is a contributing factor to 
  Numbers in parentheses indicate the average range of 
the fl uidity of the cell membranes. 
that  component.    (U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   2008 ) 
 Carbohydrates make up a relatively small 
percentage of muscle tissue, making up about 
1% of the total muscle weight (range of 0.5 –
teins) that include proteins involved in cel-
 1.5%). The carbohydrate that makes up the 
lular signaling processes and enzymes  largest percentage is glycogen. Other carbo-
important in metabolism and protein degra-
hydrates include glucose, intermediates of 
dation/cellular remodeling. 
glycogen metabolism, and other mono  -  and 
 The lipid content of the muscle can vary 
disaccharides. Glycosoaminoglycans are also 
greatly due to many factors, including animal 
found in muscle and are associated with the 
age, nutritional level of the animal, and 
connective tissue. 
muscle type. It is important to note that the 
 There are numerous non - protein nitroge-
lipid content varies inversely with the water 
nous compounds in skeletal muscle. They 
content (Callow  1948 ). Some lipid is stored  
include substances such as creatine and cre-
inside the muscle cell; however, within a 
atine phosphate, nucleotides (ATP, ADP), 
muscle, the bulk of the lipid is found between 
free amino acids, peptides (anserine, carno-
muscle bundles (groupings of muscle cells). 
sine), and other non - protein substances.  
Average lipid content of skeletal muscle is 
about 3% of the muscle weight, but the range 
 Muscle Structure 
can be as much as 1 – 13% (U.S. Department 
of Agriculture  
2008 
). In skeletal muscle, 
 Skeletal muscle has a very complex organi-
lipid plays roles in energy storage , membrane 
zation, in part to allow muscle to effi ciently 
structure, and in various other processes in 
transmit force originating in the myofi brils to 
the organ, including immune responses and 
the entire muscle and ultimately, to the limb 
cellular recognition pathways. 
or structure that is moved. A relatively thick 
 
The two major types of lipid found in 
sheath of connective tissue, the epimysium, 
skeletal muscle are triglycerides and phos-
encloses the entire muscle. In most muscles, 
pholipids. Triglycerides make up the greatest 
the epimysium is continuous , with tendons 
proportion of lipid associated with muscle. 
that link muscles to bones. The muscle is 
Triglycerides (triacylglycerides) consist of a 
subdivided into bundles or groupings of 
glycerol molecule in which the hydroxyl 
muscle cells. These bundles (also known as 
groups are esterifi ed with three fatty acids. 
fasciculi) are surrounded by another sheath 
The melting point and the iodine number of 
of connective tissue, the perimysium. A  thin  
lipid that is associated with the muscle is 
layer of connective tissue, the endomysium, 
determined by the chain length and the degree 
surrounds the muscle cells themselves. The 
of saturation of the fatty acids. Phospholipids 
endomysium lies above the muscle cell mem-
(phosphoglycerides) are another type of 
brane (sarcolemma) and consists of a base-
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    7
ment membrane that is associated with an 
basis , they make up approximately 10 – 12% 
outer layer (reticular layer) that is surrounded 
of the total weight of fresh skeletal muscle. 
by a layer of fi ne collagen fi brils imbedded 
Therefore , they are very important in meat 
in a matrix (Bailey and Light  1989 ). 
chemistry and in determining the functional-
 
Skeletal muscles are highly diverse, in 
ity of meat proteins. 
part because of the diversity of actions they 
 Myofi brils are the contractile  “ machinery ”  
are asked to perform. Much of this diversity 
of the cell and, like the cells where they 
occurs not only at the gross level, but also at 
reside, are very highly organized. When 
the muscle cell (fi ber) level. First , not only 
examining a myofi bril, one of the fi rst obser-
do muscles vary in size , they can also vary 
vations that can be made is that the cylindri-
in the number of cells. For example, the 
cal organelle is made up of repeating units . 
muscle that is responsible for adjusting the 
These repeating units are known as sarco-
tension of the eardrum (tensor tympani) 
meres. Contained in each sarcomere are all 
has only a few hundred muscle cells, while 
the structural elements needed to perform the 
the medial gastrocnemius (used in humans  
physical act of contraction at the molecular 
for walking) has over a million muscle cells 
level. Current proteomic analysis estimates 
(Feinstein et al.  
1955 
). Not only does the 
that over 65 proteins make up the structure 
number of cells infl uence muscle function 
of the sarcomere (Fraterman et al.  
2007 
). 
and ultimately, meat quality, but also the 
Given that the sarcomere is the most basic  
structure of the muscle cells themselves 
unit of the cell and that the number quoted in 
has a profound effect on the function of 
this analysis did not take into account the 
living muscle and on the functionality of 
multiple isoforms of the proteins, this number 
meat. 
is quite high. Many of the proteins interact 
 
Muscle cells are striated, meaning that 
with each other in a highly coordinated 
when viewed under a polarized light micro-
fashion, and some of the interactions are just 
scope, distinct banding patterns or striations 
now being discovered. 
are observed . This appearance is due to spe-
 The structure of the sarcomere is respon-
cialized organelles, myofi 
brils, found in 
sible for the striated appearance of the muscle 
muscle cells. The myofi brils have a striated, 
cell. The striations arise from the alternating, 
or banded, appearance because different  
protein dense A - bands and less dense I - bands 
regions have different refractive properties. 
within the myofi bril. Bisecting the I - bands 
The light bands have a consistent index of 
are dark lines known as Z - lines. The structure 
refraction (isotropic). Therefore, these bands 
between two Z - lines is the sarcomere. In a 
are called I - bands in reference to this isotro-
relaxed muscle cell, the distance between 
pic property. The dark band appears dark 
two Z - lines (and thus the length of the sarco-
because it is anisotropic and is thus called the 
mere) is approximately 2.2 
 
μ m.  A   single  
A - band. 
myofi bril is made up of a large number of 
 The  myofi brils are abundant in skeletal 
sarcomeres in series. The length of the myo-
muscle cells, making up nearly 80 – 90% of 
fi bril and also the muscle cell is dependent 
the volume of the cell. Myofi brillar proteins 
on the number of sarcomeres. For example, 
are relatively insoluble at physiological ionic 
the semitendinosus, a long muscle, has been 
strength, requiring an ionic strength greater  
estimated to have somewhere in the neigh-
than 0.3 to be extracted from muscle. For this 
borhood of 5.8    ×  10 4  to 6.6    ×  10 4   sarcomeres 
reason , they are often referred to as  “  salt  -
per muscle fi ber, while the soleus has been 
 soluble ”   proteins.  Myofi brillar proteins make 
estimated to have approximately 1.4    ×   10 4 
up approximately 50 – 60% of the total extract-
(Wickiewicz et al.  
1983 
). Adjacent myofi -
able muscle proteins. On a whole muscle 
brils are attached to each other at the Z - line 
8    Chapter 1
by proteinacious fi laments, known as inter -
each) and two sets of light chains (14,000 –
mediate fi laments. Outermost myofi brils are 
 20,000 daltons). One of the light chains is 
attached to the cell membrane (sarcolemma) 
required for enzymatic activity , and the other 
by intermediate fi laments that interact not 
has regulatory functions. 
only with the Z - line, but also with structures  
 Actin is the second - most abundant protein 
at the sarcolemma known as costameres 
in the myofi bril, accounting for approxi-
(Robson  et  al.   2004 ). 
mately 20% of the total protein in the myo-
 Myofi brils are made up of many myofi la-
fi bril. Actin is a globular protein (G - actin) 
ments, of which there are two major types, 
that polymerizes to form fi laments  (F - actin). 
classifi ed as thick and thin fi laments. There 
G - actin has a molecular weight of approxi-
is also a third fi lament system composed pri-
mately 42,000. There are approximately 
marily of the protein titin ( Wang et al.  1979 ; 
400 actin molecules per thin fi lament. Thus 
Wang  
1984 
; Wang et al.  
1984 
; Wang and 
the molecular weight of each thin fi lament 
Wright  1988 ; Wang et al.  1991 ; Ma et al. 
is approximately 1.7 
  
 
×   10 7   (Squire   1981 ). 
 2006 ;). With respect to contraction and rigor 
The thin fi laments (F 
- 
actin polymers) are 
development in postmortem muscle, it is the 
1     μ 
m in length and are anchored in the 
interdigitating thick and thin fi laments  that 
Z - line. 
supply the  “ machinery ”  needed for these pro-
 Two other proteins that are important in 
cesses and give skeletal muscle cells their 
muscle contraction and are associated with 
characteristic appearance (Squire  
1981 
). 
the thin fi lament are tropomyosin and tropo-
Within the myofi bril, the less dense I - band is 
nin. Tropomyosin is the second - most abun-
made up primarily of thin fi laments,  while 
dant protein in the thin fi lament and makes 
the A - band is made up of thick fi laments and 
up about 7% of the total myofi brillar protein. 
some overlapping thin fi laments (Goll et al. 
Tropomyosin is made up of two polypeptide 
 1984 ). The backbone of the thin fi laments is 
chains ( alpha and beta ) The alpha chain has 
made up primarily of the protein actin, while 
an approximate molecular weight of 34,000, 
the largest component of the thick fi lament is 
and the beta chain has a molecular weight of 
the protein myosin. Together, these two pro-
approximately 36,000. These two chains 
teins make up nearly 70% of the proteins in 
interact with each other to form a helix. The 
the myofi bril of the skeletal muscle cell. 
native tropomyosin molecule interacts with 
 Myosin is the most abundant myofi brillar 
the troponin molecule to regulate contrac-
protein in skeletal muscle, making up approx-
tion. Native troponin is a complex that con-
imately 50% of the total protein in this organ-
sists of three subunits. These are termed 
elle. Myosin is a negatively charged protein 
troponin I (MW 23,000), troponin C (MW 
with an isoelectric point of 5.3. Myosin is 
18,000), and troponin T (MW 37,000). 
a large protein (approximately 500,000 
Troponin C has the ability to bind calcium  
daltons) that contains six polypeptides. 
released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, 
Myosin consists of an alpha helical tail (or 
troponin I can inhibit the interaction between 
rod) region that forms the backbone of the 
actin and myosin, and troponin T binds very 
thick fi lament and a globular head region that 
strongly to tropomyosin. The cooperative 
extends from the thick fi lament and interacts 
action of troponin and tropomyosin in 
with actin in the thin fi lament.  The  head 
response to calcium increases in the sarco-
region of myosin also has ATPase activity, 
plasm regulates the interaction between actin 
which is important in the regulation of con-
and myosin and thus is a major regulator of 
traction . Each myosin molecule contains two 
contraction. Calcium that is released from the 
heavy chains (approximately 220,000 daltons 
sarcoplasmic reticulum is bound to the tropo-
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    9
nin complex and the resulting conformational 
 Central to the existence of the muscle cell 
changes within troponin cause tropomyosin 
is the production of adenosine triphosphate 
to move away from sites on actin to which 
(ATP), the energy currency of the cell. ATP 
myosin binds and allows myosin and actin to 
consists of adenosine (an adenine ring and a 
interact. 
ribose sugar ) and three phosphate groups (tri-
 For contraction to occur, the thick and thin 
phosphate). Cleavage of the bonds between 
fi laments interact via the head region of 
the phosphates (P i ) and the rest of the mole -
myosin. The complex formed by the interac-
cule provides energy for many cellular func -
tion of myosin and actin is often referred 
tions, including muscle contraction and the 
to as actomyosin. In electron micrograph 
control of the concentrations of key ions (like 
images of contracted muscle or of postrigor 
calcium) in the muscle cell. Cleavage of P i 
muscle, the actomyosin looks very much like 
from ATP produces adenosine diphosphate 
cross  - bridges between the thick and thin fi la-
(ADP), and cleavage of pyorphosphate (PP i ) 
ments; indeed, it is often referred to as such. 
from ATP produces adenosine monophos-
In postmortem muscle, these bonds are irre-
phate (AMP). Since the availability of ATP 
versible and are also known as rigor bonds, 
is central to survival of the cell, there is a 
as they are the genesis of the stiffness (rigor) 
highly coordinated effort by the cell to main-
that develops in postmortem muscle. The 
tain its production in both living tissue and 
globular head of myosin also has enzymatic 
in the very early postmortem period. 
activity; it can hydrolyze ATP and liberate 
 Muscular activity is dependent on ample 
energy. In living muscle during contraction, 
supplies of ATP within the muscle. Since it 
the ATPase activity of myosin provides 
is so vital, muscle cells have developed  
energy for myosin bound to actin to swivel 
several ways of producing/regenerating ATP. 
and ultimately pull the thin fi laments  toward  
Muscle can use energy precursors stored in 
the center of the sarcomere. This produces 
the muscle cell, such as glycogen, lipids, and 
contraction by shortening the myofi bril,  the 
phosphagens (phosphocreatine, ATP), and it 
muscle cell, and eventually, the muscle. The 
can use energy sources recruited from the 
myosin and actin can disassociate when a 
blood stream (blood glucose and circulating 
new molecule of ATP is bound to the myosin 
lipids). Which of these reserves (intracellular 
head (Goll et al.  1984 ). In postrigor muscle, 
or circulating) the muscle cell uses depends 
the supply of ATP is depleted, resulting in 
on the activity the muscle is undergoing. 
the actomyosin bonds becoming essentially 
When the activity is of lower intensity, the 
permanent.  
muscle will utilize a higher proportion of 
energy sources from the blood stream and 
lipid stored in the muscle cell. These will be 
 Muscle Metabolism 
metabolized to produce ATP using aerobic 
 From a metabolic point of view, energy use 
pathways. Obviously, ample oxygen is 
and production in skeletal muscle is simply 
required for this process to proceed. During 
nothing short of amazing in its range and 
high intensity activity, during which ATP is 
responsiveness. In an actively exercising 
used very rapidly, the muscle uses intracel-
animal, muscle can account for as much as 
lular stores of phosphagens or glycogen. 
90% of the oxygen consumption in the body. 
These two sources, however, are utilized 
This can represent an increase in the mus-
very quickly and their depletion leads to 
cle ’ s metabolic rate of as much as 200% from 
fatigue. This is not a trivial point. 
the resting state (Hargreaves and  Thompson  
Concentration of ATP in skeletal muscle is 
 1999 ). 
critical; available ATP must remain above 
10    Chapter 1
approximately 30% of the resting stores, or 
with ATP (100  mmol/kg dry muscle weight 
relaxation cannot occur. This is because 
for phosphocreatine compared with 25  mmol/
relaxation of contraction is dependent on 
kg dry muscle weight for ATP) but very low 
ATP, which is especially important because 
abundance compared with glycogen (500 
 
removal of calcium from the sarcoplasm is 
mmol/kg dry muscle weight for glycogen). 
an ATP - dependent process (Hargreaves and 
Phosphocreatine can easily transfer a phos-
Thompson   1999 ). 
phate group to ADP in a reaction catalyzed 
 The primary fuels for muscle cells include 
by creatine kinase. This reaction is easily 
phosphocreatine, glycogen, glucose lactate , 
reversible and phosphocreatine supplies 
free fatty acids, and triglycerides. Glucose 
can be readily restored when ATP  demand  
and glycogen are the preferred substrates for 
is low. In living muscle, when activity is 
muscle metabolism and can be utilized either 
intense , this system can be advantageous, as 
aerobically (oxidative phosphorylation) or 
it consumes H 
+ 
 and thus can reduce the 
anaerobically (anaearobic glycolysis). Lipid 
muscle cell acidosis that is associated with 
and lactate utilization require oxygen. Lipids 
anaerobic glycolysis. Another advantage of 
are a very energy - dense storage system and 
the system is that the catalyzing enzyme is 
are very effi cient with respect to the high 
located very close to the actomyosin ATPase 
amount of ATP that can be generated per unit 
and also at the sarcoplasmic reticulum (where 
of substrate. However, the rate of synthesis 
calcium is actively taken up from the sarco-
of ATP is much slower than when glycogen 
plasm to regulate contraction) and at the sar-
is used (1.5  mmol/kg/sec for free fatty acids 
colemma. However, this system is not a 
compared with 3  mmol/kg/sec for glycogen 
major contributor to postmortem metabo-
utilized aerobically and 5  mmol/kg/sec when 
lism, as the supplies are depleted fairly 
glycogen is used in anaerobic glycolysis) 
rapidly. 
(Joanisse   2004 ). 
 
In general, glycogen is the preferred 
 
Aerobic metabolism, the most effi cient 
substrate for the generation of ATP, either 
energy system, requires oxygen to operate, 
through the oxidative phosphorylation or 
and that oxygen is supplied by the blood 
through anaerobic glycolysis (Fig.  1.1 ). One 
supply to the muscle and by the oxygen trans-
of the key steps in the fate of glycogen is 
porter, myoglobin. It has been estimated that 
whether or not an intermediate to the process, 
in working muscle, the myoglobin is some-
pyruvate, enters the mitochondria to be 
where in the neighborhood of 50% saturated . 
completely broken down to CO 
2 
 and H 
2 O 
Under conditions of extreme hypoxia (as 
(yielding 38  mol of ATP per mole of oxidized 
found in postmortem muscle), oxygen sup-
glucose - 1 - P  produced  from  glycogen  or 
plies are depleted because blood fl ow is not 
36 
 mol if the initial substrate is glucose), 
suffi cient (or does not exist ), and myoglobin 
or if it ends in lactate via the anaerobic gly-
oxygen reserves are depleted if this state con-
colysis pathway. The anaerobic pathway, 
tinues long enough. Prior to exsanguination, 
while comparatively less effi cient  (yielding 
the oxidation of glycogen or other substrates 
3    mol  of  ATP  per  mole  of  glucose - 1 - P  pro-
to form water and carbon dioxide via oxida-
duced from glycogen or 2  mol if the initial 
tive phosphorylation is a very effi cient way 
substrate is glucose), is much better at pro-
for the cell to regenerate ATP. However, 
ducing ATP at a higher rate. Early postmor-
after exsanguination, the muscle cell must 
tem muscle obviously uses the anaerobic 
turn solely to anaerobic pathways for energy 
pathway, as oxygen supplies are rapidly 
production. 
depleted. This results in the buildup of the 
 Phosphocreatine in living, rested muscle 
end product, lactate ( lactic acid), resulting in 
is available in moderate abundance compared 
pH decline.  
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    11
  Figure 1.1.    ATP production in muscle.  
 Major Postmortem Changes 
to be between 2 and 2.5  μ M in length. In stri-
in Muscle 
ated muscle, titin thus spans fully half of a 
sarcomere, with its C - terminal end localizing 
 Tenderization 
in the M - line at the center of the sarcomere 
 During refrigerated storage, it is well known 
and the N - terminal forming an integral part 
that meat becomes more tender . It is com-
of the Z - line. Titin aids in maintaining sarco-
monly accepted that the product becomes 
meric alignment of the myofi bril during con-
more tender because of proteolytic changes 
traction. Titin integrates the Z - line and the 
occurring in the architecture of the myofi bril 
thick fi laments, maintaining the location of 
and its associated proteins. There are several 
the thick fi laments between the Z - lines. Titin 
key proteins that are degraded during post-
is also hypothesized to play a role in generat-
mortem aging. 
ing at least a portion of the passive tension 
that is present in skeletal muscle cells. During 
development of the myofi bril, titin is one of 
 Titin 
the earliest proteins expressed, and it is 
 Titin (aka connectin) is a megaprotein that is 
thought to act as a  “ molecular ruler ”  by pro-
approximately 3 megadaltons in size. In 
viding a scaffolding or template for the 
addition to being the largest protein found in 
developing myofi bril ( Clark et al.  2002 ). 
mammalian tissues, it is also the third - most 
 Due to the aforementioned roles of titin 
abundant. A single titin molecule is estimated 
in living cells, it is quite conceivable that 
12    Chapter 1
its degradation in postmortem muscle would 
extends from the Z - line to the pointed ends 
lead to weakening of the longitudinal struc-
of the thin fi lament. The C - terminal end of 
ture of the myofi brillar sarcomere and integ-
nebulin is embedded into the Z - line. Nebulin 
rity of muscle. This weakening, in conjunction 
is highly nonextensible and has been referred 
with other changes in postmortem muscle, 
to as a molecular ruler that during develop -
could lead to enhanced tenderness. The deg-
ment may serve to defi  ne the length of the 
radation of titin has been observed in several 
thin fi laments (Kruger et al.  1991 ). Nebulin, 
studies (Lusby et al.  1983 ; Zeece et al.  1986 ; 
via its intimate association with the thin fi la-
Astier et al.  1993 ; Huff - Lonergan et al.  1995 ; 
ment (Lukoyanova et al.  
2002 
), has been 
Melody et al.  2004 ; Rowe et al.  2004a, b ). 
hypothesized to constitute part of a compos-
When titin is degraded, a major degradation 
ite nebulin/thin fi lament (Pfuhl et al.  1994 ; 
product, termed T 2,  is observed that migrates 
Robson et al.  1995 ) and may aid in anchoring 
only slightly faster under SDS - PAGE con-
the thin fi lament to the Z 
- 
line (Wang and 
ditions than intact titin. This product migrates 
Wright  
1988 
; Komiyama et al.  
1992 
). 
at approximately 2,400 
 kDa (Kurzban and 
Degradation of nebulin postmortem could 
Wang  
1988, 1987 
; Huff 
- 
Lonergan et al. 
weaken the thin fi lament linkages at the 
 
1995 
). Another titin degradation product 
Z 
- 
line, and/or of the thin fi laments in the 
that has been observed by SDS - PAGE an -
nearby I - band regions (Taylor et al.  1995 ), 
alysis migrates at approximately 1,200  kDa 
and thereby weaken the structure of the 
(Matsuura et al.  1991 ; Huff - Lonergan et al. 
muscle cell. Nebulin has also been shown to 
 
1995 
). This latter polypeptide has been 
be capable of linking actin and myosin (Root 
shown to contain the portion of titin that 
and Wang  1994a, b ). It has been hypothe-
extends from the Z - line to near the N 2   line 
sized that nebulin may also have a regulatory 
in the I - band (Kimura et al.  1992 ), although  
function in skeletal muscle contraction (Root 
the exact position that the 1200  kDa polypep-
and Wang  
1994a, b 
; Bang et al.  
2006 
). 
tide reaches in the sarcomere is still not 
Portions of nebulin that span the A - I junction  
certain. The 1,200 - kDa polypeptide has been 
have the ability to bind to actin, myosin, and 
documented to appear earlier postmortem in 
calmodulin (Root and Wang  
2001 
). More 
myofi brils from aged beef that had lower 
interesting, this portion of nebulin (spanning 
shear force (and more desirable tenderness 
the A - I junction) has been shown to inhibit 
scores) than in samples from product that had 
actomyosin ATPase activity (Root and Wang, 
higher shear force and/or less favorable ten-
 2001 ; Lukoyanova et al.  2002 ). This region 
derness scores (Huff - Lonergan et al.  1995, 
of nebulin also has been suggested to inhibit 
1996a, b ). The T2 polypeptide can also be 
the sliding velocities of actin fi laments over 
subsequently degraded or altered during 
myosin. If the latter role is confi rmed, then it 
normal postmortem aging. Studies that have 
is also possible that nebulin 
’ 
s postmortem 
used antibodies against titin have been shown 
degradation may alter actin - myosin  interac-
to cease to recognize T2 after prolonged 
tions in such a way that the alignment and 
periods of postmortem storage or  μ  - calpain 
interactions of thick and thin fi laments  in 
digestion (Ho et al.  
1994 
; Huff 
- 
Lonergan 
postmortem muscle is disrupted. This, too, 
et  al.   1996a )  
could lead to an increase in postmortem ten-
derization. Nebulin degradation does seem to 
be correlated to postmortem tenderization, 
 Nebulin 
although the exact cause - and - effect  relation-
 Nebulin is another mega - protein (Mr 600 –
ship remains to be substantiated (Huff 
 
900 
 
kDa) in the sarcomere. This protein 
 
Lonergan et al.  
1995 
; Taylor et al.  
1995 
; 
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    13
Huff 
- 
Lonergan et al.  
1996a 
; Melody et al. 
related to the shear force (Penny  1976 ; Huff -
 2004 ).  
 Lonergan  et  al.   1996b ;  Huff - Lonergan  and 
Lonergan,  1999 ; Lonergan et al.  2001 ; Rowe 
et  al.   2003 ;  Rowe  et  al.   2004a ).  Troponin - T 
 Troponin -  T  
is a substrate for  μ - calpain, and it is hypoth-
 For many years it has been recognized that 
esized that  μ - calpain is at least partly respon-
the degradation of troponin - T and the appear-
sible for the postmortem degradation of 
ance of polypeptides migrating at approxi-
troponin - T and the concomitant production 
mately 30 
 kDa are strongly related to, or 
of the 28 
- 
 and 30 
- 
kDa polypeptides. 
correlated with, the tenderness of beef (Penny 
Degradation of troponin - T may simply be an 
et al.  
1974 
; MacBride and Parrish  
1977 
; 
indicator of overall postmortem proteolysis 
Olson and Parrish  1977 ; Olson et al.  1977 ). 
(i.e., it occurs as meat becomes more tender). 
It has been shown that purifi ed bovine tropo-
However, because troponin - T is an integral 
nin - T can be degraded by  μ  - calpain  in   vitro  
part of skeletal muscle thin fi laments (Greaser 
to produce polypeptides in the 30 - kDa region 
and Gergely   1971  ), its role in postmortem 
(Olson et al.  1977 ). In addition, polypeptides 
tenderization may warrant more careful 
in the 30 - kDa region found in aged bovine 
examination as has been suggested (Ho et al. 
muscle specifi cally have been shown to be 
 1994 ; Uytterhaegen et al.  1994 ; Taylor et al. 
products of troponin 
- 
T by using  Western  
 1995 ;  Huff - Lonergan  et  al.   1996b ).  Indeed, 
blotting techniques (Ho et al.  1994 ). Often, 
the troponin - T subunit makes up the elon -
more than one fragment of troponin - T can be 
gated portion of the troponin molecule and 
identifi ed in postmortem muscle. Increasing 
through its interaction with tropomyosin aids 
postmortem time has been shown to be asso -
in regulating the thin fi lament during skeletal 
ciated with the appearance of two major 
muscle contraction (Greaser and Gergely 
bands (each is likely a closely spaced doublet 
 1971 ; Hitchcock  1975 ; McKay et al.  1997 ; 
of polypeptides) of approximately 30 and 
Lehman et al.  2001 ). It is conceivable that 
28  kDa, which label with monoclonal anti-
postmortem degradation of troponin 
- 
T and 
bodies to troponin - T (Huff - Lonergan et al. 
disruption of its interactions with other thin 
 1996a ). In addition, the increasing postmor-
fi lament proteins aids in the disruption of the 
tem aging time was also associated with a 
thin fi laments in the I - band, possibly leading  
loss of troponin - T, as has been reported in 
to fragmentation of the myofi bril and overall 
numerous studies (Olson et al.  
1977 
;  muscle integrity. During postmortem aging, 
Koohmaraie et al.  1984a, b ; Ho et al.  1994 ). 
the myofi brils in postmortem bovine muscle 
It has recently been shown that troponin - T is 
are broken in the I - band region (Taylor et al. 
cleaved in its glutamic acid - rich   amino - ter-
 1995 ). Because troponin - T is part of the reg-
minal region (Muroya et al.  
2007 
). Some 
ulatory complex that mediates actin - myosin 
studies have shown labeling of two very 
interactions (Greaser and Gergely,  
1971 
; 
closely spaced bands corresponding to intact 
Hitchcock,  1975 ; McKay et al.  1997 ; Lehman 
troponin - T. This is likely due to isoforms of 
et al.  
2001 
), it is also conceivable that its 
troponin - T that are known to exist in skeletal 
postmortem degradation may lead to changes 
muscle (Briggs et al.  1990 ; Malhotra  1994 ; 
involving thick and thin fi lament  interac-
Muroya et al.  2007 ), including specifi cally 
tions. Regardless of whether or not troponin-
bovine skeletal muscle (Muroya et al.  2007 ). 
- T aids in disruption of the thin fi lament  in 
Both the appearance of the 30 -  and 28 - kDa 
the I 
- 
band, alters thick and thin fi lament 
bands and the disappearance of the intact 
interactions, or simply refl ects overall protein 
troponin - T in the myofi bril are very strongly 
degradation, its degradation and appearance 
14    Chapter 1
of polypeptides in the 30 - kDa region seem to 
myofi 
brils (Huff 
- 
Lonergan et al.  
1996a 
; 
be a valuable indicator of beef tenderness 
Huff - Lonergan  and  Lonergan,   1999 ;  Carlin 
(Olson et al.  1977 ; Olson and Parrish,  1977 ; 
et al.  
2006 
). Thus, the proteolytic enzyme 
Koohmaraie et al.  
1984a, b 
; Koohmaraie 
 μ - calpain may be, at least in part, responsible 
 1992 ;  Huff - Lonergan  et  al.   1995 ;  Huff -
for desmin degradation under normal post-
 Lonergan  et  al.   1996a ;  Huff - Lonergan  and 
mortem aging conditions. Whether or not this 
Lonergan   1999 ).  
degradation is truly directly linked to tender-
ization or is simply an indicator of overall 
postmortem proteolysis remains to be 
 Desmin 
determined.  
 It has been suggested that desmin, an inter-
mediate fi lament protein (O ’  Shea et al.  1979 ; 
 Filamin 
Robson  1989 ) localized at the periphery of 
the myofi brillar Z 
- 
disk in skeletal muscle 
 Filamin is a large ( M r    =    245,000  in  skeletal 
(Richardson et al.  1981 ), plays a role in the 
and cardiac muscle) actin 
- binding  protein 
development of tenderness (Taylor et al. 
that exists in numerous cell types (Loo et al. 
 1995 ;  Huff - Lonergan  et  al.   1996a ;  Boehm  et 
 1998 ; Thompson et al.  2000 ; van der Flier et 
al.  1998 ; Melody et al.  2004 ). The desmin 
al.  
2002 
). There are several different iso-
intermediate fi laments surround the Z - lines 
forms of fi lamin (Hock et al.  
1990 
). The 
of myofi brils. They connect adjacent myofi -
amount of fi lamin in skeletal and cardiac 
brils at the level of their Z 
- 
lines, and the 
muscle is very low (approximately  ≤ 0.1%  of 
myofi brils to other cellular structures, includ-
the total muscle protein). In skeletal and 
ing the sarcolemma (Robson,  1989 ; Robson 
cardiac muscle, fi lamin is localized at the 
et al.  
1995 
). Desmin may be important in 
periphery of the myofi brillar Z - disk, and it 
maintaining the structural integrity of muscle 
may be associated with intermediate fi la-
cells (Robson et al.  1981, 1991 ). It is possible 
ments in these regions (Loo et al.  
1998 
; 
that degradation of structural elements that 
Thompson et al.  2000 ; van der Flier et al. 
connect the major components (i.e., the myo-
 
2002 
). Thus, postmortem degradation of 
fi brils) of a muscle cell together, as well as 
fi lamin conceivably could disrupt key link-
the peripheral layer of myofi brils to the cell 
ages that serve to help hold myofi brils  in 
membrane, could affect the development of 
lateral register. Degradation of fi lamin  may 
tenderness. Desmin is degraded during post-
also alter linkages connecting the peripheral 
mortem storage (Hwan and Bandman  1989 ; 
layer of myofi brils in muscle cells to the sar-
Huff - Lonergan  et  al.   1996a ;  Huff - Lonergan 
colemma by weakening interactions between 
and Lonergan,  
1999 
; Melody et al.  
2004 
; 
peripheral myofi brillar Z - disks and the sarco-
Rowe et al.  
2004b 
; Zhang et al.  
2006 
). 
lemma via intermediate fi lament associations 
Furthermore , it has been documented that 
or costameres (Robson et al.  1995 ). A  study  
desmin is degraded more rapidly in myofi -
using myofi brils from beef showed that some 
brils from samples with low shear force 
fi lamin was degraded to form an approxi-
and higher water 
- 
holding capacity (Huff 
mately 240 
- 
kDa degradation product that 
 Lonergan  et  al.   1996a ;  Huff - Lonergan  and 
migrated as a doublet in both myofi brils from 
Lonergan,  1999 ; Melody et al.  2004 ; Rowe 
naturally aged muscle and in  
μ  - calpain -
et al.  
2004b 
; Zhang et al.  
2006 
). A major 
 digested  myofi brils (Huff 
- 
Lonergan et al. 
degradation product that is often seen in beef 
 1996a ). This same doublet formation (com-
is a polypeptide of approximately 38 
 kDa. 
posed of intact and degraded fi lamin)  has 
This degradation product also has been 
been seen in cultured embryonic skeletal 
shown to be present in  
μ  - calpain - digested 
muscle cells and was attributed to calpain 
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    15
activity (Robson et al.  1995 ). Uytterhaegen 
the total water in muscle cells; depending on 
et al.  (1994)  have shown increased degrada-
the measurement system used, approximately 
tion of fi lamin in muscle samples injected  
0.5 
 g of water per gram of protein is esti -
with CaCl 2 , a process that has been shown to 
mated to be tightly bound to proteins. Since 
stimulate proteolysis and postmortem tender-
the total concentration of protein in muscle 
ization (Wheeler et al.  
1992 
; Harris et al. 
is approximately 200  mg/g, this bound water 
 2001 ). Compared with other skeletal muscle 
only makes up less than a tenth of the total 
proteins, relatively little has been done to 
water in muscle. The amount of bound water 
fully characterize the role of this protein in 
changes very little if at all in postrigor muscle 
postmortem tenderization of beef. Further 
( Offer and Knight  1988b ). 
studies that employ a combination of sen-
 
Another fraction of water that can be 
sitive detection methods (e.g., one 
- 
 and 
found in muscles and in meat is termed 
two - dimensional 
gels, 
Western 
blotting, 
entrapped (also referred to as immobilized) 
immunomicroscopy) are needed to determine 
water (Fennema  1985 ). The water molecules 
the role of fi lamin in skeletal muscle systems 
in this fraction may be held either by steric 
and  postmortem  tenderization.   
( space ) effects and/or by attraction to the 
bound water. This water is held within the 
structure of the muscle but is not bound per 
se to protein. In early postmortem tissue, this 
 Water - Holding Capacity/ Drip  
water does not fl ow freely from the tissue, yet 
Loss Evolution  
it can be removed by drying and can be easily 
 
Lean muscle contains approximately 75% 
converted to ice during freezing. Entrapped 
water. The other main components include 
or immobilized water is most affected by the 
protein (approximately 18.5%), lipids or fat 
rigor process and the conversion of muscle 
(approximately 3%), carbohydrates (approxi-
to meat. Upon alteration of muscle cell struc-
mately 1%), and vitamins and minerals (often 
ture and lowering of the pH, this water can 
analyzed as ash, approximately 1%). The 
also eventually escape as purge (Offer and 
majority of water in muscle is held within the 
Knight   1988b ). 
structure of the muscle and muscle cells. 
 Free water is water whose fl ow from the 
Specifi cally, within the muscle cell, water is 
tissue is unimpeded.  Weak surface forces 
found within the myofi brils, between the 
mainly hold this fraction of water in meat. 
myofi brils themselves and between the myo-
Free water is not readily seen in pre - rigor 
fi brils and the cell membrane (sarcolemma), 
meat, but can develop as conditions change  
between muscle cells, and between muscle 
that allow the entrapped water to move from 
bundles (groups of muscle cells) (Offer and 
the structures where it is found (Fennema 
Cousins   1992 ). 
 1985 ). 
 Water is a dipolar molecule and as such is 
 The majority of the water that is affected 
attracted to charged species like proteins. In 
by the process of converting muscle to meat 
fact, some of the water in muscle cells is very 
is the entrapped (immobilized) water. 
closely bound to protein. By defi nition, 
Maintaining as much of this water as possible 
bound water is water that exists in the vicin-
in meat is the goal of many processors. Some 
ity of nonaqueous constituents (like proteins) 
of the factors that can infl uence the retention  
and has reduced mobility (i.e., does not easily 
of entrapped water include manipulation of 
move to other compartments). This water is 
the net charge of myofi brillar proteins and 
very resistant to freezing and to being driven 
the structure of the muscle cell and its com-
off by conventional heating (Fennema  1985 ). 
ponents (myofi brils, cytoskeletal linkages, 
True bound water is a very small fraction of 
and membrane permeability), as well as the 
16    Chapter 1
amount of extracellular space within the 
relaxation (Millman et al.  
1981 
; Millman 
muscle itself.  
et al.  1983 ). This would indicate that in living 
muscle the amount of water within the fi la-
mentous structure of the cell would not nec-
 Physical/Biochemical Factors 
essarily change. However, the location of this 
in Muscles That Affect 
water can be affected by changes in volume 
Water - Holding Capacity 
as muscle undergoes rigor. As muscle goes 
 
During the conversion of muscle to meat, 
into rigor, cross 
- 
bridges form between the 
anaerobic glycolysis is the primary source of 
thick and thin fi laments, thus reducing avail-
ATP production. As a result , lactic acid 
able space for water to reside (Offer and 
builds up in the tissue, leading to a reduction  
Trinick  1983 ). It has been shown that as the 
in pH of the meat. Once the pH has reached 
pH of porcine muscle is reduced from physi-
the isoelectric point (pI) of the major pro-
ological values to 5.2 – 5.6 (near the isoelec-
teins, especially myosin (pI   =   5.3), the net 
tric point of myosin), the distance between 
charge of the protein is zero , meaning the 
the thick fi laments declines an average of 
numbers of positive and negative charges 
2.5  nm (Diesbourg et al.  1988 ). This decline 
on the proteins are essentially equal. These 
in fi lament spacing may force sarcoplasmic 
positive and negative groups within the 
fl uid from between the myofi laments to the 
protein are attracted to each other and result 
extramyofi brillar space. Indeed, it has been 
in a reduction in the amount of water that can 
hypothesized that enough fl uid may be lost  
be attracted and held by that protein. 
from the intramyofi brillar space to increase 
Additionally, since like charges repel, as the 
the extramyofi brillar volume by as much as 
net charge of the proteins that make up the 
1.6 times more than its pre 
- 
rigor volume 
myofi bril approaches zero (diminished net 
(Bendall and Swatland  1988 ). 
negative or positive charge), repulsion of 
 
During the development of rigor, the 
structures within the myofi bril is reduced, 
diameter of muscle cells decreases (Hegarty 
allowing those structures to pack more 
 
1970 
; Swatland and Belfry  
1985 
) and is 
closely together. The end result of this is a 
likely the result of transmittal of the lateral 
reduction of space within the myofi bril. 
shrinkage of the myofi brils to the entire cell 
Partial denaturation of the myosin head at 
(Diesbourg et al.  1988 ). Additionally, during 
low pH (especially if the temperature is still 
rigor development, sarcomeres can shorten; 
high) is also thought to be responsible for a 
this also reduces the space available for water 
large part of the shrinkage in myofi brillar 
within the myofi bril. In fact, it has been 
lattice spacing (Offer  1991 ). 
shown that drip loss can increase linearly 
 Myofi brils make up a large proportion of 
with a decrease in the length of the sarco-
the muscle cell. These organelles constitute 
meres in muscle cells (Honikel et al.  1986 ). 
as much as 80 
– 
90% of the volume of the 
More recently, highly sensitive low 
- 
fi eld 
muscle cell. As mentioned previously, much 
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies 
of the water inside living muscle cells is 
have been used to gain a more complete  
located within the myofi bril. In fact, it is esti-
understanding of the relationship between 
mated that as much as 85% of the water in a 
muscle cell structure and water distribution 
muscle cell is held in the myofi brils.  Much 
(Bertram et al.  
2002 
). These studies have 
of that water is held by capillary forces 
suggested that within the myofi bril, a higher 
arising from the arrangement of the thick and 
proportion of water is held in the I - band than 
thin fi laments within the myofi bril. In living 
in  the  more  protein - dense  A - band.  This 
muscle, it has been shown that sarcomeres 
observation may help explain why shorter 
remain isovolumetric during contraction and 
sarcomeres (especially in cold  
- 
shortened 
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    17
muscle) are often associated with increased 
associated with intermediate fi lament  struc-
drip losses . As the myofi bril shortens and 
tures and structures known as costameres. 
rigor sets in, the shortening of the sarcomere 
Costameres provide the structural framework 
would lead to shortening and subsequent 
responsible for attaching the myofi brils to the 
lowering of the volume of the I - band region 
sarcolemma. Proteins that make up or are 
in myofi bril. Loss of volume in this myofi -
associated with the intermediate fi laments 
brillar region (where much water may reside), 
and costameres include (among others ) 
combined with the pH - induced lateral shrink-
desmin, fi lamin, synemin, dystrophin, talin, 
age of the myofi bril, could lead to expulsion 
and vinculin (Greaser  1991 ). If costameric 
of water from the myofi brillar  structure 
linkages remain intact during the conversion 
into the extramyofi brillar spaces within the 
of muscle to meat, shrinkage of the myofi -
muscle cell (Bendall and Swatland  1988 ). In 
brils as the muscle goes into rigor would be 
fact, recent NMR studies support this hypoth-
transmitted to the entire cell via these pro-
esis (Bertram et al.  2002 ). It is thus likely that 
teinacious linkages and would ultimately 
the gradual mobilization of water from the 
reduce volume of the muscle cell itself (Offer 
intramyofi brillar spaces to the extramyofi -
and Knight  1988b ; Kristensen and Purslow 
brillar spaces may be key in providing a 
 2001 ; Melody et al.  2004 ). Thus, the rigor 
source of drip. 
process could result in mobilization of water 
 
All the previously mentioned processes 
not only out of the myofi bril, but also out of 
infl uence the amount of water in the myofi -
the extramyofi bril spaces as the overall 
bril. It is important to note that shrinkage of 
volume of the cell is constricted. In fact, 
the myofi brillar lattice alone could not be 
reduction in the diameter of muscle cells has 
responsible for the movement of fl uid to the 
been observed in postmortem muscle (Offer 
extracellular space and ultimately out of the 
and Cousins  1992 ). This water that is expelled 
muscle. The myofi brils are linked to each 
from the myofi bril and ultimately the muscle 
other and to the cell membrane via proteina-
cell eventually collects in the extracellular 
cious connections (Wang and Ramirez 
space. Several studies have shown that gaps 
 
Mitchell  
1983 
). These connections, if they 
develop between muscle cells and between 
are maintained intact in postmortem muscle, 
muscle bundles during the postrigor period 
would transfer the reduction in diameter of 
(Offer et al.  1989 ; Offer and Cousins  1992 ). 
the myofi brils to the muscle cell (Diesbourg 
These gaps between muscle bundles are 
et al.  1988 ; Morrison et al.  1998 ; Kristensen 
the primary channels by which purge is 
and Purslow  
2001 
; Melody et al.  
2004 
). 
allowed to fl ow from the meat; some inves -
Myofi bril shrinkage can be translated into 
tigators have actually termed them  
“ 
drip 
constriction of the entire muscle cell, thus 
channels. ”    
creating channels between cells and between 
bundles of cells that can funnel drip out 
 Postmortem Changes in Muscle 
of the product (Offer and Knight  
1988 
). 
That Infl uence Quality 
Extracellular space around muscle fi  bers  con-
tinually increases up to 24 hours postmortem, 
 
As muscle is converted to meat, many 
but gaps between muscle fi ber  bundles 
changes occur, including: (1) a gradual deple-
decrease slightly between nine and 24 hours 
tion of available energy; (2) a shift from 
postmortem, perhaps due to fl uid  outfl ow 
aerobic to anaerobic metabolism favoring the 
from these major channels (Schafer et al. 
production of lactic acid, resulting in the pH 
 2002 ).  These  linkages  between  adjacent 
of the tissue declining from near neutrality to 
myofi brils and myofi brils and the cell mem-
5.4 – 5.8; (3) a rise in ionic strength, in part, 
brane are made up of several proteins that are 
because of the inability of ATP 
- 
dependent 
18    Chapter 1
calcium, sodium , and potassium pumps to 
that is involved in increasing the tenderness 
function; and (4) an increasing inability of 
of fresh meat and in infl uencing fresh meat 
the cell to maintain reducing conditions. All 
water - holding  capacity  (Huff - Lonergan  and 
these changes can have a profound effect on 
Lonergan  
2005 
). Because  
μ  - calpain  and 
numerous proteins in the muscle cell. The 
m 
- 
calpain enzymes contain both histidine 
role of energy depletion and pH change have 
and SH - containing cysteine residues at their 
been covered in this chapter and in other 
active sites, they are particularly susceptible 
reviews (Offer and Trinick  1983 ; Offer and 
to inactivation by oxidation (Lametsch et al. 
Knight  1988a ). What has not been as thor-
 
2008 
). Therefore, oxidizing conditions in 
oughly considered is the impact of other 
postmortem muscle lead to inactivation or 
changes on muscle proteins, such as oxida-
modifi cation of calpain activity (Harris et al. 
tion and nitration. 
 2001 ; Rowe et al.  2004a, b ; Maddock et al. 
 2006 ). In fact, evidence suggests oxidizing 
conditions inhibit proteolysis by  μ  - calpain, 
 Protein Oxidation 
but might not completely inhibit autolysis 
 Another change that occurs in postmortem 
(Guttmann et al.  1997 ; Guttmann and Johnson  
muscle during aging of whole muscle prod-
 1998 ;  Maddock  et  al.   2006 ).  In  postmortem 
ucts is increased oxidation of myofi brillar 
muscle, there are differences between 
and sarcoplasmic proteins (Martinaud et al. 
muscles in the rate that postmortem oxidation 
 1997 ; Rowe et al.  2004a, b ). This results in 
processes occur (Martinaud et al.  1997 ). It 
the conversion of some amino acid residues, 
has been noted that differences in the rate of 
including histidine, to carbonyl derivatives 
oxidation in muscle tissue are seen when 
(Levine et al.  1994 ; Martinaud et al.  1997 ) 
comparing the same muscles between animals  
and can cause the formation of intra  -  and/or 
and/or carcasses that have been handled dif-
inter - protein  disulfi de  cross - links  (Stadtman 
ferently (Juncher et al.  2001 ). These differ -
 1990 ; Martinaud et al.  1997 ). In general, both 
ences may arise because of differences in 
these changes reduce the functionality of pro-
diet , breed, antemortem stress , postmortem 
teins in postmortem muscle (Xiong and 
handling of carcasses, etc. In fact, there have 
Decker  
1995 
). In living muscle, the redox 
been reports of differences between animals 
state of muscle can infl uence  carbohydrate 
and between muscles in the activity of some 
metabolism by directly affecting enzymes in 
enzymes involved in the oxidative defense 
the glycolytic pathway. Oxidizing agents can 
system of muscle (Daun et al.  
2001 
). 
also infl uence glucose transport. Hydrogen  
Therefore, there may be genetic differences 
peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) can mimic insulin and stim -
in susceptibility to oxidation that could be 
ulate glucose transport in exercising muscle. 
capitalized on to improve meat quality. It is 
H 2 O 2  is increased after exercise, and thus oxi-
reasonable to hypothesize that differences in 
dation systems may play a role in signaling 
the antioxidant defense system between 
in skeletal muscle (Balon and Yerneni  2001 ). 
animals and/or muscles would infl uence 
Alterations in glucose metabolism in the 
calpain activity, proteolysis, and thus 
ante  -  and perimortem time period do have the 
tenderization. 
potential to cause changes in postmortem 
  Exposure to oxidizing conditions (H 2 O 2 ) 
muscle metabolism and thus represent an 
under postmortem 
- 
like conditions inhibits 
important avenue of future research. 
calpain activity (Carlin et al.  
2006 
). In a 
 
In postmortem muscle, these redox  series of in vitro assays using either a fl uo-
systems may also play a role in infl uencing 
rescent peptide or purifi ed myofi brils as the 
meat quality. The proteolytic enzymes, the 
substrate it was shown that the presence of 
calpains, are implicated in the proteolysis 
oxidizing species does signifi cantly  impede 
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat    19
the ability of calpains to degrade their sub-
(NOS). There are three major isoforms of 
strates. Oxidation with H 
2 O 2  
signifi cantly 
NOS: neural, inducible, and endothelial. 
limits proteolytic activity of  μ  -   and  m - calpain 
Skeletal muscle expresses all three isoforms; 
against the fl uorescent  peptide  Suc - Leu - 
however, the neural form, nNOS, is thought 
Leu - Val - Tyr - AMC,  regardless  of  the  pH  or 
to be the predominant isoform (Kaminski and 
ionic strength. Similar results were seen 
Andrade  2001 ). These enzymes utilize argi-
when using purifi ed  myofi brils as the sub-
nine as a substrate and catalyze the following 
strate. This inhibition was reversible, as 
reaction:  L - arginine+NADPH+O 2   forming 
addition of reducing agent (DTT) to the oxi-
L - citrulline+  •  NO+NADPH + . NO is important 
dized samples restored activity. Oxidation 
in biological systems, particularly because of 
also has been shown to slow the rate of  μ -
its role as a second messenger. However, 
 
calpain autolysis and could be part of the 
while NO rapidly diffuses through tissues, 
mechanism underlying some of the retarda-
NO itself is a relatively short - lived species. 
tion of activity (Guttmann et al.  1997 ; Carlin 
It does have the ability to combine with other 
et al.  2006 ). 
biomolecules that also have physiological 
 Oxidation does occur early in postmortem 
importance . 
meat, and it does infl uence proteolysis (Harris 
 
One example of this is its ability to 
et al.  2001 ; Rowe et al.  2004b ). Rowe et al. 
combine with superoxide to form the highly 
 (2004)  showed that there was a signifi  cant  
oxidizing molecule peroxynitrite. Proteins 
increase in proteolysis of troponin - T in steaks 
are important biological targets of peroxyni-
from  alpha - tocopherol - fed  steers  after  2   days  
trite, particularly proteins containing cyste-
of postmortem aging compared with steers 
ine, motioning, and/or tryptophan (Radi et al. 
fed a conventional feedlot diet. This indicates 
 
2000 
). Several enzymes are known to be 
that very low levels of oxidation can infl u-
inactivated by peroxynitrite. Among these is 
ence proteolysis and that increasing the level 
the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca 
2+  - ATPase 
of antioxidants in meat may have merit in 
(Klebl et al.  
1998 
). One indirect effect of 
improving tenderness in future studies. In 
NO is S 
- 
nitrosylation. In most cases , S 
- 
fact, low levels of oxidation may be the cause 
nitrosylation events involve amines and 
of some heretofore - unexplained variations in 
thiols. Nitric oxide can interact with cyste-
proteolysis and tenderness that have been 
ines to form nitrosothiols that can alter the 
observed in meat.  
activity of the protein. Because of this, it 
has been suggested that S - nitrosylation may 
function as a post - translational modifi cation 
 Nitric Oxide and  S  - Nitrosylation 
much like phosphorylation (Jaffrey et al. 
 Nitric oxide (NO) is often used as a general 
 2001 ). Some proteins, such as the ryanodine 
term that includes NO and reactive nitrogen 
receptor and the cysteine protease caspase - 
species (RNS), like S 
- 
nitrosothyols, per-
3, have been shown to be endogenously 
oxynitrate, and metal NO complexes. In 
nitrosylated, further supporting the sugges-
living tissue, NO is involved in arteriole dila-
tion that formation of nitrosothiols may be 
tion that increases blood fl ow to muscles, 
an important regulatory step (Hess et al. 
resulting in increased delivery of nutrients 
 2001 ; Hess et al.  2005 
).  μ  - Calpain  is  also 
and oxygen to the muscle (Kobzik et al. 
a cysteine protease that could be infl uenced 
 1994 ; Stamler et al.  2001 ). NO species are 
by S 
- 
nitrosylation. Small thiol peptides 
also implicated in glucose homeostasis and 
like glutathione can be impacted by nitro -
excitation - contraction coupling. The gas NO 
sative stress to form compounds like 
is produced in biological systems by a family 
S - nitrosoglutathione  (GSNO).  These  com-
of enzymes known as nitric oxide synthases 
pounds can, in turn, infl uence other proteins 
20    Chapter 1
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- 
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Chapter 2
 Technological Quality of Meat for Processing  
 Susan   Brewer  
 
 Introduction 
 Breed Effects on Quality of Meat 
 For the purposes of this discussion, techno -
 Livestock breed can affect the quality char -
logical quality of meat for processing includes 
acteristics of the meat produced, either 
the factors that affect meat quality in general, 
because the breed has naturally adapted to 
whether endogenous or exogenous. Factors 
stressful environmental conditions or because 
that contribute to the quality of the meat for 
two or more breeds have been purposefully 
processing include the breed of the animal 
crossbred to increase prevalence of desirable 
and its associated characteristics, gene status 
qualities. Often these modifi cations improve 
within breed, diet and plane of nutrition, 
one set of attributes at the expense of another. 
fatness/leanness, rate of postmortem pH and 
 
For example, Brahman cattle are used 
temperature decline, and postmortem han-
extensively in the southwestern United States 
dling such as aging. Ultimately, meat quality 
because of their tolerance to adverse environ-
is defi ned in terms of consumer acceptability, 
mental conditions; however, Brahman car-
which include tenderness, juiciness and 
casses have tenderness issues . Toughness of 
fl avor, and appearance characteristics such as 
meat from Brahman cattle has been associ-
color, amount of fat, amount of visible water, 
ated with high levels of calpastatin in the 
and textural appearance, which have a sig-
muscle (Ibrahim et al.  2008 ). The Japanese 
nifi cant impact on consumer expected satis-
Wagyu breed produces highly marbled, 
faction (Brewer et al.  1998, 2001 ). Because 
tender meat. Cross breeding Brahman with 
they are the most important traits defi ning 
Wagyu cattle to produce Waguli cattle, which 
consumer acceptance, tenderness and fl avor 
have a high degree of marbling and low cal-
consistency are important (Robbins et al. 
pastatin activity in the tissue, results in more 
 
2003 
). Factors contributing to the sensory 
tender meat immediately after slaughter. 
quality characteristics of meat include breed 
Tenderness of meat from Brahman cattle 
(Cameron et al.  1990 ; Lan et al.  1993 ), intra-
does catch up with suffi cient aging (14 
 d). 
muscular fat content (Brewer et al.  
2001 
; 
Schone et al.  (2006)  reported initial tender-
Rincker et al.  2008 ), calpastatin and  μ  - calpain 
ness differences in beef from Holstein and 
gene status (Casas et al.  
2006 
), Halothane 
Simmental cattle, in addition to different 
gene status (Sather et al.  1990 ; Leach et al. 
responses to aging. Some breed differences 
 1998 ), ryanodine receptor gene status (Fujii 
(Nelore, Simmental, Simbrasil) in initial 
et al.  
1991 
), diet, antemortem handling 
postmortem beef tenderness are lost after 7 
(Ohene - Adjai et al.  2003 ), and ultimate pH 
days of aging (Bianchini et al.  
2007 
). 
(Zhu  and  Brewer   1998 ).  
According to Hocquette et al.  (2006) , cattle 
25
26    Chapter 2
of different breeds or different genotypes 
polymorphisms within the gene for bovine 
of the same breed differ primarily in their 
leptin, a chemical messenger that affects feed  
connective tissue characteristics (collagen 
intake, fatness (fat yield and subcutaneous 
cross 
- 
linking and solubility), content, and 
fat), and tenderness. 
composition of intramuscular fat and/or the 
 Thomas et al.  (2008)  reported that beef 
characteristics of their muscle fi bers  (slow -
from medium - framed, early maturing animals 
 oxidative,  fast - oxidoglycolytic,  fast  glyco-
had the highest marbling scores, and had the 
lytic). Mutations in the myostatin gene result 
highest concentration of total n - 3 fatty acids, 
in muscle hypertrophy, producing cattle with 
and the lowest n 
- 
6/n 
- 
3 ratio . Lynch et al. 
enlarged muscles. However, this mutation 
 
(2002) 
 reported that meat from Hereford 
favors glycolytic muscle fi ber  metabolism 
cattle had higher levels of C14:0, C16:1, and 
and decreases collagen and intramuscular fat 
C18:0 in the phospholipid fraction than that 
contents, favoring tenderness. 
from Friesian and Charolais cattle. 
 
Collagen constitutes 20 
– 
25% of the 
 Breed can also have signifi cant effects on 
protein in mammals, and connective tissues 
beef fl avor.  Nitrogen -   and  sulfur - compounds, 
are composed mainly of collagen. It occurs 
free amino acids, alcohols, aldehydes, and 
in muscle tissue, binding the fi bers together 
ketones in the fl avor volatiles differ in the 
in bundles. However, collagen is not distrib-
meat from different breeds of cattle (Sato et 
uted uniformly among muscle groups.  al.  
1995 
; Insausti et al.  
2005 
). Beef from 
Generally, the collagen content parallels the 
Friesian cattle has a stronger fatty fl avor 
level of physical activity of the particular 
and aftertaste, and a different volatile profi le 
muscle. Increasing intermolecular cross - link-
than that from Pirenaica cattle (Gorraiz et al. 
ing among collagen molecules decreases 
 2002 ). Enzymes, such as  μ  -   and  m - calpain, 
their extensibility and their solubility (Forrest 
known primarily for textural changes, can 
et al.  
1975 
). Those muscles that are used 
infl uence  fl avor by producing peptides that 
extensively have higher amounts of collagen 
make signifi cant  fl avor contributions. Meat 
and are generally tougher. 
from  Bos taurus  and  Bos indicus  cattle inher-
 Smith et al.  (2007a)  reported that weight 
iting the CC genotype at the calpastatin 
at slaughter, hot carcass weight, loin muscle 
gene and the TT genotype at the  μ  - calpain 
area, yield grade , calpastatin enzyme activ-
gene produce steaks with more intense fl avor 
ity, and carcass quality grade were relatively 
(Casas et al.  
2006 
). These genes correlate 
highly heritable. They found moderate heri-
with increased rancid , sour , and salty fl avors, 
tability estimates for marbling score , back  
and decreased umami fl avor 
(Toldr á  
fat thickness, and feedlot average daily gain. 
and Flores  
2000 
). In addition, content of 
MacNeil et al.  (2001)  reported that Limousin -
several volatile compounds, such as hexane 
 sired calves grew more rapidly than Hereford -
and 2,2,4,6,6 
- 
pentamethylheptane, differs 
 
sired calves. By the fi nishing  phase, 
be  tween Friesian and Pirenaica cattle (Gorraiz 
Limousin 
- 
 and Hereford 
- 
sired calves had 
et al.  2002 ). Breed also affects beef color. 
greater average daily gains than Piedmontese -
Frickh and Solkner  (1997)  reported that beef 
 sired calves. A clear stratifi cation of USDA 
from Holstein cattle had higher a 
* 
 values 
yield grade, based on differences in carcass 
(redness) than did Simmental and Simmental 
weight, longissimus muscle area, fat depth, 
x Limousin cattle. 
and percentage kidney, pelvic, and heart fat, 
 
Genetic differences in swine have also 
existed, depending on sire breed. Hereford -
resulted in pork with different quality char-
 sired calves had more marbling than progeny 
acteristics. Since 1990, producers have dra-
of Limousin or Piedmontese sires. Schenkel 
matically improved the nutritional profi le of 
et al.  (2005)  reported associations between 
pork, producing a product that is 31% lower 
Technological Quality of Meat for Processing    27
in fat, 10% lower in cholesterol and 17% 
while that from Duroc and Duroc/Hampshire 
lower in calories (USDA  
2007 
). However, 
was lower in fat. Pork from Danish Landrace 
genetic selection for leanness has not been 
Duroc pigs was more tender than that from 
without unintended consequences. Pigs  Landrace, Duroc, and various crosses with 
homozygous for the Halothane gene (nn) 
Yorkshire pigs. Blanchard et al.  
(1999) 
 
have higher gain: feed ratios, and their car-
reported that meat from crossbred pigs that 
casses are leaner than those from Halothane 
were at least half Duroc were more tender 
negative (NN) and heterozygotic (Nn) pigs 
than that from Large White and British  
(Leach et al.  1996 ). While pigs carrying one 
Landrace crosses. Brewer et al.  (2002)  also 
or two copies of the Halothane gene have 
reported that pork from Duroc - sired pigs is 
higher lean content, they are likely to produce 
more tender than that from Duroc/Landrace -  
pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat that has 
and  Pietrain - sired  pigs. 
excessive drip loss because of rapid pH 
 
Wood et al.  
(2004) 
 reported that breed 
decline while the carcass is still hot (Sather 
affected the fatty acid composition of intra-
et al.  1990 ). Fernandez et al.  (2004)  reported 
muscular neutral lipid. Pork from Berkshire 
that NN and Nn pigs exhibited postmortem 
and Tamworth pigs (fatter carcasses) had 
changes at the same rate, as evidenced by 
more 14:0 and 16:0, while that from Duroc 
similar glycogen, lactate, creatine phosphate 
and Large White (leaner) contained more 
and ATP levels, and pH values at 40 minutes 
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Meat from Duroc 
postmortem. Raw meat (longissimus lumbo-
pigs had high concentrations of 20:5n - 3 and 
rum) from nn pigs had lower visual color 
22:6n - 3. 
intensity and homogeneity scores than meat 
 Genetic markers for tenderness have been 
from NN and Nn pigs. Meat from nn pigs was 
identifi ed for Duroc - Landrace pigs (Rohrer et 
less tender than that from NN pigs; the Nn 
al.   2006 ).  Chromosome  2  region  60 – 66    cM 
pigs were intermediate. 
appears to be associated with all measures of 
 
Meat from pigs (Swedish Hampshire x 
pork tenderness and the region on chromo-
Finnish Landrace) that are homozygous 
some 17 (32 
– 39    cM)  was  associated  with 
and heterozygous for the rendement napole 
measures of intramuscular fat and loineye 
(RN - ; acid meat) allele has been shown to be 
area.  
juicier than that from noncarriers. The RN -  
allele also contributes to tenderness (Josell et 
 Diet Effects on Meat Quality 
al.  
2003 
). Emnett  
(1999) 
 reported that 
Berkshire and Chester White pigs had lower 
 Diet can contribute to meat quality directly 
glycolytic potential (thought to be an indica -
(compounds from the feed source deposit in 
tor of the RN 
- 
 allele) than Hampshire or 
the meat) or indirectly (primarily by increas-
Hampshire crossbred pigs. High glycolytic 
ing fatness). Feeding fi sh byproducts, raw 
potential values were associated with lower 
soybeans, canola oil, and meal can result in 
pH, poorer WHC, higher cooking loss, and 
undesirable fl avors in meat (Melton  1990 ). 
paler color. 
Pork fat is more likely to be affected by alter-
 Meat derived from pigs of these very dif-
ation of dietary fat source than is beef fat 
ferent genetic backgrounds does differ in 
because pigs have little capacity to biohydro-
quality characteristics (Brewer et al.  2002 ). 
genate unsaturated fats , depositing them in 
Ellis et al.  (1996)  reported that Duroc pigs 
tissues in much the same form as they were 
produce meat that is highly marbled and has 
consumed. Feeding pigs high levels of PUFA 
good eating quality. Brewer et al.  
(2004) 
 
decreases saturation of carcass fat and has 
reported that meat from Duroc/Landrace -  and 
detrimental effects on pork quality (Whitney 
Large White 
- 
sired pigs was higher in fat, 
et al.  2006 ). Unsaturated fatty acids result in 
28    Chapter 2
carcass fat that is soft and oily. In addition, 
higher the phospholipid concentration (Larick 
carcass fat that is higher in PUFA content is 
et  al.   1989 ).  Feedlot - fi nished cattle have a 
more susceptible to oxidation during storage 
different fatty acid profi le from forage 
- 
fed 
than fat that contains more saturated fat. 
cattle. Meat from forage 
- 
fed beef contains 
Palm oil and whole linseed supplements 
more linolenic acid, and less oleic and lin-
increase muscle levels of alpha 
- linolenic 
oleic acids than that from concentrate 
- 
fed 
(C18:3) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid 
beef (Elmore et al.  
2004 
). Intense pasture 
[C20:5]); fi sh oil increases EPA and DHA 
rotation systems of millet and grain have 
(docosahexaenoic acid [C22:6]; Elmore et al. 
been shown to alter concentrations of diter-
 2004 ). The effects of changes in dietary fat 
penoids and lactones (Maruri and Larick 
source on pork fat are more apparent if they 
 
1992 
). Lactones correlate positively with 
occur during the last few weeks before  
roasted beef fl avor and negatively with 
slaughter than if they occur 1 to 2 months 
gamey/stale  off - fl avor; diterpenoids posi -
before slaughter. 
tively correlate with gamey/stale off - fl avor. 
 Lampe et al.  (2006)  reported that while 
Differences in oleic, linoleic and linolenic 
fi nishing diet (yellow corn , white corn, 1/3 
acids, diterpenoids, and lactones may be 
yellow corn and 2/3 white corn, 2/3 yellow 
responsible for fl avor differences. Nelson et 
corn and 1/3 white corn, or barley) altered 
al.  (2004)  found that adding restaurant grease 
saturated,  mono -   and  poly - unsaturated  fatty 
to cattle diets to increase energy intake 
acid content in the subcutaneous fat of pigs, 
increased initial tenderness and had no effect 
energy source had little effect on the eating 
on drip or cook loss, sustained tenderness, 
quality of pork. However Wood et al.  (2004)  
juiciness, and beef fl avor. 
reported that a low 
- 
protein fi nishing  diet 
 Feeding antioxidants has been of signifi -
increased tenderness and juiciness but  cant interest with respect to maintaining post -
decreased fl avor quality of pork. 
 
harvest meat quality (Guo et al.  
2006 
). 
 
Rosenvold et al.  
(2001) 
 reported that 
Vitamin E locates in the cell membrane in 
feeding fi nishing diets low in digestible car-
proximity to phospholipids. It can prevent  
bohydrate can reduce muscle glycogen stores 
development of free radicals in membranes 
in slaughter pigs without compromising 
ante 
- 
 and postmortem (Onibi et al.  
2000 
). 
growth rate. This diet reduced  
μ  - calpain 
Garber et al.  (1996)  reported that vitamin E 
activity and increased calpastatin activity, 
supplementation increased muscle alpha 
indicating less muscle protein degradation in 
 
tocopherol levels, delaying metmyoglobin 
the muscles compared to muscles of control 
formation (beef) and lipid oxidation in a 
animals. In an effort to improve the nutri-
dose - dependent manner. Boler et al.  (2009)  
tional profi le of pork, Janz et al.  (2008)  fed 
found that feeding natural sources of vitamin 
pigs a plant - based diet containing conjugated 
E to fi nishing pigs was more effective in 
linoleic acid, selenium, and vitamin E. The 
reducing lipid oxidation of pork during sub-
dietary treatments had some effects on meat 
sequent storage and display than were artifi -
quality, but the overall effects on appearance 
cial sources. Yang et al.  (2002)  found that 
and palatability were small. 
meat from pasture 
- 
fed cattle contained as 
 Diet can shift the bone/muscle/fat ratio of 
much  alpha - tocopherol  as  grain - fed  cattle 
beef carcasses. Grain feeding (high 
- 
energy 
supplemented with 2500 
 
IU vitamin E. It 
diet) usually increases carcass weight and 
contained a higher percentage of linolenic 
intramuscular fat content, and produces more 
acid, a lower percentage of linoleic acid, and 
intense fl avor in red meats than do low 
was less prone to lipid oxidation and devel -
 energy forage and grass diets (Melton  1990 ). 
opment  of  warmed - over  fl avor. Diet can also 
The longer the animal is in the feedlot, the 
affect color of the resultant meat. Vitamin E 
Technological Quality of Meat for Processing    29
supplemented into swine diets has been 
been used as indicators of meat quality. 
shown to stabilize meat color and decrease 
Highly marbled meat has traditionally been 
fl uid loss when fed at  
> 200   mg/kd  of  diet 
thought to be the ideal because of the effects 
during fi nishing (Asghar et al.  1980 ). 
of fat on fl avor and tenderness. However, 
 Shifting carcass bone/muscle/fat ratio can 
Rincker et al.  (2008)  reported that intramus-
also be accomplished with steroid - like drugs. 
cular fat (0.8 
– 
8.0%) explained less than 
Feeding beta 
- 
agonists can have signifi cant 
15% of the variance in pork fl avor  scores. 
effects on feedlot performance and/or carcass 
Consumers could tell no difference in pork 
characteristics. Quinn et al.  (2008)  reported 
fl avor scores until the fat content reached 
that feeding ractopamine 
- 
hydrochloride to 
4.5%. In addition, visible fat content in pork 
fi 
nishing heifers generally improved the 
is a major determinant of purchase intent 
effi ciency of carcass gain with minimal effect 
with consumers preferring leaner products 
on marbling score, yield grade, loin muscle 
(Brewer et al.  
2001 
; Rincker et al.  
2008 
). 
area, or percentages of carcasses grading 
Fernandez et al.  
(1999) 
 reported that pork 
USDA  Choice . Avendano 
- 
Reyes et al.  texture and taste are enhanced at intramuscu-
 (2006)  reported that feeding either zilpaterol -  
lar fat levels up to 3.25%, but inconsistent 
or  ractopamine - hydrochloride  considerably 
effects occurred with respect to tenderness/
improved  gain - to - feed  ratio,  hot  carcass 
toughness. 
weight, and carcass yield. Zilpaterol increased 
 Ellis et al.  (1996)  reported that longissi-
loin muscle area. Both beta 
- agonists 
mus muscle from pig genotypes selected for 
decreased meat tenderness compared with 
the propensity to increase marbling are more 
controls. Smith et al.  (2007b)  reported that 
tender and juicy, and have lower shear values. 
implanting anabolic steroids increased hot 
The Duroc breed produces pork that is highly 
carcass weight and loin muscle area for both 
marbled with good eating quality (Ellis et al. 
heifers and steers. However, implants had no 
 
1996 
). Brewer et al.  
(2002) 
 reported that 
effect on dressing percent , fat thickness, 
chops from Duroc and Pietrain pigs had the 
yield grade, marbling score, intramuscular 
most visible marbling, while those from 
lipid content, or concentrations of major fatty 
Duroc/Landrace and Large White had the 
acids. 
least. Chops from Duroc, Duroc/Hampshire, 
 
Montgomery et al.  
(2004) 
 reported that 
and Pietrain pigs had the highest fat content. 
supplementation of three biological types of 
Meat from these breeds, however, differs 
cattle (Bos indicus, Bos Taurus - Continental, 
from other breeds with regard to muscle fi ber 
Bos Taurus 
- 
English ) with vitamin D3 (0.5 
type and the incidence of PSE ( Chang et al. 
million IU/d) for 8 days prior to slaughter 
 2003 ). 
improved tenderness by affecting muscle 
 
Cattle breeds with different growth 
Ca ++ 
 concentrations, calpain activities , and 
rates but the same degree of marbling differ 
muscle proteolysis.  
substantially in tenderness and Warner 
Bratzler shear value (Chambaz et al.  2003 ). 
Historically, selection of beef breeds has 
 Marbling Effects on 
been based on marbling, irrespective of 
Meat Quality 
growth rate and simultaneous selection pres-
 A high plane of nutrition, especially during 
sure for reduced overall fat deposition.  
the fi nishing phase, can increase intramuscu-
lar fat to a greater or lesser degree depending 
 Postmortem  p  H  Decline 
on species, breed, animal age, and a variety 
of other factors. The fatness and marbling 
 
Postmortem biochemical changes dramati-
associated with a high plane of nutrition have 
cally affect tenderness and fl avor. The loss of 
30    Chapter 2
circulatory competency after harvest requires 
 
1979 
). During the immediate postmortem 
that the tissues shift to anaerobic metabolism, 
period, tissues metabolize glycogen via 
resulting in the accumulation of metabolic 
anaerobic pathways, lowering pH. ATP is 
byproducts, including lactic acid, in the 
rapidly consumed, but as reducing equiva-
muscle. The pH declines from about 6.8 to 
lents are consumed, it is not regenerated. 
5.7. Endogenous thiol proteinases (cathep-
Without the plasticizing effect of ATP, actin 
sins B and L) become activated near pH 5.4. 
and myosin cross - link, the sarcomere short-
They are redistributed (intracellularly) during 
ens, fi bers contract, and rigor results. During 
aging (Spanier et al.  1990 ; Spanier and Miller  
the rigor process, muscle cells undergo both 
 1993 ). Proteolytic enzyme activity is temper -
longitudinal and lateral contraction, usually 
ature - dependent; some (cathepsins B and L) 
within 24 hours. WHC decreases during the 
retain high activity levels even at cooking 
postmortem period. Rigor mortis occurs in 
temperatures (70 ° C). Pigs with defects in the 
beef when the pH drops to 5.9 (Honikel et al. 
ryanodine receptor gene (rn+) undergo exces-
 
1981 
). Factors that affect the rate of pH 
sive (not necessarily rapid) pH decline, 
decline, such as Halothane gene status of pigs 
resulting in abnormally acidic conditions in 
and residual glycogen in the tissues, affect 
the meat, which affects water - holding capac-
tenderness, WHC, and color. Factors that 
ity, tenderness, and color (Leach et al.  1996 ; 
affect the ultimate pH (ryanodine gene status, 
Bidner et al.  2004 ). 
stress that alters muscle glycogen content) 
 
Water 
- 
holding capacity (WHC) is the 
also affect these characteristics.  
ability of meat to hold onto its own or added 
 The peak solubility of actin and myosin 
water when force ( heat , pressure ) is applied. 
occurs between pH 5.7 and 6.0 (Scopes 
Water is the major component (about 75%) 
 1964 ). It decreases dramatically as pH drops 
of muscle tissue. Most exists in layers around 
from 6.0 to 5.6. These proteins are almost  
polar molecules and between layers of cel-
completely insoluble below pH 4.9. 
lular materials. The majority is located in the 
Sarcoplasmic proteins are soluble between 
intermolecular spaces between the salt - solu-
4.8 and 5.2, regardless of temperature; 
ble proteins (actin, myosin) of muscle tissue, 
however, at or above 37  ° C, even high pH 
which varies depending on various intrinsic 
will not prevent them from precipitating onto 
and extrinsic factors (Offer and Knight  1988 ). 
myofi brillar proteins. This decreases WHC 
Its movement is restricted in a number of 
as well as other quality characteristics of 
ways that are dependent primarily on the 
meat.  The  minimum  water - holding  capacity 
myofi laments. Some of the factors that alter 
of meat occurs around pH 5.0, which corre-
the spatial arrangement of the myofi laments 
sponds to the isoelectric point of actomyosin. 
include alterations in net charge induced by 
In addition, toughness is negatively corre-
pH changes, screening of charges by anions/
lated with initial pH and rate of pH decline 
cations, presence of divalent cations (Mg ++ , 
(Zamora  et  al.   1996 ).  Two - thirds  of  the  WHC 
Ca ++ ), denaturing conditions that alter protein 
losses occurring during rigor are due to loss 
conformation (rapid pH decline while the 
of ATP, with the remainder due to pH decline. 
carcass temperature is still high), and pres-
The rate of pH decline is partially genetic, in 
ence of plasticizing agents such as ATP and 
that pH decreases more rapidly in meat from 
enzymes (ATPase). 
some breeds, because of the fi ber - type  distri-
 In  pre - rigor  meat,  Mg - ATP = 
 serves to 
bution in the muscle tissue, than it does in 
prevent cross - linking between the contractile 
meat from other breeds. Brewer et al.  (2002)  
proteins, actin and myosin (Fig.  2.1 ). This 
reported that carcasses from Duroc and Large 
maintains the interfi lamental space such that 
White pigs experienced postmortem purge 
water can move in (Siegel and Schmidt  
losses of 5 – 6%, while those from Pietrain, 
Technological Quality of Meat for Processing    31
 Figure 2.1.    Effect of excess hydrogen ion (pH decrease) on water located in muscle tissue.  
Duroc/Landrace, and Duroc/Hampshire  drip loss, poor  WHC, and pale color of pale, 
experienced purge losses of 12 
– 
13%.  soft exudative (PSE) pork (Bendall and 
Genetics appears to play a signifi cant role in 
Wismer - Pedersen   1962 ).  Development  of  the 
WHC. 
PSE condition may also be due to denatur-
 In addition to pH decline, alterations in 
ation and precipitation of sarcoplasmic pro-
carcass temperature can have signifi cant 
teins onto myofi brillar proteins (Joo et al. 
effects on meat quality (tenderness and 
 1999 ).  The  genetic  profi le of pigs that produce 
WHC). Loss of circulatory and respiratory 
PSE pork is advantageous for production 
competencies at slaughter allows accumula-
reasons . Brewer et al.  (2002)  reported that 
tion of metabolic heat. Carcass temperatures 
chops from Duroc 
- 
sired pigs were more 
can increase to over 42  ° C during the fi rst 
tender than those from Duroc/Landrace 
- 
 
45 – 60 minutes postmortem. At this tempera-
and Pietrain - sired pigs. Brewer et al.  (2002)  
ture, a rapid pH decline can result in denatur-
reported  similar  effects  on   “ texture ”   of 
ation of myofi brillar proteins such that WHC 
chops from Halothane positive (nn) and neg-
is ultimately quite low, even if ultimate pH 
ative (NN) Pietrain, RN 
- 
 Hampshire, rn+ 
(24  h) is within normal ranges . Rapid post-
Hampshire, Berkshire, and Duroc lines of 
mortem glycolysis is associated with the high 
pigs. 
32    Chapter 2
 Hambrecht et al.  (2005)  reported that high 
of biohydrogenation of dietary lipids, or via 
stress conditions (long transport, short  endogenous synthesis. Increased marbling, 
lairage) decreased muscle glycolytic poten -
because of the increased amount of fat avail-
tial and increased plasma lactate, cortisol, 
able for formation of fl avor compounds, has 
muscle temperature, rate of pH decline, ulti-
traditionally been considered to have a rela-
mate pH, and b 
* 
 values (yellowness) of 
tively large impact on the ultimate fl avor of 
pork. Other color measures were unaffected 
the meat product.  
by high stress but water - holding properties 
  “ Meaty  fl avor, ”   the  generic  background 
were impaired. Because supplemental dietary 
fl avor of all types of red meat, is associated 
magnesium is related to postmortem glyco-
with the lean portions of meat. Phospholipids 
gen breakdown of lactic acid and concomi-
(0.5 – 1% of the lean tissue) contain a high 
tant muscle pH decline, it has been shown 
proportion of fatty acids with four or more 
to help offset damage to color and water 
double bonds (C18:4, C20:4, C20:5, C22:5, 
 holding capacity that result from the stress 
C22:6; Table  
2.2 
) that are susceptible to 
involved in transport and handling (Frandson 
oxidation and likely to make specifi c fl avor 
and Spurgeon  1992 ). Feeding swine magne-
contributions to the meat (Elmore et al. 
sium during the fi nishing phase results in 
 
1999 
). Endogenous antioxidant enzymes, 
higher initial and/or ultimate muscle pH 
especially catalase and GSH - Px, can poten-
values and a decrease in the incidence of 
tially delay the onset of oxidative rancidity 
PSE (D 
’ 
Souza et al.  
1998 
; Swigert et al. 
(Pradhan et al.  2000 ). Some meat processing 
 2004 ).  
operations reduce the activity of these 
systems (Decker and Mei  1996 ). Of the 60 -
  plus compounds that contribute specifi cally 
  Flavor  
to  “ meaty ”  aromas, most are sulfur -  or car-
bonyl - containing  compounds  (Shahidi   1994 ). 
 Meaty Flavor 
Phospholipids are also the source of several 
 “ Flavor ”  results from the combination of the 
sulfi des that are generated when they react  
basic tastes ( sweet , sour, bitter, salt, umami) 
with cysteine and/or ribose to produce mild , 
derived from water - soluble compounds and 
slightly meaty - fl avor/odor compounds, such 
odors derived from a variety of substances 
as  2 - methyl - 3 - [methylthio]thiophene  (Rowe 
present in the raw meat. Flavor -  and odor -
 2002 ).    
 active volatiles include alcohols, aldehydes, 
aromatic compounds, esters, ethers, furans, 
 Species - Specifi c Flavor 
hydrocarbons, ketones, lactones, pyrazines, 
pyridines, pyrroles, and sulfi des  (Shahidi 
 Species - specifi c  fl 
avor has traditionally 
 1994 ). The relationship between some of the 
been associated with the lipid portion 
more common volatiles and their respective 
of meat. It may result from quantitative dif-
fl avors is shown in Table  2.1 .  
ferences  of  several  compounds  (3,5 - dimethyl -
 The lipids present in muscle tissue (sub-
 1,2,4,trithiolane, 
2,4,6 - trimethylperhydro - 
cutaneous fat, intramuscular fat, intermuscu-
1,3,5 - dithiazine, 
mercaptothiophenes, 
lar fat, intramyocellular lipid, and structural 
mercaptofurans; Shahidi et al.  1994 ). A beef -
phospholipids) at slaughter serve as a source 
 like aroma compound, 12 - methyltridecanal, 
of many of these fl avor  constituents.  These 
is an important contributor to species fl avor 
lipids are composed of fatty acids that may 
(Mottram et al.  
1982 
). It occurs in much 
be saturated, unsaturated and/or methyl 
smaller amounts in species other than beef. 
 
branched (Fig.  
2.2 
). They may be derived 
Other species 
- specifi c  fl avor  compounds 
directly from the diet, produced as the result 
include 
2 - methyl - 3 - [methyl] - furan 
and 
 Table 2.1.    Flavors and aromas associated with volatile compounds in meat 
   Compound  
   Flavors  and  Aromas  
  Pentanal  
  Pungent  
  Hexanal  
  Green ,  grassy,  fatty  
  Heptanal  
  Green,  fatty,  oily  
  Nonanal  
  Soapy  
  Methional  
  Cooked   potato  
  12 - methyltridecanal  
  Beefy  
  Nona - 2(E) - enal  
  Tallowy,  fatty  
  Deca - 2(E),  4(E) - dienal  
  Fatty,  fried  potato  
  Butanoic  Acid  
  Rancid  
  Hexanoic  Acid  
  Sweaty  
  3 - Hydroxy - 2 - butanone  
  Buttery  
  2 - propanone  
  Livery  
  2,3 - Octanedione  
  Warmed  over  fl avor, lipid oxidation  
  1 - Octen - 3 - ol  
  Mushroom  
  2 - Pentyl  furan  
  Metallic,  green,  earthy,  beany  
  2 - methyl - 3 - [methylthio]furan  
  Meaty,  sweet,  sulfurous  
  4 - hydroxy - 5 - methyl - 3(2H) - furanone  (HMF)  
  Meaty  
  Pyrazines  
  Nutty,  cracker - like,  roasted  
 Amino acids: glycine, alanine, lysine, cysteine, methionine, 
  Sweet  
glutamine, succinic  
  Organic acids: lactic, inosinic, ortho - phosphoric, and pyrrolidone 
  Sweet  
carboxylic  
  Amino  acids:  aspartic  acid,  histidine,  asparagines  
  Sour  
 Organic acids: succinic, lactic, inosinic, ortho - phosphoric, 
  Sour  
pyrrolidone carboxylic  
  Hypoxanthine,  anserine,  carnosine  
  Bitter  
  Amino  acids:  arginine,  leucine,  tryptophan  
  Bitter  
 Monosodium glutamate (MSG), inosine and guanosine 
  Savory,  brothy,  beefy.  
monophosphate (IMP,GMP)  
  Bis(2 - methyl - 3 - furyl)  disulfi de  
  Roasted  meat  
  2 - methyl - 3 - furanthiol  
  Roasted  meat  
  4 - hydroxy - 5 - methyl - 3(2H) - furanone  (HMF)  
  Meaty  
  4 - hydroxy - 2,5 - dimethyl - 3(2H) - furanone  
  Meaty  
  3 - hydroxy - 4,5 - dimethyl - 2(5H) - furanone  
  Meaty  
 MacLeod and Ames,  1986 ; Ha and Lindsay,  1991 ; Spanier et al.,  1992 ; Spanier and Miller,  1993 ; MacLeod,  1994 ; 
Imafi don and Spanier,  1994 ; Maga,  1998 ; Mottram,  1998 ; Shahidi,  1998 ; Rowe,  2002 ; Gorraiz et al.,  2002 . 
 Figure 2.2.    Triglyceride with saturated, mono - unsaturated, and poly - unsaturated fatty acid.  
33
34
 Table 2.2.    Fatty acid composition of selected types of meat  1    
   Total  lipid 
   Total  sat. 
   12:0  
   14:0  
   16:0  
   18:0  
   16.1  
   18.1  
   20:1  
   22:1  
   18:2  
   18:3  
   18:4  
   20:4  
   20:5 
   22:5 
   22:6 
g/100    g  
fatty acids  
 n     −  3 
 n     −  3 
 n     −  3 
   
Chicken  2    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 Breast  3.57  
  1.01  
  0  
  0.3  
  0.69  
  0.25  
     
0.15   
   
1.03     
  0.03  
  0  
     
0.59     
  0.03  
  0  
  0.06  
  0.01  
  0.01  
  0.02  
    
 Dark  9.73  
  2.66  
  0.03  
  0.07  
  1.84  
  0.63  
     
0.49   
   
2.97     
  0.05  
  0  
     
1.87     
  0.09  
  0  
  0.14  
  0.01  
  0.03  
  0.05  
   
Turkey    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 Breast  3.46  
  2.10  
  0  
  0.01  
  0.05  
  1.28  
     
0.40   
   
1.98     
  0.01  
  0.01  
     
1.45     
  0.08  
  0  
  0.16  
  0  
  0  
  0  
    
 Dark  7.22  
  2.45  
  0.02  
  0.05  
  1.28  
  0.72  
     
0.24   
   
1.35     
  0.03  
  0.02  
     
1.75     
  0.07  
  0  
  0.26  
  0  
  0.04  
  0.06  
   
Beef 3    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 3.54  
  1.31  
  0  
  0.09  
  0.78  
  0.43  
     
0.11   
   
1.31     
  0  
  0  
     
0.12     
  0.01  
  0  
  0.02  
  0  
  0  
  0  
   
Pork 3    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 3.53  
  1.21  
  0.01  
  0.45  
  0.76  
  0.38  
     
0.10   
   
1.42     
  0.02  
  0.30  
     
0.30     
  0  
  0  
  0  
  0  
  0  
  0  
   
Lamb 4    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 9.23  
  3.30  
  0.02  
  0.24  
  1.79  
  1.10  
   —     
   —     
   —     
   —     
     
0.63   
   
0.12     
  0.09  
   —     
   —     
   —     
   —     
   
Ocean Perch   
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 2.09  
  0.31  
  0  
  0.08  
  0.18  
  0.04  
     
0.10   
   
0.27     
  0.13  
  0.29  
     
0.04     
  0.0  
  0.03  
  0.01  
  0.10  
  0.03  
  0.30  
   
Atlantic Salmon    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 12.35  
  2.50  
   —     
  0.57  
  1.90  
  0.32  
     
0.77   
   
2.05     
  1.37  
   —     
     
0.67     
   —     
   —     
  1.27  
  0.69  
   —     
  1.46  
   
Tuna   
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 5.97  
  0.95  
  0.009  
  0.011  
  0.152  
  0.051  
     
0.025       
0.018     
  0.007  
  0.014  
     
0.008       
0.012     
  0.005  
  0.028  
  0.037  
  0.013  
  0.18  
    
1 Source:    USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 (2007) 
  http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/cg i - bin/    
   
2 Chicken, broilers or fryers, separable fat, raw; contains less than 0.5  g 4:0, 6:0, 8:0, and 10:0  
   
3 Beef, top sirloin, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/8 ″  fat, select , raw; contains less than 0.5  g 4:0, 6:0, 8:0, and 10:0  
   
4 Lamb, domestic, rib, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4 ″  fat, choice, raw  
Technological Quality of Meat for Processing    35
3 - methylcyclopentanone 
(Imafi don 
and 
 Sex and carcass maturity also affect off -
Spanier   1994 ).  Methyl - branched  compounds 
 fl avors. Beef from bulls has a more livery, 
appear to arise from phosphoglycerides 
bloody fl avor than that from heifers, which 
(Werkoff et al.  1993 ; Mottram  1998 ). These 
appears to be related to higher 2 - propanone 
compounds are affected by diet, breed, and 
and ethanol contents (Gorraiz et al.  2002 ). 
muscle. 
To the extent that carcass maturity affects 
 
Muscles vary in their concentrations of 
iron content, it can increase metallic, rancid, 
compounds important to meat fl avor/odor. 
bloody, salty, and bitter fl avor notes (Calkins 
Stetzer et al.  
(2008) 
 reported that beef 
 
2006 
). Volatile compounds impact these 
 Complexus  contained twice the concentration 
fl avor notes as well. Higher concentrations of 
of 2,3 
- 
octanedione, nonanal, and butanoic 
phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine, and 
acid, and 30% more hexanoic acid than the 
phosphatidylethanolamine increase livery 
 Gludeus medius ,   Rectus femoris ,   Vastus lat-
and ammonia fl avors in beef (Larick et al. 
eralic ,   Vastus medialis ,   Psoas major ,  and 
 
1989 
). Several muscles ( 
Triceps brachii , 
 Longissimus dorsi .  
 Vastus lateralis 
, and  
Vastus intermedius ) 
with livery off 
- 
fl avor have more heptanol, 
hexanal,  hexanol,  B - pinene,  1 - octene - 3 - ol, 
 Off - Flavors 
and nonanal. 
 Muscle tissue also contains compounds that 
 Because of their effects on desirable and 
contribute  to  off - fl 
avors in the fi nished 
undesirable fl avor components, diet, animal 
product as a result of genetics, sex of the 
sex, age at slaughter, genetics, and muscle 
animal, heme content of the muscle tissue, 
must be considered when meat tissues are to 
and diet. Livery fl avor is an objectionable, 
be used for specifi c products (fresh, whole 
off - fl avor in beef that increases as iron 
cuts vs. cured, smoked products).  
content increases (Campo et al.  1999 ; Calkins 
and Cuppett  
2006 
; Yancey et al.  
2006 
). 
 Factors Affecting 
Sulfur 
- 
containing compounds (thiols, sul-
Tenderness/Texture 
fi des, thiazoles, sulfur - substituted furans) can 
interact with carbonyl compounds to produce 
 In general, consumers rate tenderness as the 
a livery fl 
avor (Werkhoff et al.  
1993 
). 
major factor that determines the eating 
Muscles often exhibiting liver  
- 
like fl avor, 
quality of meat (Brewer and Novakofski 
such as the  Psoas major  (loin) and  Gluteus 
 
2008 
). Tenderness embodies all the mouth 
medius  ( round ), have higher levels of heme 
feel characteristics perceived kinesthetically: 
iron and/or myoglobin (Yancey et al.  2006 ). 
those perceived prior to mastication ( particle  
Compared with beef  
Infraspinatus ,   Psoas 
size, oiliness), during mastication (tender-
major 
, and  
Rectus femoris 
, the  
Gluteus 
ness, juiciness), and after mastication (fi brous 
medius  had the highest liver off - fl avor score 
residue, mouth coating ; Bourne  
1992 
). 
(Stetzer et al.  
2007 
). Of the  
Complexus , 
Tenderness is composed of mechanical 
 Serratus ventralis ,   Vastus lateralis ,   Vastus 
(hardness, cohesiveness, elasticity), particu-
medialis , and  Longissimus dorsi , the  Vastus 
late (grittiness and fi brousness), and chemi -
lateralis  had the highest liver off - fl avor score 
cal components (juiciness and oiliness; 
and the  
Longissimus dorsi 
 had the lowest 
Bourne  1992 ). Minimally, meat tenderness is 
(Stetzer et al.  
2006 
). Stetzer et al.  
(2008) 
 
affected by myofi brillar, connective tissue, 
reported that livery off - fl avor was positively 
and compositional components. The myofi -
correlated with pentanal, hexanal, 3 - hydroxy -
brillar component can be affected by cold 
 2 - butanone,  and  hexanoic  acid. 
shortening and proteolytic degradation; the 
36    Chapter 2
connective tissue component can be affected 
animals and among muscles within an animal; 
by animal age, degree of activity, mechanical 
this may relate to initial tenderness 
tenderization, and composition ( Pearson and 
(Novakofski and Brewer  2006 ; Stolowski et 
Young  1989 ). Muscle foods have an inherent 
al.  2006 ). A major factor in this variation is 
set of textural characteristics associated with 
high growth rate that requires a high plane of 
them by the nature of the raw material. These 
nutrition. During growth, rapid protein turn-
include fi bers,  fl uid/fat exudation, and con-
over increases proteolytic activity, which 
nective tissue. Textural parameters of interest 
contributes to the aging process (Zgur et al. 
are those that are affected by these raw mate-
 
2003 
). This increased proteolytic activity 
rials characteristics as well as those that are 
enhances aging because proteolytic cathep-
affected by exogenously induced alterations 
sins degrade some structural proteins, allow-
(formulation, aging). 
ing the sarcomere to relax (Kristensen and 
 Tenderness of the fi nal product depends 
Purslow  
2001 
). This allows the infl ow  of 
on the muscle(s) from which the meat was 
water previously expelled during rigor. This 
derived. Beef  Psoas major  was more tender 
infl ow may be driven by the difference in 
than the  Gluteus medius ,   Infraspinatus ,  and 
protein concentration existing between intra -  
 Rectus femoris  (Stetzer et al.  2007 ). Of the 
and extracellular compartments of the muscle 
 Complexus ,   Serratus ventralis ,   Vastus later -
cell. 
alis ,   Vastus medialis , and  Longissimus dorsi , 
 
Tenderness improvement with aging 
the  Longissimus dorsi  was the most tender 
varies between animals within a breed, and 
and the  Vastus lateralis  was the least (Stetzer 
between muscles within an animal. It depends 
et al.  2006 ). In general, meat that is the most 
on several factors that may also be related to 
tender is derived from muscles that were 
initial tenderness (Wicklund et al.  
2005 
; 
least used when the animal was alive , while 
Novakofski and Brewer  2006 ). Wicklund et 
meat that is the most tough is derived from 
al.  (2005)  reported that changes in tenderness 
muscles that are used the most (locomotor, 
of strip steaks required 14 days of aging. 
postural). However, both genetics and age 
Novakofski and Brewer  (2006)  reported that 
affect tenderness. Meat from two 
- 
year  
- 
old 
the mean improvement in shear with aging 
Angus/Wagyu heifers was as tender and 
over the fi rst week differed depending on the 
juicy as that from yearlings. However, meat 
shear value starting point ( original shear 
from two - year - old pure Angus lines was less 
value); however, no differences occurred 
tender and juicy than that from yearlings or 
between 7 and 14 days. Rentfrow et al.  (2004)  
that from Angus/Wagyu animals (Rentfrow 
reported that Warner Bratzler shear values 
et  al.   2004 ).  
decreased and tenderness increased in beef 
from  one -   and  two - year - old  heifers  during 
aging; however, maximum improvement 
 Aging 
occurred after only 7 days of aging. Bruce et 
al.  (2005)  indicated that aging for up to 14 
 Aging Effects on Tenderness 
days increased tenderness.  
 Sarcomere length, muscle, connective tissue 
proteins, and proteolytic degradation account 
 Aging Effects on Flavor 
for most of the variation in tenderness 
(Koohmaraie et al.  
2002 
). Tenderness   
The effects of aging on fl avor are unclear 
depends, in part, on proteolytic degradation 
(Mottram  1998 ). It can alter the makeup of 
of structural and myofi brillar  proteins 
the aroma and fl avor precursors, which ulti-
(Koohmaraie et al.  2002 ). Large variation in 
mately affects the characteristics of the 
aging - induced  improvement  occurs  among 
cooked product. Aging can increase carbon-
Technological Quality of Meat for Processing    37
yls derived from lipid oxidation, which may 
(Fe 3+ , Table  2.3 ). Oxygen can bind to heme 
contribute  to  off - fl avors, decrease fl avor 
iron only if it is in the ferrous state (Fe 2+ ). 
identity, and increase metallic fl avor (Yancey 
However, many other ligands (CN, NO, CO, 
et al.  2005 ). It can also increase fatty fl avor 
N 3 ) can bind to either the ferrous (Fe 2+ )  or 
and negative attributes such as painty, 
ferric (Fe 3+ ) form. Water (H 2 O) can bind to 
cardboard, bitter, and sour (Spanier et al. 
myoglobin (Mb) only if the iron is in the 
 
1992 
; Gorraiz et al.  
2002 
; Bruce et al. 
ferrous form. Under low oxygen tension con-
 2005 ).  Positive  fl 
avor compounds, such 
ditions, Mb exists in the purple 
- colored, 
as  3 - hydroxy - 2 - butanone,  2 - pentyl  furan, 
reduced form (Fe 2+ ). Exposed to oxygen for 
2,3 - octanedione,  and  1 - octene3 - ol,  decrease 
a short period of time, the central iron (Fe 2+ ) 
with aging; and negative compounds, such as 
reversibly binds oxygen, producing oxymyo-
pentanal, nonanal, and butanoic acid, increase 
globin (MbO 2 ), which is bright pink or red. 
with aging (Stetzer et al.  2008 ). Aging beef 
However, when exposed to O 2  for an extended 
can result in changes in umami taste. 
period, the central iron atom can lose an elec-
Glutamic acid content more than doubles 
tron (oxidized to Fe 3+ ), producing metmyo-
during the fi rst 7 days of aging (Bauer  1983 ). 
globin (MetMb), which is grey 
- brown . 
 The potential benefi ts of aging for selected 
Immediately post slaughter, the oxidized 
muscles for fl avor development and tender-
form can be reduced by endogenous reducing 
ization must be weighed against the potential 
systems in the meat, as long as reducing 
development  of  off - fl avors.   
equivalents (NADH) are available and the 
globin fraction is in its native state (undena-
tured). Over time, these reducing equivalents 
 Color 
are depleted and the pigment is irreversibly 
 Color and appearance of fresh meat are major 
oxidized. Oxidation also occurs rapidly if the 
factors in consumer purchase decisions 
globin moiety is denatured by rapidly declin-
because they are presumed to be indicators 
ing pH while the carcass is  “ hot ”  or by exces-
of meat freshness and quality (Brewer et al. 
sively low ultimate pH.  
 2002 ). Meat color is due to the concentration 
 In pigs, color variations may have been 
of heme pigments (myoglobin, hemoglobin), 
inadvertently selected for as pigs were bred 
their chemical states, and the light - scattering 
for high gain/feed ratios and leanness. Brewer 
properties of the meat (Lawrie  2002 ). At high 
et al.  (2002)  reported that genetic line had 
pH, the heme iron is predominantly in the 
signifi cant effects on a 
* 
 value (redness), 
ferrous state (Fe 
2+ 
); low pH accelerates 
which ranged from 9.2 to 11 (on a 15 - point 
ferrous iron conversion to the ferric state 
scale ) among pigs from genetic lines known 
 Table 2.3.    Characteristics of various states of myoglobin 
   Pigment  
   Ligand  
   Conditions  
   Iron  State  
   Color  
  Deoxymyoglobin  
  H 2 O  
  Very  low  oxygen  tension 
  Fe ++   
  Purple - red/purple - pink  
(  24  
    
  IIR   2006   
  Lamb  steaks  
  12  
    
  18  
  24  
    
  IIR   2006   
  Pork  
  2  to  6  
    
  4  to  12  
  8  to  15  
  10  
  ASHRAE   2006   
  Pork  
    
  3  
    
  6  
  12  
  Lawrie  and  Ledward 
 2006   
  Pork  carcasses  
  6  
    
  10  
  15  
    
  IIR   2006   
  Pork  steaks/cuts  
  6  
    
  10  
  15  
    
  IIR   2006   
  Sliced  bacon  (vac.)  
  12  
    
  12  
  12  
    
  IIR   2006   
  Liver  
  4  
    
  12  
  18  
    
  IIR   2006   
Freezing/Thawing    115
1200
1000
800
600
400
Storage life of beef (days)
200
0
–40
–30
–20
–10
0
Temperature (°C)
 Figure 5.2.    Experimental data on the frozen storage life of beef at different temperatures.  
storage, but considerable scatter between 
and have asked whether there is any real eco-
results  at  any  one  temperature.     
nomic advantage in very low temperature 
 
There is some evidence that consumer 
preservation.  
panels are often not very sensitive to quality 
changes. In a study on the quality of lamb 
 Temperature Fluctuation 
stored at  
− 5 ° C  and   − 35 ° C,  a  consumer 
panel could not tell the difference between 
 Generally,  fl uctuating temperatures in storage 
samples, although a trained taste panel could 
are considered to be detrimental to the 
differentiate and scored the samples stored 
product. However, it has been reported that 
at  
− 5 ° C  as  rancid  (Winger   1984 ).  Some 
repeated freeze - thaw cycles do not cause any 
researchers, such as Jul  (1982) , have ques -
essential change in the muscle ultrastructure 
tioned the wisdom of storage below  − 20 ° C 
(Carrol et al.  1981 ) and that several freeze -
1200
1000
800
600
400
Storage life of pork (days)
200
0
–40
–30
–20
–10
0
Temperature (°C)
 Figure 5.3.    Experimental data on the frozen storage life of pork at different temperatures.  
116    Chapter 5
1200
1000
800
600
400
Storage life of lamb (days)
200
0
–40
–30
–20
–10
0
Temperature (°C)
 Figure 5.4.    Experimental data on the frozen storage life of lamb at different temperatures.  
 
thaw cycles during a product 
’ 
s life cause 
 Packaging 
only small quality damage (Wirth  1979 ) or 
possibly no damage at all. In fact, a slight but 
 Packaging has a large direct effect on storage 
signifi cant improvement in samples that had 
life, especially in fatty meats and meat prod-
been frozen and unfrozen several times was 
ucts, and in extreme cases, indirectly due to 
found by one taste panel (Jul  1982 ). 
substantially increasing the freezing time. A 
 Minor temperature fl uctuations in a stored 
number of examples have occurred where 
product are generally considered unimpor-
large pallet loads of warm boxed meat have 
tant, especially if they are below  − 18 ° C  and 
been frozen in storage rooms . In these cases, 
are only of the magnitude of 1 to 2 ° C. Well -
freezing times can be so great that bacterial 
 
packed products and those that are tightly 
and enzymic activity results in a reduction of 
packed in palletized cartons are also less 
storage life. 
likely to show quality loss. However, poorly 
 In most cases, it is the material and type 
packed samples are severely affected by the 
of packaging that infl uence frozen storage 
temperature swings. There is disagreement 
life. Without wrapping, freezer burn may 
on how much effect larger temperature fl uc-
occur, causing extreme toughening and the 
tuations have on a product. Some authors  
development of lipid oxidation as the surface 
consider temperature fl uctuations to have the 
dries, allowing oxygen to reach subcutaneous 
same effect on the quality of the product as 
fat in the affected area. Wrapping in a tightly 
storage at an average constant temperature 
fi tting pack having a low water and oxygen 
(Dawson  1971 ); others consider that fl uctua-
permeability (such as a vacuum pack) can 
tions may have an additive effect (Van Arsdel 
more than double the storage life of a product. 
 1969 ;  Bech - Jacobsen  and  B ø gh - S ø rensen 
Waterproof packing also helps to prevent 
 
1984 
). There is evidence that exposure to 
freezer burn, and tight packing helps to 
temperatures warmer than  − 18 ° C   rather   than 
prevent an ice buildup in the pack. When a 
temperature fl uctuations may be the major 
product is breaded, packaging appears to 
factor infl 
uencing quality deterioration  have little effect, and in a trial where breaded 
(Gortner et al.  1948 ).  
pork chops and breaded ground pork were 
Freezing/Thawing    117
packed in poor and very good packs, an 
of meat. During the freezing operation , 
effect of packing could not be found. 
surface temperatures are reduced rapidly, and 
Lighting, especially ultraviolet, can also 
bacterial multiplication is severely limited, 
increase lipid oxidation (Volz et al.  
1949 
; 
with bacteria becoming completely dormant 
Lentz,  1971 ). Exposure to the levels of light 
below  − 10 ° C. In the thawing operation, these 
found in many retail frozen food display 
same surface areas are the fi rst to rise in tem-
areas can cause appreciable color change 
perature, and bacterial multiplication can 
within 1 to 3 days. Development of off fl avor 
recommence. On large objects subjected to 
can be accelerated and may be noticeable 
long uncontrolled thawing cycles, surface 
within 1 to 2 months on display. Products 
spoilage can occur before the center regions 
kept in dark or opaque packages may there-
have fully thawed . 
fore be expected to retain color longer than 
 Most systems supply heat to the surface 
those exposed to the light.  
and then rely on conduction to transfer that 
heat into the center of the meat. A few use 
electromagnetic radiation to generate heat 
within the meat. In selecting a thawing 
 Thawing and Tempering Systems 
system for industrial use, a balance must be 
for Meat 
struck between thawing time, appearance, 
 
Frozen meat as supplied to the industry 
the bacteriological condition of the product, 
ranges in size and shape, although much of it 
processing problems such as effl uent  dis-
is in blocks packed in boxes. Thawing is 
posal, and the capital and operating costs of 
usually regarded as complete when the center 
the respective systems. Of these factors, 
of the block has reached 0 ° C, the minimum 
thawing time is the principal criterion that 
temperature at which the meat can be fi lleted 
governs selection of the system. Appearance, 
or cut by hand . Lower temperatures (e.g.,  − 5 
bacteriological condition, and weight loss are 
to  − 2 ° C) are acceptable for meat that is des-
important if the material is to be sold in the 
tined for mechanical chopping, but such meat 
thawed condition but are less so if the meat 
is  “ tempered ”  rather than thawed. The two 
is for processing. 
processes should not be confused because 
 The design of any thawing system requires 
tempering only constitutes the initial phase 
knowledge of the particular environmental or 
of a complete thawing process. In practice , 
process conditions necessary to achieve a 
tempering can be a process in which the tem-
given thawing time, and the effect of these 
perature of the product is either raised or 
conditions on factors such as drip, evapora-
lowered to a value that is optimal for the next 
tive losses, appearance, and bacteriological 
processing stage. In this section, methods of 
quality. 
raising the product temperature will be dis-
 
The process of freezing a high water 
- 
cussed. Tempering systems where the tem-
content material such as meat takes place  
perature of frozen product is lowered will be 
over a range of temperatures rather than at an 
covered in the tempering and crust - freezing 
exact point, because as freezing proceeds, the 
section. 
concentration of solutes in the meat fl uid 
 Thawing is often considered as simply the 
steadily increases and progressively lowers 
reversal of the freezing process. However, 
the freezing temperature. Thawing simply 
inherent in thawing is a major problem that 
reverses this process. 
does not occur in the freezing operation. The 
 Thawing time depends on factors relating 
majority of the bacteria that cause spoilage 
to the product and the environmental condi-
or food poisoning are found on the surfaces 
tions and include: 
118    Chapter 5
  1.   
  dimensions  and  shape  of  the  product, 
on the other hand, employ heat generation 
particularly the thickness,  
inside the product. There is no simple guide 
  2.   
  change  in  enthalpy,  
to the choice of an optimum thawing system 
(Table  5.2 ). A thawing system should be con-
  3.   
  thermal  conductivity  of  the  product,  
sidered as one operation in the production 
  4.   
  initial  and  fi nal temperatures,  
chain. It receives frozen material, hopefully, 
  5.   
  surface  heat  transfer  coeffi cient, and  
within a known temperature range and of 
  6.   
  temperature  of  the  thawing  medium.    
specifi ed microbiological condition. It is 
 
Thermal conductivity has an important 
expected to deliver that same material in a 
effect in thawing. The conductivity of frozen 
given time in a totally thawed state. The 
meat muscle is three times that of the thawed 
weight loss and increase in bacterial numbers 
material. When thawing commences, the 
during thawing should be within acceptable 
surface rises above the initial freezing point. 
limits, which will vary from process to 
Subsequently, an increasing thickness of 
process. In some circumstances (e.g., direct 
poorly conducting material extends from the 
sale to the consumer), the appearance of the 
surface into the foodstuff, reducing the rate 
thawed product is crucial; in others, it may 
of heat fl ow into the centre of the material. 
be irrelevant. Apart from these factors, the 
This substantially increases the time required 
economics and overall practicality of the 
for thawing. 
thawing operation, including the capital and 
 There are two basic methods of thawing: 
running costs of the plant, the labor require-
thermal and electrical . Thermal methods are 
ments, ease of cleaning, and the fl exibility of 
dependant upon conventional heat conduc-
the plant to handle different products, must 
tion through the surface. Electrical methods, 
be  considered.   
 Table 5.2.    Advantages and disadvantages of different thawing systems 
     
     
   ADVANTAGES  
   DISADVANTAGES  
  Conduction 
  AIR  
  Easy   to  install:  can  be 
 Very slow, unless high velocities and 
systems  
adapted from chill 
high temperatures are used, when 
rooms. 
there can be weight loss, spoilage 
 Low velocity systems 
and appearance problems.  
retain good appearance.  
  WATER  
  Faster  than  air  systems.  
  Effl uent disposal. 
 Deterioration in appearance and 
microbiological condition. 
 Unsuitable for composite blocks.  
  VACUUM - HEAT 
  Fast. 
  Deterioration  in  appearance. 
(VHT)  
 Low surface temperatures. 
 High   cost . 
 Very  controllable. 
  Batch size limited.  
 Easily  cleaned.  
  HIGH  PRESSURE  
  Fast. 
 Not commercially available at 
 Reduces   microorganisms .  
present.  
  Electrical 
  MICROWAVE/ 
  Very  fast.  
  Problems  of  limited  penetration  and 
systems  
 INFRA  RED  
uneven energy absorption. Can 
cause  localized   ‘ cooking ’ . 
 High  cost.  
  RESISTIVE  
  Fast.  
  Problems  of  contact  on  irregular 
surfaces.  
  ULTRASONIC  
  Fast.  
  Not  commercially  available  at 
present.  
Freezing/Thawing    119
 Thermal Thawing/Tempering Methods 
used, frequent water changes are required to 
prevent bacterial accumulation.  
 Air 
 Air is used in the vast majority of thawing/
 Vacuum 
tempering applications. Use of still air is 
limited to thin products; otherwise, thawing 
 
Vacuum thawing relies on the transfer of 
times are excessively long. Although little or 
latent heat of condensation of steam onto 
no equipment is needed, considerable space 
product surfaces at low pressure and tem-
is required to lay out individual items of 
perature. For example, if a pressure of 
product. Moving air is more commonly used, 
1704    Nm  − 2  is maintained, steam can be gen-
providing more rapid heat transfer as well as 
erated at 15 ° C and will condense at this tem-
improved control of temperature and humid-
perature onto the frozen product surfaces. 
ity. Two - stage air thawing with high initial 
This ensures that although large amounts of 
air temperature followed by a second stage at 
latent heat are added, the product will not rise 
an air temperature below 10 ° C has also been 
above 15 ° C. The process is rapid, but evacu-
used. The duration of the high temperature 
ation to sub - atmospheric pressure restricts it 
stage is limited to 1 or 2 hours to avoid exces-
to batch operation. It is more effective for 
sive bacterial growth, but the increase in heat 
thin products where the heat released at the 
input during this time considerably reduces 
surface is quickly conducted through the 
the overall process time.  
product.  
 Immersion 
 High Pressure 
 Immersion in liquid media allows much more 
 
High pressure decreases the phase change 
rapid heat transfer, especially if pumped or 
temperature of pure water (down to  − 21 ° C 
agitated to avoid temperature stratifi cation in 
at 210 
 MPa). The lowering of the melting 
the liquid and grouping together of products. 
point allows the temperature gap between the 
Thawing times are therefore greatly reduced. 
heat source and the phase change front to 
Practical limitations are that boxes and other 
increase, and thus enhances the rate of heat 
packaging (unless vacuum pack or shrink 
fl ux (LeBail et al.  2002 ; IIR  2006 ). The pres-
wrap) must be removed before immersion, 
sure is released when the food temperature is 
bulk blocks are liable to break up, leaching 
a little above 0 ° C. High pressure thawing has 
of product surfaces can lead to poor appear-
been applied experimentally to pork and beef 
ance, and frequent changing of water for 
(Suzuki et al.  2006 ). There is some evidence 
hygiene reasons requires disposal or treat -
that the high pressure has the additional 
ment of large quantities of effl uent.  
benefi t of reducing the number of microor-
ganisms (LeBail et al.  2002 ; IIR  2006 ).  
 Plate 
 Electrical Thawing/Tempering 
 
Plate thawing takes place between metal 
Methods 
plates through which warm liquid is piped. 
  Resistance  
The plates and product may also be immersed 
in water to improve thermal contact between 
 Resistance to the passage of a current (50 –
them. Shape is important for reasonable 
 60    Hz)  creates  heating  effect  (ohmic  heating). 
contact with the fl at plates, although immer -
Electrical contacts are required and product 
sion helps by fi lling gaps. If immersion is 
structure must be uniform and homogeneous; 
120    Chapter 5
otherwise the path of least resistance will be 
be produced during the process, such as 
taken by the current, resulting in uneven tem-
when energy is absorbed at the surface rather 
peratures and runaway heating. Frozen foods 
than penetrating all of the product. In the 
do not readily conduct electricity at low tem-
extreme, such warming can lead to some 
peratures, but this improves at higher tem-
parts of the food being cooked while others 
peratures, so uniformity of initial temperature 
remain frozen. These problems, as well as the 
distribution is also important to avoid 
capital cost of equipment, have greatly 
runaway heating.  
limited commercial use. Attempts to avoid 
runaway heating have involved low 
- power  
(and hence longer duration) microwaving, 
 Dielectric 
cycling of power on and off to allow equal-
 This is split into two frequency bands: radio  
ization periods, and cooling of surfaces with 
frequency and microwave. The fi rst  uses 
air or liquid nitrogen. Penetration depth 
more typical electrical techniques, with con-
depends upon temperature and frequency, 
ductors, electrodes, etc. The second relies 
being generally much greater at frozen tem-
more on electromagnetic wave technology, 
peratures and greater at lower frequencies.  
with waveguides to  “ beam ”  the waves into a 
cavity.  
 Ultrasonic 
 Radio Frequency 
 In some work, ultrasound has been merely 
used to assist heat transfer during immersion 
 
This uses the application of alternating 
thawing. However, research has shown that 
electric   e.m.f.  (3 – 300    MHz),  using  elec-
ultrasound is more highly attenuated in 
trodes. Product requirements are similar to 
frozen meat than in unfrozen tissue, and that 
resistance methods: uniform structure, homo-
the attenuation increases markedly with tem-
geneity, and uniformity of temperature distri-
perature, reaching a maximum near the initial 
bution. The fi eld is created between two or 
freezing point of the food (Miles et al.  1999 ). 
more electrodes, but the product need not be 
The ultrasound attenuation 
- 
temperature 
in direct contact with them. Conveyorized 
profi le therefore appears to be better suited 
systems have been applied to thawing of 
to producing stable rapid thawing than micro-
meat and offal, in some cases using water 
wave. Miles et al.  (1999)  has demonstrated 
surrounding the material to aid temperature 
that using 300  kHz ultrasound at an intensity 
uniformity.  
of  1    Wcm  − 2 , a 15  cm thick block of meat can 
be thawed in less than 1 hour .  
 Microwave 
 Electromagnetic  (900 – 3000    MHz)  waves  are 
 Tempering and Crust - Freezing 
directed at the product through waveguides 
Systems for Meat 
without the use of conductors or electrodes. 
Potentially very rapid, the application is 
 
Tempering can be a process in which the 
limited by thermal instability and penetration 
temperature of the product is either raised or 
depth. Instability results from preferential 
lowered to a value that is optimal for the next 
absorption of energy by warmer sections and 
processing stage. Tempering systems where 
by different ingredients, such as fat. Warmer 
the temperature of frozen product is raised 
sections may be present at the start of the 
have been covered in the thawing and tem-
process; for example, the surface temperature 
pering section above. Tempering operations 
may be warmer than the middle, or they may 
are used to produce the optimum texture in a 
Freezing/Thawing    121
chilled product so that it is suitable for 
or quarters, or boned out in cartons. Freezing 
mechanical processing. Crust freezing is 
times in such systems are typically 25 to 72 
often used for the same purpose but is essen -
hours. Some offal is frozen in plate freezers. 
tially a less controlled process where only the 
Small processed items are typically frozen in 
surface is frozen. In tempering, product is 
continuous belt freezers or in cryogenic 
semifrozen so that it is stiff enough to be 
tunnels. 
sliced, cubed, etc. without deformation. 
 Crust freezing and tempering are increas-
Reducing deformation during cutting im 
ingly being used to allow high -  speed mechan-
proves the yield, by enabling faster cutting 
ical portioning or slicing of meat and meat 
and reducing the number of misshapen slices. 
products. The fi nal temperature distribution 
However, the process must be carefully con-
produced by the freezing system is critical in 
trolled. The optimum tempering temperature 
such operations. 
is a function of the meat and the slicer. If too 
 Although a great deal has been written on 
much of the water in the meat is frozen, the 
the frozen storage life of different meats, the 
subsequent sliced, diced, or chopped meat is 
underlying data are backed up by a relatively 
likely to show a large increase in the amount 
small number of controlled scientifi c experi-
of drip released. Also, when the temperature 
ments. Much of the scientifi c data date back 
is too low, the hard meat may shatter, and 
to the time when meat was either stored 
blade wear is excessive. When the tempera-
unwrapped or in wrapping materials that are 
ture is too high, the soft meat will deform and 
no longer used. It is not surprising when we 
may stick to the blade, and the fat may be 
consider the changes in packaging and han-
torn away from the lean. 
dling methods over the last century that there 
 Methods for tempering or crust freezing 
is a considerable scatter in data on storage 
are essentially the same as those used for 
lives for similar products. 
freezing. A small number of operations use 
 
In recent years, energy conservation 
plate freezer, liquid immersion systems, and 
requirements have caused an increased inter-
cryogenic tunnels to temper bacon for high -
est in the possibility of using more effi cient 
 
speed slicing. However, the majority of 
storage temperatures than have been used to 
industrial systems employ air in a single or 
date. Researchers, such as Jul, have ques-
two - stage process. Since the temperature of 
tioned the wisdom of storage below  − 20 ° C 
a fully tempered product is critical, it can 
and have asked whether there is any real eco-
take a long time to be achieved in a single 
nomic advantage in very low temperature 
stage process.  
preservation. There is a growing realization 
that storage lives of several foods can be less 
dependent on temperature than previously 
 Conclusions 
thought. Since research has shown that red 
 Under commercial conditions, differences in 
meats often produce nonlinear time - temper-
freezing rates are unlikely to produce notice-
ature curves, there is probably an optimum 
able changes in the organoleptic quality of 
storage temperature for a particular product. 
the meat produced. However, current legisla-
Improved packing and preservation of prod-
tion requires a minimum meat temperature of 
ucts can also increase storage life and may 
 − 12 ° C to be achieved before meat is moved 
allow higher storage temperatures to be used. 
from the freezing system. Freezing time 
One suggestion is that with storage at  − 18 ° C, 
is therefore of considerable economic   low 
- 
stability meats such as mechanically 
importance. 
recovered meat should be stored for 8 months 
 Most unprocessed meat is either frozen in 
or less, medium - stability meats such as pork 
batch air systems as bone - in carcasses, sides , 
and processed meats should be stored for 
122    Chapter 5
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thaw cycles on tenderness and 
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.  
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Chapter 6
 Curing  
 Karl O.   Honikel  
 
 Introduction 
from the German Imperial Health Offi ce 
published experiments where he could 
 In its original meaning, curing means cor-
prove that by adding nitrate (saltpeter) to a 
recting, making better, that is, treating sick 
pickling solution , nitrite was formed, appar-
people, curing disease , or in our subject, pre-
ently due to the action of microorganisms 
serving, drying, salting, pickling, or smoking 
in the brine. Lehmann  (1899)  and Kisskalt 
a piece of meat ( The New Penguin Thesaurus 
 (1899)   confi rmed that nitrite was the agent 
 
2000 
). Curing is supposed to enhance the 
producing meat ’ s red color and heat stability. 
shelf life of meat by preserving and avoiding 
Haldane  (1901)  shed light on the chemistry 
spoilage with the help of salt, acid (pickle), 
of the curing process by showing that redox 
or drying and/or smoking. In a narrower 
reactions occurred in meat on curing. He 
sense today (and this is the meaning used in 
also extracted the NO - myoglobin as the sub-
this chapter), we understand meat curing to 
stance responsible for the bright red color of 
be the addition of salt with or without nitrite 
cured meat. Hoagland  ( 1910 , 1914)  showed 
and/or nitrate during the manufacture of meat 
that the nitrite anion was not the reactant; 
products. 
it was the nitrous acid (HNO 2 ) or a metabo-
 Originally, meat curing was the addition 
lite of it, such as NO, that reacted with the 
of rock salt, sea salt, or mined salt to an 
myoglobin, as shown in the equations in 
unheated piece or small cuts of meat in order 
Figure   6.1 .   
to lower the water activity, prevent microbial 
 The coloring of meat by nitrogen com-
growth and chemical spoilage, tenderize the 
pounds was understood at the turn of the 20th 
meat, and add fl avor to the product. 
century, but the antimicrobial and fl avoring 
 In the 19th century, meat processors real-
action was still thought to be mainly due to 
ized that some salts preserved better than 
the salt (NaCl) concentration. Only in the last 
others and also some were better at enhanc-
two decades was light shed on the action of 
ing and stabilizing the product ’ s red color. 
nitrite on fl avor and preservation (Grever and 
Saltpeter (KNO 3 ) was recognized as the con-
Ruiter   2001 ;  EFSA   2003 ;  L ü cke   2008 ). 
taminant  of  these   “ better ”   salts.  The  chemical 
 Nitrite or nitrous acid formed as shown by 
reactions behind it, however, remained 
the fi rst equation in Figure  6.1 , when reduced 
unknown. Known for centuries for its oxida-
by microbial action is able to sequester 
tive power in gunpowder (carbon   +    KNO 3 ), 
oxygen in a meat batter, chemically reacting 
saltpeter was known as an oxidative  in the reverse direction to form nitrate, thus 
compound. 
preventing oxidative (rancidity) processes. 
 Thus the reaction of nitrate in preserving 
(Honikel  2008 ; Fig.  6.2 ). Also, the formation 
or in preventing oxidative changes (rancid-
of fl avoring substances, mainly from fatty 
ity) remained a secret until Polenske  (1891)  
acids, during storage and preparation of meat 
125
126    Chapter 6
 Figure 6.1. 
   Scheme of the proposal of Hoagland  
(1910, 1914) 
 for the action of nitrate in cured meat 
products.  
in the presence of oxygen, does not take 
ions. NaCl is soluble to 35.7  g/100  ml in cold 
place in nitrite - cured meat, since nitrite has 
water and 39.1 
 
g/100 
 
ml in hot water. Its 
sequestered the oxygen. Commonly, this 
molecular weight is 58.45 Dalton. A solution 
change in fl avor is called curing fl avor. 
of 1% NaCl is equivalent to a concentration 
Furthermore, nitrite or its derivatives bind 
of 0.17  mol/litre (M); in sausage batters, the 
to myoglobin (forming NO 
- 
myoglobin,  common 2% NaCl is equivalent to 0.34  M, 
responsible for the heat - stable red color of 
while the fi nal concentration of NaCl in a dry 
meat products), or they react with ascorbate, 
cured ham is around 5%    ־     0.85    M. 
amino acids, and other compounds (Honikel 
 2008 ).   
−
−
 Microbial Inhibition 
 Additionally,    NO2  and   NO3  anions bind 
cations like Fe 2+ /Fe 3+ , which exist in cells in 
 The ions go into solution by becoming sur-
the form of free ions. There are microorgan-
rounded by water molecules (Fig.  6.3 ). The 
isms in which the binding to Fe ions by nitrite 
polar water (H 2 O) molecules, which are mol-
inhibits the growth of the microorganisms 
ecules with a 105 °  angle between the two 
such as   Clostridium botulinum   (Grever and 
hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom, exhibit 
Ruiter   2001 ;  L ü cke   2008 ). 
a partially negative load around the oxygen 
 
So we now understand more about the 
atom and a partially positive charge at the H 
action of salt and nitrate/nitrite in curing. But 
atoms. Due to this polarity, the water mole-
due to the different modes of action, the 
cules are immobilized (no free movement) 
curing with salt and salt plus nitrite or nitrate 
around the ions in several layers and are no 
is discussed separately in this chapter.  
longer available for chemical/enzymatic 
reactions, neither in food nor in microorgan-
isms. We call this immobilization: the water 
 Action of Salt in Meat Products 
activity (a w ) is reduced. In pure water, the 
 Chemically, salt is sodium chloride (NaCl), 
a w   =   1.00. In a totally dry product, a w     =    0.  By 
which dissociates in water into Na +  and Cl  −  
freezing, the water molecules are also bound 
H
O
2
O
H2
O
Na+
H
OH
OH
Cl–
H O
2
2
2
2
O
H2
H
O
2
 Figure 6.3.    Action of water molecules on salt ions 
leading to solution of salt and immobilization of 
water molecules; the orientation of the H 2 O mole-
 Figure 6.2.    Oxidation of nitrous acid to nitric acid.  
cules indicates their polarity.  
Curing    127
in ice crystals and are not free in movement, 
- NH +
Cl–
3
and thus they are not available for chemical/
- NH +
3
enzymatic reactions. Ice has an a 
Cl–
Na+
–
w  
value 
OOC -
below 1.00. In this way, freezing prevents 
OOC -
- COO–
Na+
one aspect of microorganism growth and 
+H N - +
3
Na CL–
- COO–
Na+
food spoilage. In chilled fresh meat, the 
- COO–
Cl–
H N -
3
a 
- COO–
Na+
w 
  =   ca. 0.99. A 2% salt solution has an a w 
+H N -
3
value around 0.97. Adding 2% salt to a meat 
Cl–
Na+
batter in emulsion type sausages or pat é , the 
+H N -
3
a w  is reduced to 0.96 – 0.97. For some micro-
swelling
organisms, this a 
w 
 is already too low for 
growth. In raw meat products with higher salt 
 Figure 6.4.    Diffusion and immobilization of water 
concentrations like salami or raw ham, a 
surrounded salt ions into myofi brillar structures. The 
w 
width of myofi bers increases through swelling.  
falls      35 ° C), the major part of the fat is liquid 
the more energy is required to achieve emul-
and the term  “ emulsion ”  seems to be more 
sifi cation (Wilson  1981 ). 
appropriate than for cold emulsions. Still, 
 Emulsifi ers are conducive to emulsion 
some small elements remain solid (collagen), 
formation by reducing the interfacial tension. 
and the proteins do not equally and com-
They also enhance emulsion stability. Myosin 
pletely coat the fat particles . Therefore, it 
is the main emulsifi er in comminuted meat 
might be better to use the term meat  “ batter ”  
products; it orients itself with the heavy 
or   “ matrix ”   instead  of  meat   “ emulsion ”   and 
meromyosin head facing the hydrophobic 
the term  
“ 
fi ne  emulsion - like  products ”   or 
phase, and the light meromyosin tail oriented 
 “ fi nely comminuted meat products ”  instead 
toward the aqueous phase (Mandigo  2004 ). 
of 
 “ emulsifi ed ”  
products. 
Nevertheless, 
Emulsions are by defi nition  thermodynami-
similar basic phenomena are encountered for 
cally unstable. Therefore, a stable emulsion 
structuration of fi nely chopped meat mixtures 
is only kinetically stable (Bergenstahl 
and for true emulsions.  
 1995 ). Different mechanisms are involved in 
Emulsifi cation    145
a
Production flow for cold emulsion
chilled lean meat
Lean
fragmentation
salt, phosphates
protein
ice
solubilisation
chilled fatty
structuration
tissues + spices
T° + non-meat
ingredients
thermal treatment
b
Production flow 1 for hot emulsion
Production flow 2 for hot emulsion
precooked
liver + salt + milk
liver + salts +
fatty tissue
proteins + egg white
egg white
(>80°C)
Protein fragmentation
fat
fragmentation
+ solubilisation
fragmentation
+ solubilisation
T° liquid +
precooked fatty
emulsifying
tissue (>80°C)
structuration 1
Structuration
egents
35°C 35°C
(caseinate)
ascorbate
spices +
structuration 2
additives
T° > 35°C
thermal treatment
thermal treatment
 Figure 7.1.    a. Processing diagrams for  “ cold ”  emulsions. b. Processing diagrams for  “ hot ”  emulsions.  
emulsion instability: creaming or sedimenta-
eter determining the destabilization kinetics 
tion; Ostwald ripening, which is a diffusion 
of emulsion. Large droplets are prone to 
transport of the dispersed phase in small 
sedimentation and coalescence, whereas 
droplets into larger ones ; coalescence, which 
fi nely dispersed emulsions are more sensitive 
is the process in which two droplets combine 
to fl 
occulation and Ostwald ripening 
to form a single droplet; and fl occulation, 
(McClements   1999 ). 
which is the aggregation of droplets due to 
 The bulk physicochemical and organolep-
collisions. The droplet size is the key param-
tic properties of emulsions depend on molec-
146    Chapter 7
ular and colloidal interactions, which govern 
typical sensory properties such as appear-
whether emulsion droplets aggregate or 
ance, texture, fl avor, or noise. Finely com-
remain as separate entities (McClements 
minuted products are defi ned by their smooth 
 1999 ). These interactions affect protein func-
surface.  The   “ knackwurst, ”   which  contains 
tionality attributes such as emulsifi cation, 
pork, beef, spices, and some garlic, is named 
gelation, and water binding (Gordon and 
for the familiar popping noise when bitten 
Barbut  
1997 
). Main molecular forces are 
( “ Knack! ” ).  Generally,   “ cold  emulsions ”  
repulsive electrostatic forces, attractive van 
give sliceable products, whereas  “ hot emul-
der Waals forces, and steric overlap.  sions ”  give spreadable products. Third, it is 
Hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interac-
a  means  to  create   “ value - added ”   meat:  rela-
tion are higher - order interactions that occur 
tively low - value meat offcuts can be used, 
between specifi c chemical groups commonly 
including trimmings or parts of the animal 
found in food molecules (McClements  that are less acceptable in their whole state 
 
1999 
). Hydrogen bonds and electrostatic 
due to a high content of connective tissue 
attractions appear to have some importance 
or  fat  (Sebranek   2003 ;  Wilson   1981 ). 
and seem to participate in the binding of the 
Emulsifi cation operation also has side effects: 
interfacial protein fi lm (IPF) to the protein 
it improves keepability and safety by the use 
matrix (Mandigo  2004 ). Hydrophobic inter-
of ingredients such as salt and by thermal 
actions are strong attractive forces that act 
treatment. It is also a means to improve nutri-
between nonpolar groups separated by water 
tional  properties  through  low - fat  and  low - salt 
(McClements  1999 ). They happen when sur-
products or through products enriched with 
faces are nonpolar, either because they are 
fi bers and micronutrients. Relevant proper -
not completely covered by emulsifi er (during 
ties are obtained by a proper combination of 
homogenization or at low emulsifi er concen-
ingredients and processing procedures.  
tration) or because the emulsifi er has some 
hydrophobic regions exposed to aqueous 
phase (e.g., adsorbed proteins) (McClements 
 Formulation 
 
1999 
). Protein hydrophobicity is important 
 Basic meat batter ingredients are lean meat, 
for effective formation of the IPF and 
fat, water, and sodium chloride, but various 
stabilization of the protein matrix (Mandigo 
nonmeat ingredients are often used. 
 2004 ). During heating, myofi brillar proteins 
start to denature, leaving several hydropho-
bic domains exposed. Hydrophobic interac-
 Meat Muscles and Meat Derivatives 
tions are then more likely, as is enhanced 
 Structure of Muscles 
protein aggregation that immobilizes the fat 
globules by physical entrapment (Mandigo 
 
High 
- 
quality lean meat shows very good 
 2004 ).  
functional properties. It is well recognized 
that solubilized muscle proteins are a natural 
emulsifying agent due to the nature of the 
 Aims of Emulsifi cation 
amino - acid  side - chains  situated   along   their 
 The  emulsifi cation unit operation has three 
lengths, some of which are lyophilic and 
specifi c aims. First, it has to ensure the 
others hydrophilic (Wilson  1981 ). Meat pro-
physicochemical stability of the product. 
teins have very different properties, depend-
Emulsifi cation determines the characteristic 
ing on their functional role in the muscle. 
structure of the batter, which greatly infl u-
They can be divided into three groups, based 
ences fat and moisture separation from the 
on their solubility characteristics (Nakai and 
product during cooking. Second, it creates 
Li - Chan   1988 ;  Zayas   1997 ).  Proteins  that  are 
Emulsifi cation    147
insoluble even in solutions of high salt con-
less binding properties. Different kinds of 
centration constitute the stromal fraction. 
meat — beef, pork, veal, poultry — can be used 
The main ones are elastine and collagen con-
in fi nely comminuted products. Beef has the 
tained in the connective tissue. Proteins that 
highest binding properties compared with 
are soluble in water or dilute salt solutions 
pork or poultry, but pork is often used (Heinz 
constitute the sarcoplasmatic fraction. There 
 2007 ).  
are around fi fty  sarcoplasmatic  proteins, 
which represent 30% to 35% of the total 
 Infl uence of Processing Treatment 
muscle proteins. They have very weak 
binding properties, but they participate to sta-
 High pH or the addition of NaCl or polyphos-
bilize the emulsion by lowering the interfa-
phates prerigor decrease the actine - myosine 
cial tension between aqueous phase and lipid 
interaction and thus increase the swelling 
(Calderon  1984 ). Among them, myoglobin is 
capacity. Prerigor meat is known to have 
the most abundant. Proteins that are soluble 
higher water 
- 
holding capacity (WHC) and 
in more concentrated salt solutions constitute 
better fat emulsifying properties than 
the myofi brillar fraction. They play the most 
postrigor meat; it is thus better suited to make 
critical role during meat processing, as this 
comminuted meat products such as sausages 
fraction is responsible for the structure build -
(Hamm  1982 ; Calderon  1984 ; Bentley et al. 
 up and the resulting texture of meat products 
 1988 ; Claus and Sorheim  2006 ). This is due 
(Culioli et al.  
1993 
; Xiong  
1997 
; Zayas 
to higher pH and ATP level (Pisula and 
 1997 ). They represent more than 50% of the 
Tyburcy   1996 ). 
muscle proteins (Cheftel  1985 ). Their func-
 The high level of ATP in prerigor muscle 
tionality is based on their ability to form 
inhibits the interactions between actin and 
three 
- 
dimensional viscoelastic gels, bind 
myosin and creates a loose network able to 
water, and form cohesive membranes at the 
absorb water. During rigor, the ATP degrada-
oil/water interface of emulsions or fl exible 
tion releases divalent ions (Ca++ and Mg++), 
fi lms around air bubbles. Actin, myosin, and 
which favor bridges between proteins, 
actomyosin are responsible for most of 
leading to a tight network. During the later 
the functional properties of meat; they con-
maturation, bridges between actin and myosin 
tribute to approximately 95% of total water -
can be broken and WHC can increase 
 
holding capacity of the meat tissue and 
(Calderon   1984 ). 
75% – 90% of the emulsifying capacity (Li -
 At high pH, above the isoelectric point, 
 
Chan et al.  
1985 
). Among them, myosin 
the WHC is maximum. After 24 hours post-
is the most important for fat emulsifi cation 
mortem, pH decreases due to lactic acid for-
and water 
- 
holding capacity (Galluzzo and 
mation 
’ 
s tendency toward the isoelectric 
Regenstein   1978 ;  Xiong   2000 ).  The  superior 
point. Due to the decrease of electrostatic 
emulsifying properties of myosin are believed 
repulsion, the protein network tightens, and 
to be the result of the concentration of hydro-
WHC drastically decreases. Moreover , it was 
phobic residues in the head region, the hydro-
found that emulsion stability increases at 
philic groups in the tail region, and the high 
high pH, particularly for myosin (Denoyer 
length - to - diameter  ratio  promoting  protein -
 1978 ). HLB (Hydrophile Lipophile Balance) 
 protein interaction and molecular fl exibility 
meat protein values increase with muscle pH: 
at the interface (Xiong  
1997 
). Meat func-
HLB equals 14.5 for proteins in the prerigor 
tional properties depend on the type of meat 
state, whereas HLB equals 13 to 13.5 for 
muscle, species, and pH. Binding properties 
proteins in the postrigor state (Girard  1990 ). 
decrease with the decreasing skeletal muscle 
 
An alternative method to keep a high 
content of the meat used. Low pH meats have 
water - holding capacity is to use freezing or 
148    Chapter 7
salting (Calderon  1984 ). Adding salt (NaCl) 
 Water 
before the concentration of ATP has fallen to 
 
Water has several functions. It accelerates 
a level where rigor is initiated can maintain 
curing and helps to extract water 
- 
soluble 
the high binding properties of the meat. 
meat proteins infl uencing most of the func-
Preventing bonds from forming between 
tional properties and yield. It is also a means 
actin and myosin causes the myofi brils  to 
to control batter temperature by adding ice in 
swell (Sorheim et al.  2006 ). The pH in the 
cold emulsions or hot water during pat é   man-
meat should be at a level above 5.9 – 6.0 at the 
ufacturing. It reduces the per - unit cost and 
time of salting to fully utilize the benefi ts of 
lowers the product energy value, and it has a 
pre 
- 
salting of prerigor meat (Farouk and 
direct impact on product texture by increas-
Swan  
1997 
; Honikel et al.  
1981 
). During 
ing  juiciness  (Ockerman   2004 ).  
frozen storage at temperatures of  − 20 ° C  or 
lower the ATP concentration remains almost 
unchanged. If beef frozen in this way is 
 Fat 
processed before thawing, sausages of 
excellent quality are obtained (Hamm  1972 ). 
 For  fi nely comminuted meat products, fats 
It is better to salt the prerigor meat before 
are major ingredients (in the range of 20%), 
freezing than to add the salt during the prepa-
and they are essential for texture, taste, fl avor, 
ration of the sausage emulsion (Honikel 
and  physical - chemical  stability.  Traditionally, 
 1978 ).  
fats came from fatty animal tissues directly 
incorporated into meat batters as ingredients. 
Fat emulsion or vegetable oils can also be 
 Mechanically Deboned Meat ( MDM ) 
used. The four main factors infl uencing  the 
 MDM is obtained by mechanically separat-
fi rmness of fat tissues are the water and lipid 
ing remaining muscle tissue from the car-
contents, the extent of connective tissue, and 
casses (Heinz  2007 ). Mechanically deboned 
the fatty acid composition (Lebret et al. 
poultry meat (MDPM) is frequently used in 
 1996 ). Fat tissues are less fi rm when they 
the formulation of comminuted meat prod-
contain few lipids and a lot of water. When 
ucts due to its fi ne consistency and relatively 
fat tissues contain a lot of connective tissue, 
low cost (Harding Thomsen  1988 ; Mielnik et 
they are relatively soft at ambient tempera-
al.  2002 ; Daros et al.  2005 ; Sari ç oban et al. 
ture, but when temperature increases, the 
 2008 ). Proteins from mechanically deboned 
connective tissue contracts and gels, trapping 
chicken meat show high gelling properties 
lipids in a network that prevents lipid fl ow 
compared with egg white and beef plasma 
(Lebret et al.  1996 ). At a given temperature, 
(Selmane et al.  2008 ). MDM contains about 
a fat containing fewer unsaturated acids will 
ten times more polyunsaturated fatty acids 
be fi rmer than one containing more. Highly 
(PUFAs) and also more hemoproteins than 
unsaturated fats have a lower melting point 
HDM and is essentially more susceptible to 
compared with saturated fats. Animal fats are 
both chemical and biochemical oxidation, 
principally triglycerides, but the fatty acid 
which results in off 
- 
fl avors and off 
- 
odors. 
composition of adipose tissues (and conse-
This is why MDM addition is limited, as it 
quently their fi rmness and their melting tem-
affects physical, microbiological, and senso-
perature) depend greatly on their origin 
rial properties of the products and may result 
(Lebret and Mourot  
1998 
; Mourot and 
in products that are not in line with national 
Hermier  2001 ) and on the feeding regime. 
food regulations in some countries (P 
ü 
ssa 
Recent works were targeted to increase the 
et  al.   2008 ).   
ratio of PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) 
Emulsifi cation    149
to SFA (saturated fatty acids) and to get a 
point chopping temperatures should remain 
more  favorable  balance  between  n - 6  and  n - 3 
below  18 ° C,  12 ° C,  and  8 ° C  for  beef,  pork, 
PUFA in meat products by selecting appro-
and poultry fats respectively to avoid fat 
priate dietary fats. This has consequences on 
melting (Mandigo  2004 ). To make spread -
technological quality by lowering the fat 
able products, fat must be dispersed in the 
melting temperature, increasing carcass fat 
liquid  state  at   “ hot ”   temperatures.  The  end-
softness, and increasing oxidation sensitivity 
point chopping temperatures should be above 
(Mourot  2001 ). Due to temperature increase 
the fat melting point (i.e., 35 ° C) (Solignat 
during grinding, highly unsaturated fats can 
 2003 ). To achieve this fi nal temperature, fats 
start to melt and form a fat coating on the 
are usually poached in water at temperatures 
product, which is visually unattractive ( Carr  
above 80 ° C before being mixed with the pro-
et al.  2005 ). 
teins (liver or lean meat). The objective is to 
 The taste and fl avor of fat varies between 
reach a fi nal internal temperature between 
animal species. Chicken fat is neutral in 
50 ° C and 60 ° C for ham fat and between 70 ° C 
taste and well suited as a fat component for 
and 75 
° 
C for jowl fat. Fat poaching also 
pure chicken products (Heinz  2007 ). It con-
causes contraction of the connective tissues, 
tains a lot of linoleic acid; it melts at a 
which will facilitate the grinding; it elimi-
low temperature; and it becomes oxidized 
nates low 
- 
melting fats, which can cause 
easily (Solignat  2003 ). Beef fat is considered 
weight losses during cooking, and it lowers 
less suitable for further processing than pork 
the microbial content. Thus, for hot emul-
fat, due to its fi rmer texture, yellowish color 
sions, low - melting fats are preferred, such as 
and more intense fl avor (Heinz  
2007 
). Its 
ham and jowl fats that remain fi rm  during 
melting behavior is comparable to pork 
cooking at high temperatures. 
kidney fat due to its low content of collagen 
 
Increasing concerns about the potential 
tissues and saturated fat (Solignat  
2003 
). 
health risks related to the consumption of 
Beef and mutton fats are used for specifi c 
high - fat foods has led the food industry to 
processed meat products when pork fats 
develop new formulations or modify tradi -
are excluded for sociocultural or religious 
tional products to make them healthier. The 
reasons. Spices can be added to mask their 
most common of these modifi cations  has 
strong fl avor and taste. It is usual to use pork 
been fat reduction (Papadima and Bloukas 
fat as it is almost odor -  and fl avorless  and 
 1999 ). This is achieved by the use of leaner 
largely available. 
meat raw materials and by substituting fat 
 The combination of the four main factors 
with water and other ingredients such as 
described above can explain the behavior 
inulin  (Jimenez - Colmenero   2007 ).  Signifi cant 
of the different pork fat tissues used to 
cholesterol reduction (20% 
– 
50%) can be 
manufacture   “ emulsifi ed ”   meat  products 
achieved by replacing animal fat with vege-
(Table   7.2 ).   
table oils and by adding various plant - based 
 
Knowing the fatty tissue composition 
proteins  (Jimenez - Colmenero   2007 ).  Fatty 
and understanding the crystalization and 
acid profi le can be improved by using vege-
melting of lipids in food is important to 
table oils or fi sh oil (Caceres  2008 ) or by 
create food emulsions with desirable proper-
incorporating vegetable ingredients such as 
ties. Traditionally, the rules for making meat 
walnuts (Jimenez 
- 
Colmenero et al.  
2005 
). 
emulsions were based on fat choice and tem-
Fatty acid profi les have also been improved 
perature control. To obtain sliceable prod-
by the direct addition of CLA to meat batters. 
ucts, backfat is the more appropriate, even if 
Adding oat, rye, or wheat bran contributed to 
jowl and belly fat can also be used. The end-
trans - fatty  acid  reduction  (Yilmaz   2004 ).  
150
 Table 7.2.    Pig Adipose Tissues: Composition and Technological Properties 
         
   Jowl  fat  
   Belly  fat  
   Ham  fat  
   Backfat  
   Kidney  fat  
  Water  content  (%)  
  15 – 20  [5]  
       
  11 – 14  [3]  
  10  [3]  
  7.5  [3]  
  Protein  content  (%)  
  10 – 15  [5]  
       
  6 – 7  [3]  
  6 – 7  [3]  
  3.5  [3]  
  Fat  content  (%)  
  70 – 75  [5]  
       
  79 – 80  [3]  
  81.3 – 83  [3]  
  89  [3]  
  Saturated  fatty  acids 
  34.3  [2]  
  35.1  [2]  
       
  39.3  [1]  
  52.5  [3]  
 (% fat content)  
    
    
    
 36.0 [2]  
 49.5 [6]  
    
    
    
 41.4 – 43.1 [3]  
    
    
    
    
 38.9 [6]  
    
    
    
    
 32.3 – 36.9 [7]  
    
    
    
    
 C12:0  trace  [1]  
    
    
    
    
 C14:0 1.60 [1]  
    
    
    
    
 C16:0 23.7 [1]  
    
    
    
    
 C16:0 24.8 [6]  
 C16:0 28.8 [6]  
       
       
  C18:0  14.5  [3]  
  C18:0  15.0  [1]  
  C18:0  19.4  [3]  
    
    
    
 C18:0 13.7 [3]  
 C18:0 18.6 [6]  
    
    
    
 C18:0 12.2 [6]  
    
  Mono - unsaturated  fatty  acids 
  49.9  [2]  
  49.1  [2]  
       
  39.7  [1]  
  40.2  [3]  
 (% fat content)  
    
    
    
 48.0 [2]  
 36.1 [6]  
    
    
    
 46.9 – 47.9 [3]  
    
    
    
    
 40.3 [6]  
    
    
    
    
 52.5 – 57.3 [7]  
    
    
    
    
 C16:1 4.0 [1]  
    
    
    
    
 C17:1 trace [1]  
    
    
    
    
 C18:1 34.7 [1]  
    
       
       
       
  C18:1  n - 9  36.8  [6]  
  C18:1  n - 9  33.6  [6]  
         
   Jowl  fat  
   Belly  fat  
   Ham  fat  
   Backfat  
   Kidney  fat  
  Polyunsaturated  fatty  acids 
  15.8  [2]  
  15.8  [2]  
       
  21.0  [1]  
  7.3  [3]  
 (% fat content)  
    
    
    
 16.0 [2]  
    
    
    
    
 10.7 – 10.0 [3]  
    
    
    
    
 20.7 [6]  
    
    
    
    
 8.7 – 11.4 [7]  
    
       
       
  C18:2  7.4  [3]  
  C18:2  17.1  [1]  
  C18:2  6.0  [3]  
    
    
    
 C18:2 9.2 [3]  
 C18:2 14.4 [6]  
       
       
       
  C18:2  n - 6  18.5  [6]  
  C18:2  n - 6  13.0  [6]  
    
    
    
 C18:3 2.0 [1]  
    
       
       
       
  C18:3  n - 6  0.8  [6]  
  C18:3  n - 6  0.6  [6]  
    
    
    
 C20:2 0.55 [1]  
    
  UFA:SFA  ratio  
  1.92  [2]  
  1.85  [2]  
  1.15  [3]  
  1.54  [1]  
  1.16  [3]  
    
    
    
 1.78 [2]  
    
    
    
    
 1.18 [3]  
    
  Firmness  at  T °           30 ° C  
  Low  
  Average  
  Low  
  High  
  Very  high  
  %  melted  fat  
  10 ° C:  20.9  [4]  
  10 ° C:  20.1  [4]  
  10 ° C:  17.4  [4]  
  10 ° C:  17.2  [4]  
  10 ° C:  9.1  [4]  
  40 ° C:  73.9  [4]  
  40 ° C:  76.4  [4]  
  40 ° C:  64.5  [4]  
  40 ° C:  73.7  [4]  
  40 ° C:  64.5  [4]  
  Recommended  use  
  Hot  emulsion  
  Cold  emulsion  
  Hot  emulsion  
  Cold  emulsion  
  Lard 
 Fat  emulsion  
 Sources:    [1] Al - Rashood et al.  1996 , Egyptian pig, [2] Benz et al.  2008 , PIC pig, [3] Bucharles et al  1987 , Large White pig, [4] Favreau  1981 , unknown pig, [5] Solignat 
 2003 , unknown pig, [6] Renaudeau  2007 , Large White pig, [7] Ninoles et al.  2007 , Iberian pig. 
151
152    Chapter 7
 Sodium Chloride 
 
The swelling depends both on pH and 
NaCl content (Hamm  1972 ; Offer and Knight 
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) is involved in water 
 1988 ). Without salt, there is a maximum at 
holding, fi rmness, taste, and fl avor, as well as 
pH 3.0, a minimum (the average isoelectric 
the microbiological safety of meat products 
point of meat proteins) at pH 5.0, and from 
(Puolanne et al.  2001 ). NaCl usually ranges 
there a constant increase within the physio-
from 0% in salt - free products to 4% in steril-
logical pH range (Rusunen and Puolonne 
ized products. In meat processing, typically 
 2005 ). Due to the selective binding of ions, 
2% – 3% salt is incorporated in the product 
salts move the isoelectric point. In cooked 
formulation (Claus et al.  
1994 
). Sodium 
pork and beef sausages, approximately the 
chloride increases water binding in meat lin-
same water holding as with 2.5% NaCl in pH 
early from 0 to 0.8 
– 
1.0 ionic strengths in 
5.7 can be reached with 1.5% NaCl in pH 6.1 
the water phase (Hamm  
1972 
; Offer and 
and above (Puolanne et al.  2001 ). 
Knight  1988 ). This corresponds to less than 
 
Since sodium intake generally exceeds 
5% NaCl in lean meat, provided that the 
nutritional recommendations in industrial-
water content is about 75% (Ruusunen and 
ized countries and approximately 20% – 30% 
Puolanne  
2005 
). Salt induces important 
of common salt intake comes from meat 
changes in myofi 
brils. Negative protein 
products, there is increasing interest among 
charges are increased because chloride ions 
consumers and processors in reducing the use 
are more strongly bound to the proteins than 
of NaCl content in meat processing (Jimenez -
sodium ions. According to Hamm  
(1972) 
, 
 Colmenero et al.  2005 ). In cooked sausages, 
this causes repulsion between the myofi bril-
it can be concluded that without phosphate, 
lar proteins (myofi laments), which results in 
the NaCl content can be lowered to 1.5% –
a swelling of myofi brils or even a partial 
 1.7%, and with phosphate, to 1.4% without 
solubilization of fi laments. Offer and Knight 
jeopardizing the technological quality and 
 (1988)  indicate that the selective binding of 
yield approaches (Ruusunen and Puolanne 
chloride ions to the myofi brillar  proteins 
 2005 ). However, lowering salt content raises 
causes a loosening of the myofi brillar lattice, 
several problems. In low - salt meat products, 
due to a repulsion between the molecules of 
the increased meat protein content (i.e., lean 
myosin fi laments breaking down the shaft of 
meat content) reduces perceived saltiness and 
the fi lament. Moreover, sodium ions are 
the intensity of the characteristic fl avor 
pulled very close to the fi lament surfaces by 
decreases (Ruusunen and Puolanne  
2005 
). 
the proteins ’  electrical forces. This increases 
The functionality of the traditional myosin 
osmotic pressure within the myofi brils, 
heat - set matrix may be limited due to low 
causing the fi lament lattice to swell. The 
ionic  strength  (Pietrasik  and  Li - Chan   2002 ). 
factors inhibiting the unlimited swelling are 
This can lead to a decrease in textural char-
the actomyosin cross 
- 
bridges between the 
acteristics: low - salt batters produce gels that 
fi laments and Z - lines. In sausage meat, the 
are less hard and chewy, and they have poorer 
sarcomere alteration depends on the interac-
binding properties than gels produced with 
tion of the ionic strength with the processing 
higher salt (Pietrasik and Li 
- 
Chan  
2002 
). 
conditions, particularly of the mincing and 
Excessive loss of water can lead to a mushy 
mixing conditions (Ripoche et al.  
2001 
). 
texture. Depending on their origin (beef, 
Comminution alone enhances the meat 
- 
pork, or poultry), meat proteins show differ-
setting properties, in that the thermal stabili-
ent gelation patterns and different responses 
ties of myosin and actin are modifi ed  and 
to salt (Barbut and Mittal  1989 ). 
protein  salt - solubility  is  increased  (Fern á ndez -
 The simultaneous reduction of both salt 
 Mart í n  et  al.   2002 ). 
content and fat content is not easily achieved. 
Emulsifi cation    153
Indeed, to maintain the same NaCl ionic 
the addition of MTG at the levels studied 
strength, the NaCl content must increase 
(0% – 0.6%). 
when the fat content is decreased (Ruusunen 
 
It was also suggested to use seaweeds, 
and  Puolanne   2005 ). 
which contain a high concentration of mineral  
 A variety of approaches to reduce sodium 
elements, to reduce the amount of added 
content of meat products has been reported: 
NaCl in meat processing (Cofrades et al. 
(1) lowering the level of sodium chloride 
 2008 ). 
(NaCl) added; (2) replacing all or part of the 
NaCl with other chloride salts (KCl, CaCl 2 , 
and MgCl 2 ); (3) replacing part of the NaCl 
 Nonmeat Components 
with nonchloride salts, such as phosphates or 
with new processing techniques or process 
 Nonmeat components play an important role 
modifi cations; and (4) combinations of any 
in   “ emulsifi ed 
” 
 meat products, since they 
of the above approaches (Ruusunen and 
infl uence nutritional, sensory, and functional 
Puolanne   2005 ). 
properties. They were used from very ancient 
 The sodium chloride content of meat can 
times in comminuted products: the Egyptians 
be reduced when using prerigor meat without 
used colors and fl avorings; and the Romans 
detrimentally affecting the physical, chemi-
used saltpeter (potassium nitrate), spices, and 
cal, or sensory properties of frankfurter - type 
colors for preservation and to improve the 
sausages (Puolanne and Terrell  
1983 
). At 
appearance of foods. More recently, in addi -
lowered salt additions, it appears important 
tion to meat proteins, a variety of nonmeat 
to keep the pH of raw materials high enough 
ingredients have been used as fi llers, binders, 
to ensure a high level of water holding and 
and extenders to reduce cook shrink and for-
fi rmness in cooked sausages, irrespective of 
mulation costs. The use of nonmeat compo-
how the high pH has been obtained (Puolanne 
nents is changing due to several reasons: new 
et al.  
2001 
). This would then mean, for 
components or new forms of them (i.e., nano  -
example, that high - pH phosphates could be 
 
ingredients having specifi c properties) are 
utilized to raise the batter pH. A sausage of 
available; and knowledge about their role has 
normal gel 
- 
forming capacity can be made 
increased, while nutritional concerns have 
with about 0.3% – 0.5% units lower sodium 
become increasingly important, leading man-
chloride content when phosphates are used, 
ufacturers to develop new formulations or to 
compared with a sausage made without 
modify traditional products to make them 
added phosphates (Ruusunen and Puolanne 
healthier. 
 2005 ). 
 The use of some nonmeat components can 
 
Another way to reduce the required 
be submitted to food regulation (e.g., addi-
amount of salt and phosphate is to use micro-
tives defi ned in the Council Directive 89/107/
bial transglutaminase (MTG). It is a calcium -
EEC  1989 ). Most food additives are consid-
 
independent enzyme that catalyzes the   ered safe . However, some are known to be 
polymerization and crosslinking of proteins 
carcinogenic or toxic . Allergic reactions to 
through the formation of covalent bonds 
colorings and hyperactivity from phosphates 
between protein molecules (Carballo et al. 
have been reported for sensitive individuals. 
 2006 ;  Heinz   2007 ).  Although  the  addition 
Moreover, some nonmeat ingredients, such 
of MTG had benefi cial effects on reducing 
as vegetables, egg, or milk proteins, contain 
cook loss and increasing hardness and chewi-
substances that cause allergic reactions in 
ness,  Pietrasik  and  Li - Chan   (2002)   found 
some consumers (e.g., gluten enteropathy 
that the detrimental effects of salt reduction 
or lactose intolerance) (Jimenez - Colmenero 
on these properties were not overcome by 
 2000 ). 
154    Chapter 7
 
There is a gap between theoretical 
increasing water binding (Heinz and 
knowledge of nonmeat ingredients in model 
Hautzinger  
2007 
). They stabilize color by 
foods and their behavior in real food systems. 
chelating free divalent cations (Fe and Cu). 
A systematic approach to the study of 
They can indirectly increase shelf life because 
nonmeat ingredients 
’ 
 effects in meat prod-
higher temperatures or longer cooking times 
ucts is missing. Thus, synergetic or antago-
can be used without increasing weight loss. 
nist effects between several ingredients 
Phosphates are believed to act on muscle pro-
have to be studied for each meat product 
teins by increasing the pH and ionic strength 
individually. 
(Fernandez - Martin   2002 ).  They  affect  meat 
 Meat products are generally recognized as 
fi bers in a similar way as ATP. The simulta-
contributing to nutrition in that they consti-
neous addition of NaCl and phosphate to 
tute an important source of high biological 
meat, therefore, yields considerable modifi -
value proteins, group B vitamins, minerals, 
cation of the physicochemical features of the 
trace elements, and other bioactive com-
myofi brillar proteins (Kijowski and Mast 
pounds. However, a negative image often 
 1988 ; Findlay and Barbut  1992 ). The interest 
attaches to meat products as a source of fat, 
in phosphate addition to maintain water 
saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, sodium, 
binding and gel strength in low - salt products 
and other substances that in inappropriate 
is well known. Phosphate usage is limited to 
amounts may produce negative physiological 
0.5% in countries such as the United States 
effects (Cofrades et al.  
2008 
). Numerous 
and Canada , and totally prohibited in 
researchers are working to optimize meat 
Germany for meat products (Trespalacios 
product composition in order to achieve a 
et  al.   2007 ).  
composition that is better suited to nutrient 
intake goals. To achieve this, nonmeat ingre-
 Phospholipids 
dients play a crucial role (Cofrades et al. 
 
Surfactants are amphiphilic molecules that 
 2008 ). 
have a hydrophilic head group, which has a 
 Only nonmeat ingredients having a role in 
high affi nity for water, and a lipophilic tail 
the emulsifi cation process will be detailed 
group, which has a high affi nity for oil. Their 
here . In the following, we will present 
principal role is to enhance emulsion forma-
nonmeat ingredients through their chemical 
tion and stability (McClements  
1999 
). A 
structures that can explain their functional 
typical example of such a molecule is leci-
roles. 
thin, which in comminuted products is often 
from eggs or soybeans.  
 Mineral Salts 
 Proteins 
 The main salts having a role in the emulsi-
fi cation of comminuted meat products are 
 Proteins are polymers of amino acids; they 
NaCl and phosphates. Phosphates have a 
have a high proportion of nonpolar groups, 
wide application in the meat 
- 
processing 
and they are surface active. They must rapidly 
industry and improve binding and texture in 
absorb to the surface (McClements  
1999 
). 
processed meat products. For meat prepara-
Nonmeat proteins are mainly used for their 
tions such as sausage mixes, where phos-
emulsifying and thickening properties 
phates are added as dry powder , phosphates 
(Delaitre et al.  1988 ). They have been used 
with moderate alkaline effect are preferred, 
in meat products for technological purposes 
in particular di 
- 
phosphates (pH 7.3).  (e.g., protein isolates as binders) and to lower 
Diphosphates have a low water solubility, 
costs (e.g., soy fl our as meat extenders). They 
but they are the most effective form of 
also provide nutritional benefi ts (e.g., soy 
Emulsifi cation    155
protein has a positive impact on blood 
heating. Casein can impart a pale color and 
cholesterol content, and whey proteins  soft texture to meat products. In intensively 
contain bioactive compounds that may have 
heated products, this disadvantage is out-
a positive effect on cardiovascular disease) 
weighed by the good binding properties, and 
(Jimenez - Colmenero  et  al.   2006 ).  Their 
prevention of jelly and fat separation (Heinz 
functional properties are determined by 
 2007 ). Barbut  (2006)  compared the effects of 
their molecular weight, conformation, fl exi-
adding dry caseinate, whole milk, skim milk, 
bility, polarity, and interactions (McClements 
and regular and modifi 
ed whey protein 
 1999 ).  Three  typical  confi gurations  were 
powders in emulsifi ed chicken meat batters. 
defi ned for proteins in aqueous solution: 
Caseinate and modifi ed whey contributed 
globular, 
rod - like, 
and 
random - coil. 
more to enhancing the textural properties of 
Membranes formed by globular proteins tend  
the meat batters compared with the other 
to be more resistant to rupture than those 
dairy proteins. Overall, the most cost -  effec -
formed from random - coil proteins. In prac-
tive ingredient appeared to be the modifi ed 
tice, many biopolymers have some regions 
whey, which also provided the best moisture 
that are random coil, rod - like, or globular, 
retention. 
and they can change from one conformation 
 Blood plasma is rich in proteins (8% – 9%) 
to another if their environment is altered 
and these proteins have a higher water - bind-
(McClements   1999 ). 
ing capacity than meat proteins. Moreover, 
 Globular proteins form relatively thin but 
the pH of blood plasma is slightly alkaline 
dense interfacial layers that have high visco-
(7.5 
– 
7.8), which is also benefi cial to the 
elasticities. When globular proteins unfold, 
water - binding capacity. Flakes of plasma ice 
they expose amino acids capable of forming 
are particularly suitable for raw - cooked  meat 
disulfi de bonds with their neighbors and thus 
products where water or ice has to be added 
an interfacial membrane that is partly stabi -
(Heinz   2007 ).  
lized by covalent bonds. This occurs when 
emulsion ages or when proteins are heated 
 Polysaccharides 
(i.e., when  
β  - Lactoglobulin  is  heated  to 
70 ° C). Examples of globular proteins used 
 
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosac-
in comminuted meat products are plasma 
charides. They are mainly used for their 
or lactoserum proteins ( 
α  - lactalbumin,   β - 
thickening and gelifying properties due to 
Lactoglobulin, lysozyme), which mainly 
their high molecular weights and their 
have a stabilizing role when they form a geli-
extended structure. Indeed, large highly 
fi ed network during heat treatment (Delaitre 
extended linear biopolymers increase the 
 1988 ). 
viscosity more effectively than small compact 
 
Native and modifi ed dairy proteins are 
branched biopolymers. Most polysaccharides 
known for their stabilizing role (Barbut 
are predominantly hydrophilic and are 
 2006 ). Different fractions can be extracted. 
therefore not particularly surface active, 
They have various protein compositions and 
except a small number of polysaccharides 
thus different functional properties. Caseins 
(gum Arabic) or some modifi ed  starches 
are amphiphilic and unfolding molecules that 
(McClements 
 1999 ). 
Polysaccharides 
mainly play a role in emulsifying and viscos-
increase water binding and fat binding, thus 
ity. They rapidly adsorb and stabilize a newly 
improving products 
’ 
 juiciness and texture. 
formed oil/water interface. Because the 
Plant products rich in polysaccharides are 
caseins exist in open structures, they are not 
used as fi llers for cost reduction and volume 
as sensitive to structural alterations; for 
addition. Previous studies have reported that 
example, the caseins are very stable to 
emulsion stability was increased due to the 
156    Chapter 7
addition of various polysaccharides in differ-
 Various types of fi ber additives such as 
ent meat emulsion products such as frank-
soy fi ber (Cofrades et al.  2000 ); citrus fi ber 
furters and bologna  - type sausages (Lee et al. 
(Fernandez 
- 
Lopez et al.  
2004 
); oat fi ber 
 2008 ). Polysaccharides from various origins 
(Chang and Carpenter  1997 ; Desmond et al. 
were tested in low - fat meat products: xanthan 
 
1998 
; Steenblock et al.  
2001 
); edible sea-
(Wallingford and Labuza  
1983 
; Pearson 
weeds such as sea Spaghetti, Wakame, and 
and Gillett  
1996 
), carrageenan (Trius and 
Nori (Cofrades et al.  2008 ); pea fi ber (Claus 
Sebranek 
 1996 ), 
carboxymethylcellulose, 
and Hunt  
1991 
); peach dietary fi ber 
beta 
- 
glucan, guar gum, gellan, locust bean  
(Grigelmo - Miguel et al.  1999 ); and kimchi 
gum, and starch (Pietrasik  1999 ; Chattong et 
powder (Lee et al.  
2008 
) have been used 
al.   2007 ;  Garc í a - Garc í a  and  Totosaus   2008 ). 
alone or combined with other ingredients in 
These polysaccharides are available under 
the formulation of meat products. Inulins 
purifi ed form and are generally considered as 
were used to replace fat and to reduce energy 
additives. Interactions between several poly-
intake in breakfat sausages ( Archer et al. 
saccharides and between polysaccharides 
 2004 ), bologna sausages (Nowak et al.  2007 ), 
and salts or nonmeat proteins were often 
and mortadella sausages (10% fat) (Garcia 
studied: iota  - carrageenan, xanthan, and guar 
et  al.   2006 ).     
gum (Solheim and Ellekj 
æ 
r  
1993 
), potato 
starch, locust bean gum, and kappa 
-   Process 
carrageenan (Garc 
í a - Garc í a  and  Totosaus 
 
2008 
), blood plasma, microbial transgluta-
 
Three steps are required to manufacture 
minase, and kappa 
- carrageenan  (Jarmoluk 
fi nely comminuted meat products: lean frag-
and Pietrasik  2003 ). 
mentation, protein solubilization, and struc-
 More recently, several studies were dedi-
turation. The order of these steps depends on 
cated to the use of dietary fi bers from differ-
the emulsion type (cold or hot) and the 
ent sources (Cofrades et al.  2008 ). Using raw 
process used (Figure  
7.1 
). For cold emul-
materials directly instead of purifi ed extracts 
sions, these three steps can be achieved either 
has several advantages: (a) it reduces formu-
successively in different apparatus (e.g., 
lation costs; (b) it enhances meat products ’ 
grinder, mixer, colloid mill) or simultane -
potential  health - benefi cial properties by pro-
ously in a unique chopper (Figure  7.2 ).  
viding not only dietary fi ber but also other 
 
For hot emulsions, when a traditional 
bioactive components such as polyphenols or 
process is used, liver fragmentation and 
carotenoids; and (c) raw materials are not 
protein solubilization are fi rst  achieved 
considered as additives for labeling (Cofrades 
simultaneously, then poached fats are frag-
et al.  2000 ; Cofrades et al.  2008 ). 
mented, and the emulsion is formed (Figure 
Fragmentation
Mincer
Cutter
Protein
Blender
Cutter
solubilisation
Structuration
Cutter
Colloid Mill
 Figure 7.2.    Different technology combinations to manufacture  “ cold ”  emulsions.  
Emulsifi cation    157
 7.1 b). Another method is to start with poached 
achieved, a colloidal structure is obtained: a 
fats fragmentation, and then caseinate and 
solid phase containing nonsoluble proteins, 
hot liquid are added. Caseinate proteins solu-
muscle particles, and connective tissue dis-
bilizate, and the structuration starts. Then 
persed in a liquid aqueous phase containing 
fragmented liver is added, and the structura-
salts, soluble proteins, and carbohydrates 
tion is achieved. The emulsifi cation step is 
(Schut   1976 ). 
always followed by a cooking step. 
 Structuration 
 Lean Fragmentation 
 
During this step, similar phenomena as in 
 Fragmentation is very specifi c to emulsifi ed 
true emulsions occur: fat particles are frag-
meat products. Contrary to true emulsions 
mented to reduce their size, and solubilized 
made from immiscible liquids, muscles are 
proteins in salts must surround the fi nely 
structured media that have to be disorganized 
chopped fat particles. Fat stabilization during 
to enable emulsifi cation. During fragmenta-
chopping is due both to the formation of an 
tion, fi ber bundles are separated and their 
interfacial fi lm surrounding the fat globules 
membranes are broken. Sarcoleme is broken 
and to the physical entrapping of the fat glob -
and myofi brils are liberated, actomyosin 
ules within the protein matrix (Barbut  1998 ). 
swells, and water can be captured (Schut 
As fat particles ’  size decreases, the emulsion 
 1976 ). The collapse of the myofi brillar struc-
stability will increase, provided there is suf-
ture is promoted by mechanical action such 
fi cient protein to coat all the fat particles. A 
as comminution, mixing, tumbling, and mas-
lack of emulsifi er will result in insuffi cient 
saging (Fernandez - Martin et al.  2002 ). The 
binding, leading to a soft texture or excessive 
disruption of the myofi brillar structure is also 
losses. Excessive amounts of emulsifi er 
achieved by the addition of salt and phos-
could result in a hard texture, often character -
phates (Pearson and Tauber  1984 ) or by an 
ized as tough and rubber 
- 
like (Mandigo 
increase in pH (Samejima et al.  1985 ; Wang 
 
2004 
). Like other mixing processes, chop -
and Smith  1992 ; Xiong  1992, 1997 ; Zayas 
ping is characterized by an optimum state 
 1997 ).  
where the separation of water and fat from 
the product is minimal (Brown and Toledo 
 1975 ; Girard  1981 ). Generally, this optimum 
 Solubilization of Meat Proteins 
point is determined according to the fi nal 
 
Many of the functional properties of bio-
chopping 
temperature. 
 “ Underchopping ”  
polymers in food emulsions are governed by 
results in interfacial surfaces with thick 
their interactions with water, and they are 
layers of myofi brillar segments around the 
only exhibited when they are fully dissolved 
fat globules and without effi cient distribution 
and evenly distributed throughout the  of proteins and/or fat throughout the interface 
aqueous phase (McClements  1999 ). Protein 
(Mandigo   2004 ).   “ Overchopping ”   leads  to 
solubility is, for instance , a prerequisite step 
a thin protein fi lm having a low mechanical 
for emulsifi cation, gelation, and water reten-
strength unable to stop fat droplets ’  migra-
tion (Xiong  
1994 
). Myofi brillar  proteins ’  
tion to the product surface, where they form 
solubilization requires a minimal ionic  small  pockets  of  fat  called   “ fat  caps. ”  
strength of 0.5  M; this condition is usually 
Temperature increases during chopping 
met in processed meats (Offer and Trinick 
cause the melting of part of the fat and a 
 1983 ; Xiong  1993 ). Main factors acting on 
decrease in the surface tension of the fat par-
meat protein solubilization are salt content 
ticles. For cold 
- 
emulsions, in conventional 
and pH. After meat protein solubilization is 
cutters, the knives can reach local peak tem-
158    Chapter 7
peratures of up to 75 ° C. This causes denatur-
geneizing intermediate 
- 
 and high 
- 
viscosity 
ation of the proteins, which then form 
fl uids. The coarse batter fl ows through a 
unwanted small lumps in the sausage meat 
narrow gap between two disks, a rotative disk 
and partly lose their ability to bind water.  
(the rotor) and a static disk (the stator). 
Intense shear stress in the gap is due to the 
high rotation speed (from about 1000 to 
 Cooking 
2000  rpm) and the narrowness of the gap (50 
 The  fi nal texture of comminuted meat prod-
to  1000     μ m). Many of the factors that increase 
ucts is primarily the result of the protein gel 
the effectiveness of droplet disruption also 
network that is formed upon processing 
increase the manufacturing costs. Typically, 
(Lavelle and Foegeding  1993 ). For example, 
colloid mills with droplet diameters between 
in poultry meat batters prepared with salt and 
1 to 5  μ m can be used to produce emulsion 
phosphate, the structure existing in the raw 
(McClements  1999 ). Compared with cutters, 
state (i.e., 20 
° 
C) is reinforced by protein 
fi ner and more regular batters are obtained in 
gelation during cooking (Barbut et al.  1996 ). 
colloid mills. These devices can be combined 
A failure to form the gel can produce an 
in different ways, depending on the amount 
excessive loss of water and fat, producing a 
of production (Figure  7.2 ). Although chop-
mushy and mealy texture (Whiting  
1987 
). 
ping technology has been used for a long 
Heat processing produces a sol - gel transition, 
time, it is still used to develop new products. 
causing protein unfolding and the formation 
For example, a process for manufacturing 
of an ordered, three 
- 
dimensional network 
very low - fat sausages (maximum fat content 
stabilized by hydrophobic interactions and 
of 4%, i.e., 60% 
– 
80% fewer calories than 
hydrogen bonding (Whiting  
1988 
). Heat 
traditional sausage products) was recently 
 
induced protein aggregation is usually an 
performed in Germany (Pointner  2007 , patent  
irreversible process, meaning that the aggre-
DE102005026752 2007).  
gates cannot be broken down by physical 
means. This results in an immobilization 
 High Pressure 
of the fat, water, and other constituents 
(Mandigo  2004 ). During cooking, fat separa -
 High - pressure application has been shown to 
tion is due to creaming, fl occulation,  and 
act on myofi brillar proteins in a similar 
coalescence, whereas water exudation  manner to salts, so both sodium chloride and 
depends on polyphosphates, sodium chloride 
phosphates can be reduced (Cheftel and 
concentration, and water content.  
Culioli   1997 ;  Fern á ndez - Mart í n  et  al.   2002 ). 
The effect of pressure on meat products 
’ 
binding properties depends on various 
 Technology 
factors, such as animal species, type of 
muscle, pH and ionic strength, level of fat 
 Mechanical Energy 
and protein, treatment conditions (i.e., pres-
 Lean and fat fragmentation and structuration 
sure level 100 to 700  MPa), time, and tem-
require a high level of energy from mechani-
perature (Iwasaki et al.  
2006 
; Trespalacios 
cal energy. Mincers are dedicated to meat 
et al.  2007 ). 
fragmentation. Mixers achieved protein solu-
 
For comminuted meat products, high 
bilization and ingredient mixing. Cutters are 
pressure can be used at several levels during 
very polyvalent devices, as they can achieve 
manufacturing: (1) at low temperature (0 
–
fragmentation, protein solubilization, and 
 
5 
° 
C) prior to chopping (MacFarlane et al. 
structuration. Colloid mills are dedicated to 
 
1986 
; Crehan et al.  
2000 
), (2) on commi-
structuration; they are suitable for homo-
nuted batter prior to heating (MacFarlane 
Emulsifi cation    159
et  al.   1984 ;  Fern á ndez - Mart í n  et  al.   2002 ; 
through sensory, chemical, and physical 
Hong  2008 ), (3) during heating (Fernandez -
measurements. They can be performed on 
 
Martin et al.  
1997 
; Yuste et al.  
1999a 
; 
batter or on the fi nal product. Most of them 
Chattong 
 2007 ; 
Supavititpatana 
and 
are off 
- 
line measurements performed in a 
Apichartsrangkoon  2007 ), or (4) after heating 
laboratory. Rapid measurements can be per-
to increase shelf life (Yuste et al.  
1999b 
; 
formed at - line (e.g., water and fat content), 
Ruiz - Capillas  et  al.   2007 ). 
but few on - line measurements are available. 
 The effects of high pressure on commi-
nuted meat are diffi  cult to compare , due to 
 Off - Line Measurements 
the diversity of meat matrixes and the various 
ways high pressure is applied. Moreover, 
 In the following, only measurements directly 
high 
- 
pressure conditions are not precisely 
related to the emulsifi cation process (i.e., 
enough 
described 
(Jim é nez - Colmenero 
water and fat binding and microstructure) 
 2002 ). 
will be discussed. 
 
High 
- 
pressure treatment applied to beef 
muscles for manufacturing frankfurters suc-
 Microstructure Characterization 
cessfully reduced salt level to 1.5% without 
any noticeable change in cook loss, and 
 Microscopical techniques are useful to char-
emulsion stability of the frankfurters could 
acterize the structure of comminuted meat 
be improved with salt reduction, indepen-
products. Light microscopy achieved the 
dently of the applied pressure level (Crehan 
observation of fat globules ’  distribution and 
et al.  
2000 
). Main limitations are due to 
protein gel in emulsion 
- 
type buffalo meat 
texture modifi 
cations (MacFarlane et al. 
sausages (Krishnan and Sharma  
1990 
). It 
 1984, 1986 ; Crehan et al.  2000 ). Pressure -
revealed that caseinate and modifi ed  whey 
 induced protein gels differ from those induced 
form distinct dairy protein gel regions within 
by heat, being glossier, smoother, and softer, 
meat batters, and this could explain their 
and having greater elasticity (Supavititpatana 
ability to enhance the textural properties of 
and  Apichartsrangkoon   2007 ).  Heat - induced 
the meat batters compared with the other 
gels and pressure - induced gels show differ-
dairy proteins (Barbut  
2006 
). In minced  
ent properties. Heating ( > 40 ° C)  under  high -
ostrich meat batter, confocal microscopy 
 pressure conditions limits the gelling process 
suggested that the size of the fat droplets 
of  meat  systems  (Jimenez - Colmenero   2002 ). 
varied with gum type (Chattong et al.  2007 ). 
When pressure was applied to frankfurters 
In chicken meat gels, it showed that low - fat 
after cooking, pressurized sausages showed 
protein gels obtained by pressure and con-
different texture attributes (less hard) than 
taining microbial transglutaminase had a 
heat - treated  sausages  (Mor - Mur  and  Yuste 
more compact and homogeneous micro-
 2003 ;  Ruiz - Capillas  et  al.   2007 ).  High -
structure compared with controls that were 
 pressure treatment was combined with micro-
pressurized but contained no MTGase 
bial transglutaminase to enhance the binding 
(Trespalacios et al.  2007 ). Scanning electron 
properties, textural parameters, microstruc-
microscopy was useful to show structure dif-
ture, and color in low - fat and low - salt chicken 
ferences in low 
- 
fat sausages (Morin et al. 
gels (Trespalacios et al.  2007 ).  
 2004 ;  C á ceres  et  al.   2008 ). 
 
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 
showed that sausages with a higher gum 
- 
 Control 
to 
- 
protein ratio required additional energy 
 Like every food product, the quality of fi nely 
for protein denaturation to occur (Morin et al. 
comminuted meat products is assessed   2004 ). It was used to study structural changes 
160    Chapter 7
during heating and to trace the gelling 
ness) were collected and formalized. They 
process when meat batter was submitted to 
were merged with temperature measurement 
pressure/heat  processing  (Fern á ndez - Mart í n 
using the theory of fuzzy sets to defi ne  a 
et al.  
1997, 2002 
; Supavititpatana and 
global  index  called   “ chopping  degree. ”  
Apichartsrangkoon  2007 ). It helps to explain 
 
Few studies have dealt with the use of 
the differences between the functional prop -
on 
- 
line instrumental devices to control the 
erties of pressure/heated and heated - only gels 
chopping process. Barbut  (1998)  used a fi ber 
(Fern á ndez - Mart í n  et  al.   2002 ). 
optic probe to detect, at an early stage, meat 
 
Texture measurement is a macroscopic 
emulsion breakdown (i.e., the response of the 
assessment related to the product microstruc-
probe); L  *   value was correlated to the cook 
ture. Texture profi le analysis and the record-
loss. Conductimetry has been used to measure  
ing of the maximum force required to move 
stability of meat emulsions (Morrison et al. 
a blade through the sample using the Warner 
 
1971 
; Haq et al.  
1973 
; Kato et al.  
1985 
; 
Bratzler Shear Blade Set are generally used 
Koolmes et al.  1993 ), but rarely to control 
(Mittal and Barbut  1994 ; Hughes et al.  1997 , 
chopping (Curt  1995 ). Recently, temperature 
 1998 ;  Grigelmo - Miguel  et  al.   1999 ;  C á ceres 
and light refl 
ection measurements made 
et  al.   2008 ).  
during emulsifi cation were used as potential 
indicators of cooking losses and gel texture 
in  pork  sausages  ( Á lvarez  et  al.   2007 ;  Ba ñ  ó n 
 Water and Fat Binding 
et al.  2008 ). Fluorescence spectroscopy was 
 In  fi nely comminuted meat products, proper-
assessed for characterizing meat emulsions 
ties characterizing the degree of water and fat 
and frankfurters manufactured at various fat/
binding are particularly relevant to measure. 
lean ratios, chopping speeds, and chopping 
The main ones are water 
- 
holding capacity 
times. Multidimensionnal data analysis 
(WHC), emulsion stability, cooking loss, 
showed that batter fl uorescence spectra were 
processing yield, jelly and fat separation, and 
correlated to batter and frankfurters ’  texture 
purge accumulation (Table  
7.3 
). The mea-
attributes  (Allais  et  al.   2004 ).  
surements are generally performed off - line or 
at - line.     
 Process Control 
 
Manufacturers face an important decision : 
 On - Line and At - Line Measurements 
the optimal combination of raw materials, 
 There is a lack of on - line sensors to control 
ingredients, and process parameters to 
chopping and to stop the process in order 
achieve a high - quality product with low pro-
to  avoid   “ overchopping. ”   Only  temperature 
duction costs fullfi lling legal restrictions. 
sensors are commonly integrated on cutters 
Several studies applied optimization methods 
and mixers. It is useful to detect the endpoint 
to fi nely comminuted products. Good quality 
chopping temperature to determine the 
models are required to describe the relation-
optimal state of the batter. In the absence of 
ship between formulation variables and end -
relevant sensors, most of the time operators 
 
product quality. This is still diffi cult  to 
also use their know  - how to decide when to 
achieve because different raw materials (i.e., 
stop the chopping process. Curt et al.  (2004a, 
meat trimmings and animal fat) show a large 
b) 
 proposed a method to assess the batter 
variability in their biochemical and func-
state at the end of chopping using operator  
tional properties (Gunvor et al.  2005 ). 
knowledge.  At - line  sensory  measurements 
 
Most of the studies aimed to optimize 
performed by the expert (fat particle size, 
emulsion quality through formulation. 
size homogeneity, fi rmness, and adhesive-
Different optimization methods were used. 
Emulsifi cation    161
 Table 7.3.    Methods to Assess Meat Emulsion Properties 
     
   Principle  
   Observations  and  sources  
  Water  holding  capacity 
      —       Force  is  applied,  by  centrifugation 
  Mittal   &   Barbut   1994 ;  Candogan   &  
(WHC)  
without any heating (at 4 ° C or 
Kolsarici  2003 ; Desmond and Kenny 
15 ° C) or by compression, to 
 1998 ;  Lin   &   Huang   2003 .  
remove unbound or loosely bound 
water.  
   —       WHC  expressed  in  g  H 2 O 
absorbed/g meat  
  Emulsion  stability  
      —       A  destabilizing  treatment 
 Centrifugation can be applied before 
combining  heating  at  70 ° C  during 
heating (Crehan et al.  2000 ; Jim é nez 
a given time and centrifugation is 
Colmenero et al.  2005 ) or after 
applied.  
heating (Hughes et al.  1998 ) for a 
   —       %  total  expressible  fl uid 
few minutes (2 to 5  min) at various 
(TEF)    =    [(weight  of  centrifuge 
intensities  (e.g.  2600  to   3600    g).  
tube and sample)    −     (weight  of 
centrifuge tube and pellet)]/
sample weight  × 100     
  Water  and  fat  released  
      —       Calculated  after  the  supernatant 
  Jim é nez  Colmenero  et  al.   2005   
was dried for 16  h at 103 ° C and 
expressed as a % of sample 
weight  
   —       Fat  released:  weight  on  heating 
the exudate.  
   —       Water  released:  difference 
between total fl uid released and 
fat released.  
  Cooking  loss  
      —       calculated  as  weight  loss  during 
 It is a quasi systematic measurement 
 “ standard ”   heat  processing  and 
on comminuted meat products 
eventually smoking.  
(Mittal  and  Barbut   1994 ;  Jim é nez 
   —       expressed  as  %  of  initial  sample 
Colmenero  et  al.   2005 ).  
weight     
  Processing  yield  
  calculated  after  heat  processing  and 
  Paneras  et  al.   1996   
cold storage, according to the same 
way as cooking loss  
  Jelly  and  fat  separation  
      —       Determined  after  batter  samples 
 It is often measured according the 
were  heated  (35    min,   core  
procedure described by Bloukas and 
temperature  about  90 ° C),  cooled 
Honikel   1992 ;  Lurue ñ a - Mart í nez 
(4 ° C for 24  h) and reheated in 
et al.  2004 ; Paneras et al.  1996  
cans  (45 ° C  for  1    h).  
   —       The  fl uid jelly and fat, separated 
in a volumetric cylinder, are 
measured in ml  
   —       calculated  as  %  of  the  original 
weight of batter  
  Purge  accumulation  
      —       Determined  on  cooked  product 
 Paneras et al.  1996 ; Bloukas et al. 
during cold storage  
 1997 ; Candogan and Kolsarici,  2003 ; 
   —       Calculated  as  weight  difference 
Bishop et al.,  1993 ; Andres et al., 
between the beginning and the 
 2006   
end of the storage (at least 7 days 
at  4 ° C)     
Mixture design was used to optimize emul-
used to select compatible ingredients from 
sion characteristics in a model system con-
eleven alternates to optimize the sensory 
taining beef, chicken, and turkey meat (Zorba 
quality of extended meat cubes ( Modi and 
and Kurt  2006 ). Plackett – Burman design was 
Prakash  2008 ). Response surface methodol-
162    Chapter 7
ogy was used to determine the optimum salt 
sensory characteristics at the end of the chop-
level (1.3% – 2.1%) and pectin level (0.25% –
ping step. These characteristics were evalu-
 1.0%) when olive oil replaced pork backfat 
ated as a global index called the chopping 
(0% 
– 
100%) for the production of highly 
degree (CD). The processing conditions 
acceptable low - fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% 
established at the end of the Simplex algo-
protein) (Pappa et al.  2000 ). Gunvor et al. 
rithm (six trials only) were 3 minutes and 
 (2005)  used a cross - mixture design to con-
2000  rpm. They achieved a high value for the 
struct the sensory attributes model for sau-
CD (4.8/5; 5 being the maximum value) 
sages ’   fi rmness and color. The color and 
(Curt et al.  2004a ). This result was confi rmed 
fi rmness were instrumentally measured and 
by another study using response surface 
modeled as mathematical functions of bio-
methodology, where the effects of four 
chemical composition (protein, connective 
process parameters 
— 
chopping duration, 
tissue, and fat) and muscle content. These 
speed, temperature, and pressure 
— 
on the 
models were constrained by acceptability 
chopping degree were studied (Curt et al. 
limits found through a consumer test. 
 2004b ). 
Constraints were then applied in a nonlinear 
 Chopping is often performed as a batch 
least - cost optimization model. The objective 
operation. Another strategy to determine the 
function to be minimized was the cost func-
optimal processing conditions is to use the 
tion of the meat ingredients, which were 
repetitive nature of batch processes in batch -
varied. Constraints for protein, fat, and con-
 
to 
- 
batch methodologies. Curt et al.  
(2007) 
 
nective tissue contents were also made 
showed that a batch - to - batch algorithm using 
according to legal restrictions. Three optimal 
human knowledge was able to control the 
solutions were compared. A least - cost solu-
process to obtain the desired sensory proper-
tion was found fulfi lling consumer accept -
ties at the end of the chopping process. Ten 
ability, without fulfi lling the legal restrictions. 
runs were carried out independently from 
In the second optimal solution, a bit more 
each other to validate the algorithm in various 
expensive solution fulfi lling the legal restric-
processing situations. For each of the ten run 
tion without fulfi lling the consumer accept-
tests , only one batch was necessary to achieve 
ability was found. In the third optimal 
the  targeted  chopping  degree.   
solution, the biochemical composition (legal 
restrictions) and linear sensory attributes 
  Conclusion  
were restricted but the total cost became sig-
nifi cantly higher compared to the previous 
 Emulsifi cation control is based on smart 
solutions. These results illustrate the diffi -
combinations  between  ingredients ’   choice 
culty in fulfi lling several quality require-
and processing defi nition. Although commi-
ments (legal, sensory, and cost) using only 
nuted meat products are traditional products 
formulation parameters (quantities of the bio-
and their manufacturing follows ancient rules 
chemical components and protein sources). 
of thumb, new combinations have to be 
 Few studies deal with process optimiza-
invented to face changing requirements, such 
tion. One diffi culty that has been encountered 
as lowering cost, improving nutritional 
in the optimization of processing conditions 
balance, and decreasing energy consumption. 
is the measurement of certain food product 
To achieve this, a better knowledge of ingre-
properties and the lack of suitable on 
- 
line 
dients ’  properties and their behavior in com-
sensors. Curt et al.  (2004a)  used the Simplex 
minuted meat products is required; the use of 
method to determine the value of two process 
new ingredients and technologies can be 
parameters, mixing duration and mixer rota -
useful; and the development of on 
- 
line 
tion speed, to obtain a product with desired 
sensors and control strategies is necessary.  
Emulsifi cation    163
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solubles on fat quality of fi nishing pigs, Swine Day 
2007 .   Report of Progress 985, Kansas State University 
 
Many thanks to Dr. Christophe Vial and 
Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative 
Pr. Jean 
- 
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products: 
muscle fi ber types: Implications of biochemical and 
Infl uence of operating conditions on functional prop-
functional properties in meat processing 
.  
Critical 
erties .   Meat Science    79 ( 4 ): 640  –  647 .  
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320 .  
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    Xiong ,   Y.  L.     1997 .   Structure – function  relationships  of 
Quality and Preference    4 ( 3 ): 127  –  131 .  
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acid composition and quality characteristics of low - fat 
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- 
salted ground beef chilled with solid carbon 
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168    Chapter 7
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Chapter 8
 Thermal Processing  
 Jane Ann   Boles  
 
 Introduction 
  2.   
  improves  meat  palatability  by  intensify-
ing the fl avor and altering the texture  
 The origin of meat cookery is older than civi-
  3.   
  develops  color  
lization itself, and, like meat curing, it prob -
ably fi rst occurred by accident when fresh 
  4.   
  decreases  the  water  content  of  raw  meat, 
meat was exposed to fi re and/or heat. This 
especially on the surface, which in turn 
theory has some support in the classic poem 
lowers the water activity and improves 
entitled  
“ 
Dissertation upon Roast Pig 
” 
 by 
the peelability of casings on cured meats 
Charles Lamb. According to Lamb ’ s humor-
products and extends their shelf life  
ous account, the ancient Chinese kept their 
  5.   
  modifi es the texture or tenderness of 
pigs in the houses as pets , and after the acci-
meat and meat products  
dental burning of one house along with the 
  6.   
  coagulates  and  denatures  the  meat  pro-
pigs, they learned that  “ roast pig ”  was indeed 
teins, at the same time altering their solu-
a delicacy. In fact, Lamb satirically suggests 
bility and stabilizing the cured meat 
that it became a custom to purposely set fi re 
color  
to their houses as a means of preparing roast 
  7.   
  inactivates 
endogenous 
proteolytic 
pork. 
enzymes and prevents development of 
 Regardless of the origin of meat cookery, 
off - fl avors  due  to  proteolysis     
it not only improves palatability but also 
reduces the incidence of spoilage by partial 
destruction of bacteria. Thus, cooking meat 
 Importance of Cooking 
improves the keeping qualities and extends 
storage life. Cooking not only contributes to 
 Destruction of Bacteria and 
the stability of meat products, but also plays 
Improving Stability 
an important role in providing a variety of 
 Cooking performs a most important function 
meat products, which can be achieved solely 
by causing destruction of spoilage and patho-
by modifying cooking procedures. Therefore, 
genic organisms. The number of organisms 
meat cookery has contributed greatly to 
destroyed will depend on the temperature to 
advances in civilization. 
which the product is cooked, how long the 
 Cooking has the following effects on meat 
product is held at that temperature, and the 
and meat products: 
type of bacteria on the product. Meat is not 
  1.   
  destroys  considerable  numbers  of  micro-
sterilized under normal cooking conditions, 
organisms and improves the storage life 
and the net effect is merely a reduction in 
of meat products if not contaminated 
total bacterial load and an extension of 
post processing  
storage life. By proper handling to avoid 
169
170    Chapter 8
recontamination of the product, along with 
components identifi ed in raw meat (Seideman 
refrigeration to slow down multiplication of 
and Durland  
1984 
). Hamm and Hofmann 
bacteria, the storage life is extended. The 
 (1965)  observed that the evolution of meat 
length of storage will depend largely on the 
fl avors happens as temperatures exceeding 
care taken to prevent recontamination and 
70 ° C are reached and the oxidation of sulf-
minimize conditions favorable to growth of 
hydryl groups to disulfi de groups occurs. 
organisms still present in the meat. Different 
Although the aroma of cooked meat has a 
pathogens can be a problem.   Listeria mono-
characteristic sulfury note, there appears to 
cytogenes 
 is the current focus of much 
be a number of other components that make 
research  on   ready - to - eat  meat  products.  The 
important contributions to the odor (Table 
bacteria are not greatly heat resistant but like 
 8.2 ). Taste becomes relatively less important 
cold  temperatures.  If  a  ready - to - eat  product 
as the aroma develops during cooking, but 
is contaminated with  Listeria  after process-
the overall impact of the taste of cooked meat 
ing, during packaging or slicing, and no post 
is still a combination of taste and aroma.  
packaging treatments are used to destroy the 
 Methods of cooking can profoundly infl u-
bacteria, this can be a problem. Many recalls 
ence the fl avor of meat; in fact, it is question-
have been conducted because of this patho-
able if any other factor is as important. 
gen. Specifi c internal temperatures of cooked 
Browning of meat, various fl avor  additives 
products must be met to control other patho-
used in cooking, and a variety of modifi ca-
gens such as   Salmonella   spp.,  Campylobacter 
tions during cooking markedly affect the 
jejuni , and  Escherichia coli . Time and tem-
fl avor of the end product (Seideman and 
perature combinations can be used to control 
Durland   1984 ). 
different  pathogens  (Table   8.1 ).   
 Both the amount and kinds of fat present 
 
In the manufacture of smoked meats, 
have an infl uence on the fl avor of meat prod-
cooking is done primarily to produce a table -
ucts. Since fat is believed to impart the char-
 ready product. However, cooking also plays 
acteristic species fl avor, not only the kind 
a major role in extending the shelf life of 
but also the percentage of fat will have a 
such products. Although raw meat is subject 
great infl uence on the characteristic fl avor of 
to spoilage within a few days, fi nished cured 
various meat products. Fat is also important 
meat products can normally be stored for 
in carrying added fl avors from seasonings. 
several weeks after cooking, with proper 
 
Texture of meat is affected greatly by 
packaging and refrigeration.  
cooking (Table  8.3 ). Meat samples become 
harder and drier as the internal temperature 
of the meat increases (Ritchey and Hostetler 
 Improvement in Palatability 
 1965 ; Bertola et al.  1994 ). The greatest dif-
 Cooking is an important factor in developing 
ferences seen are between 74 
° 
C and 80 
° 
C 
the palatability of meat products. Although 
internal temperature. However, as the inter-
some people like to eat raw meat, most prefer  
nal temperature increases, mealiness scores 
the fl avor and aroma of cooked meat. Cooking 
have also been reported to increase (Bertola 
intensifi es the fl avor of meat and changes 
et al.  1994 ). Bertola et al.  (1994)  observed an 
the   “ blood - like ”   or   “ serumy ”   taste  of  fresh 
interesting phenomenon; at an intermediate 
meat to pronounced cooked fl avor  and 
range  of  temperatures  66 – 68 ° C,  hardness 
aroma. 
decreased very quickly, reached a minimum 
 
Aromatic compounds become a bigger 
value, and then increased until maximum 
contributor to the palatability of meat after 
value was reached above 80 ° C. Bertola et al. 
cooking; prior to cooking, the basic tastes 
 
(1994) 
 attributed the increased toughening 
(sour, salty, sweet, bitter) are the major fl avor 
associated with increased cooking tempera-
 Table 8.1.    Effect of cooking on selected pathogenic bacteria 
   Author  
   Product  
   Bacteria  
   Cooking  Process  
   Effect  
  Pepe  et  al.   2006   
  Breaded  chicken 
  Staphylococcus  
  Baking  
  Absent  from  3.5     ×  10 7 
cutlet  
aureus  
  Whyte  et  al., 
  Chicken  livers  
  Campylobacter  
  Pan  fry  to  internal 
  No  positive  samples  
 2006   
temperature  70 ° C  
  Yilmaz  et  al, 
  Veal  meatballs  
  Stapylococcus 
  Grill   160 ° C  for  3    min  
  1.02    log  reduction  
 2005   
aureus  
    
    
  Conventional   oven  
  1.08    log  reduction  
160 ° C  6    min  
    
  Escherichia  coli 
  Grill  160 ° C  for  3    min  
  4    log  reduction  
O157:H7  
    
    
  Conventional  oven 
  4    log  reduction  
160 ° C  6    min  
  Murphy  et  al 
  Franks,  pork  
  Escherichia  coli 
  55 ° C  
  33.44    min  D - value  a 
 2004a   
O157:H7  
    
    
  57 ° C  
  10.37    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  3.22    min  D - value  
    
    
  62.5 ° C  
  3.22    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  0.80    min  D - value  
    
    
  67.5 ° C  
  0.077    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.048    min  D - value  
  Murphy  et  al 
  Franks,  pork  
  Salmonella  
  55 ° C  
  45.87    min  D - value  
 2004a   
    
    
  57 ° C  
  26.67    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  5.07    min  D - value  
    
    
  62.5 ° C  
  2.56    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  1.91    min  D - value  
    
    
  67.5 ° C  
  0.36    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.083    min  D - value  
  Murphy  et  al 
  Franks,  pork  
  Listeria 
  55 ° C  
  47.17    min  D - value  
 2004a   
monocytogenes  
    
    
  57 ° C  
  22.32    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  5.61    min  D - value  
    
    
  62.5 ° C  
  2.87    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  1.56    min  D - value  
    
    
  67.5 ° C  
  0.44    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.085    min  D - value  
  Murphy  et  al 
  Beef/Turkey 
  Escherichia  coli 
  55 ° C  
  23.23    min  D - value  
 2004b   
link  
O157:H7  
    
    
  57 ° C  
  7.43    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  2.38    min  D - value  
    
    
  62.5 ° C  
  0.76    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  0.24    min  D - value  
    
    
  67.5 ° C  
  0.08    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.03    min  D - value  
  Murphy  et  al 
  Beef/Turkey 
  Listeria 
  55 ° C  
  50.35    min  D - value  
 2004b   
link  
monocytogenes  
    
    
  57 ° C  
  18.60    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  6.87    min  D - value  
    
    
  62.5 ° C  
  2.54    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  0.84    min  D - value  
    
    
  67.5 ° C  
  0.35    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.13    min  D - value  
(continued)
171
172    Chapter 8
Table 8.1.  Effect of cooking on selected pathogenic bacteria ( cont .)
   Author  
   Product  
   Bacteria  
   Cooking  Process  
   Effect  
  Murphy  et  al 
  Beef/Turkey 
  Salmonella  
  55 ° C  
  41.02    min  D - value  
 2004a   
link  
    
    
  57 ° C  
  15.15    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  5.6    min  D - value  
    
    
  62.5 ° C  
  2.07    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  0.76    min  D - value  
    
    
  67.5 ° C  
  0.28    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.10    min  D - value  
  Guo  et  al   2006   
  Ground  beef  
  Escherichia  coli 
  Radio  Frequency 
  7    log  reduction  
O157:H7  
Cook  72 ° C  IT  
    
    
  Water  bath  72 ° C  IT  
  7    log  reduction  
  Patel  et  al   2005   
  Blade  tenderized 
  Escherichia  coli 
  54.4 ° C  
  2.71    log  reduction  
steaks  
O157:H7  
    
    
  62.8 ° C  
  3.59    log  reduction  
    
    
  71.1 ° C  
  5.21    log  reduction  
  Mukherjee 
  Restructured 
  Escherichia  coli 
  60 ° C  
  1.9    log  reduction  
et  al.,   2008   
roast beef  
O157:H7  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  2.5    log  reduction  
  Singh  et  al., 
  Ground  beef  
  Escherichia  coli 
  62 ° C  
  1.97    min  d - value  
 2006   
O157:H7  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  1.58    min  D - value  
    
  Salmonella  
  62 ° C  
  1.93    min  d - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  1.15    min  D - value  
  Stopforth  et  al., 
  Ground  beef 
  Salmonella  
  48.9 ° C  
  0.9    log  reduction  
 2008   
patties  
    
    
  54.4 ° C  
  1.1    log  reduction  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  1.7    log  reduction  
    
    
  65.6  
  3.8    log  reduction  
    
    
  71.1 ° C  
  6.3    log  reduction  
  Sallami  et  al., 
  Bologna  batter  
  Listeria 
  50  
  25.21    min  D - value  
 2006   
monocytogenes  
    
    
  55 ° C  
  17.3    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  5.57    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  0.93    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.08    min  D - value  
    
  Salmonella  
  50  
  10.11    min  D - value  
    
    
  55 ° C  
  3.49    min  D - value  
    
    
  60 ° C  
  1.47    min  D - value  
    
    
  65 ° C  
  0.28    min  D - value  
    
    
  70 ° C  
  0.04    min  D - value  
 a D - value is the time required to reduce a given bacterial population by 90%  
ture to the contraction and likely hardening 
force after internal temperature reach 70 
° 
 
of fi lamentous materials present within the 
(Ritchey and Hostetler  1965 ; Bouton et al. 
meat. These results showed that two reac-
 1976, 1982 ; Leander et al.  1980 ). However, 
tions with opposite effects were taking place, 
other researchers have reported a decrease in 
one producing tenderization and the other 
shear force values at temperatures between 
increasing hardness of the samples.  
50 ° C and 60 ° C (Davey and Neiderer  1977 ; 
 
Many researchers have observed an 
Hearne et al.  1978 ). The different observa-
increased shear force with increasing internal 
tions could be associated with temperatures 
temperature, followed by a decrease in shear 
being evaluated. Bouton et al.  (1976)  reported 
 Table 8.2.    Compounds contributing to fl avor and odor of cooked meat 
   Author  
   Compound  
   Flavor  or  Odor  
  Prescott  et  al.,   2001   
  Branched  chain  fatty  acids  
  Barnyard,  milky,  sour,  sheepmeat 
fl avor  
  Calkins  and  Hodgen,   2007   
  n - caprioc  acid  
  Goaty  
  Cyclobutanol  
  Roasted  
  2 - decenal  
  Tallow,  orange  
  2,4 - decadienal  
  Deep  fat  fl avor, chicken fl avor  
  1,3 - bis(1,1 - dimethylethyl)benzene  
  Cooked  beef  
  Hexanal  
  Fatty - green,  grassy,  strong  green, 
tallow, fat  
  2 - acetyl - 1 - pyrroline  
  Roasty  beef  note  
  2  acetylthazole  
  Roasty  beef  note  
  12 - methyltridecanal  
  Tallow  beef  like  
  Gasser  and  Grosch,   1988   
  2 - methyl - 3 - furanthiol  
  Beef  aroma  
  Bis(2 - methyl - 3 - furyl)disulphide  
  Beef  aroma  
  Young  and  Baumeister, 
  4  hetanal  
  Fat  yucky,  sweaty  feet  odor  
 1999   
  Heptanal  
  Fat  yucky,  sweaty  feet  odor  
  1 - octen - 3 - ol  
  Mushroom  odor  
  Nonanal  
  Fatty  odor  
  Nonanoic  acid  
  Fat/ cheese   odor  
  2 - decenal  
  Fat/cheese  odor  
  2.4 - decadienal  
  Fat  odor  
  Farmer  and  Patterson,   1991   
  Bis(2 - methyl - 3 - furyl)disulphide  
  Meat,  roasted,  burnt  odor  
  2 - furfuryl  2 - methyl - 3 - furyl  disulphide  
  Meaty,  roasted,  burnt  odor  
  Bis(2 - furfuryl)  disulphide  
  Roasted  burnt  odor  
  Werkhoff  et  al.,   1990   
  2  methyl - 3 - [(cis - 2 - methyltetrahydor - 3 -
  Meaty,  grilled,  mushroom - like, 
 thienyl)thio]  furan  
grilled odor  
  2  methyl - 3 - [(trans - 2 - methyltetrahydor - 3 -
  Roasted  notes,  vegetable - like, 
 thienyl)thio]  furan  
mushroom - like, meaty odor  
  2 - methyl - 2 - [(2 - methyl) - 3 - thienyl)thio]
 Typical meat note, characteristic, 
tetrahydrothiopene  
roast meat odor  
  2 - methyl - 3 - [(2methyltetrahydro - 2 - thienyl)
 Roasted, meaty, typical meat note 
thio]furan  
odor  
 Table 8.3.    Effect of internal temperature on tenderness of cooked meat 
   Author  
   Temperature  
   Effect  
  Bertola  et  al.,   1994   
  66 – 68 ° C 
 Hardness decreased quickly thin 
 80 ° C  
increase to a maximum  
  Ritchey  and  Hostetler,   1965 ; 
  Increased  temperature  to  70 ° C 
  Increased  shear  force 
Bouton et al.,  1976; 1982 ; 
 > 70 ° C  
 Decreased shear force  
Leander  et  al.,   1980   
  Davey  and  Neiderer,   1977 ; 
  50 – 60 ° C  
  Decreased  shear  force  
Hearne  et  al.,   1978   
  Bouton  et  al.,   1976   
  Ambient – 60 ° C  
  Increased  shear  force  
  Laakkonen  et  al.,   1970   
  50 – 60 ° C  
  Major  decrease  in  shear  force  
  Leander  et  al.,   1980   
  63 – 73 ° C  
  Shear  force  increased  
  Hearne  et  al.,   1978   
  40 – 50 ° C 
 Small decrease in shear force 
 50 – 60 ° C 
 Greater decrease in shear force 
 60 – 70 ° C  
 No further change  
  Ritchey  and  Hostetler,   1965   
  61 – 80 ° C  
  No  difference  in  ease  to  fragment, 
increased connective tissue, increase 
softness of connective tissue  
  Boles  et  al.,   1991   
  71 – 77 ° C  
  Reduced  initial  and  sustained 
tenderness at lower temperature  
173
174    Chapter 8
an increase in shear force upon cooking 
observed by other researchers is usually a 
occurred between ambient temperature and 
surface phenomenon. Shear force values are 
60 
° 
. Laakkonen et al.  
(1970) 
, however, 
measured in a way to avoid the surface hard-
reported a major decrease in shear values 
ening. Sensory panels, however, evaluate all 
between 50 and 60 
° 
C, and Leander et al. 
of the cooked meat, including the surface. 
 (1980)  observed an increase in shear force as 
This may explain the differences seen 
the internal temperature increased from 63 ° C 
between shear force measurements and 
to 73 ° C. Hearne et al.  (1978)  reported a small 
sensory evaluation. 
decrease in shear values when the internal 
 Cooking temperatures are important to the 
temperature  was  between  40 ° C  and  50 ° C, 
tenderness of meat from older animals. The 
with a greater decrease in shear value taking 
increased cross 
- 
linking of collagen due to 
place between 50 ° C and 60 ° C, and no differ-
age reduces tenderness. Beilken et al.  (1986)  
ence seen between 60 ° C and 70 ° C. Alterations 
reported peak shear force values were not 
in the collagen and meat microstructure 
infl uenced by animal age until heating tem-
could explain some of the differences in the 
peratures reached 50 
° 
C. Peak shear force 
observations reported. 
values of veal decreased above 50 ° C, and at 
 
Davey and Neiderer  
(1977) 
 suggested 
55 ° C, animal age differences became signifi -
that heat tenderizes meat in three distinct 
cant. Peak shear force values decreased 
stages. The fi rst stage, up to 65 ° C, was from 
above 55 ° C and 60 ° C for intermediate and 
increased proteolytic breakdown of myofi -
oldest age groups. At temperatures above 
brillar elements; the second stage, between 
65 ° C, peak shear force values increased up 
70 ° C and 100 ° C, was through the destruction 
to 80 ° C before decreasing. The initial force 
or solubilization of collagen with little loss 
values increased steadily, with heating tem-
of myofi brillar strength; and the third stage, 
peratures up to 70 – 80 ° C before declining. 
beyond 100 ° C, was from a combination of 
 
Final internal temperature also impacts 
collagen and myofi bril  breakdown.  These 
the juiciness of meat products. Fjelkner 
researchers concluded that cooking in the 
 Modig  (1986)  reported pork fried to an inter-
range of 70 
° 
 to 100 
° 
C halved shear force 
nal temperature of 60 
° 
C was much more 
values and were as effective as aging in 
juicy than that fried to 80 
° 
C. Boles et al. 
increasing tenderness. 
 (1991)  also reported improved sensory scores 
 Sensory evaluation of meat cooked to dif-
for pork chops cooked to 71 
° 
C compared 
ferent internal temperatures has been  with chops cooked to 77 ° C. This difference 
reported. Some of the information does not 
in juiciness could be related to the increased 
agree with what has been reported for shear 
cook yields seen with lower fi nal  internal 
force values. Ritchey and Hostetler  (1965)  
temperatures (Boles et al.  1991 ).  
reported no difference in ease to fragment a 
sample when steaks were cooked to an inter-
nal temperature between 61 ° C and 80 ° C, and 
 Color Development 
scores for amount of connective tissue and 
softness of connective tissue increased as the 
 Cooking has an important function in stabi-
internal temperature increased. Boles et al. 
lizing cured meat pigment formed by the 
 (1991)  however reported reduced initial and 
action of nitric oxide with myoglobin 
sustained tenderness when pork chops were 
(V ö sgen   1992 ).  Without  cooking  of  the 
cooked to 77 
° 
C compared with 71 
° 
C. 
product, the color is more red than pink and 
Fjelkner - Modig   (1986)   also  reported  reduced 
is less stable than it is after cooking. This is 
tenderness when chops were cooked to 
one of the important functions of cooking for 
higher internal temperatures. The hardening 
cured meat production. End - point tempera-
Thermal Processing    175
ture can affect the development of color in 
increased, subjective color scores increased, 
cured 
- 
meat products. Tauber and Simon 
indicating less redness and a more apparent 
 (1963)  reported that cured - meat color devel-
degree of doneness. Objective measurements 
oped more rapidly in frankfurters as the tem-
supported this observation. Hunter L values 
perature was raised from 76.7 ° C to 98.9 ° C. 
increased, while both Hunter a and b values 
Wirth  (1986)  observed that if the temperature 
decreased, with increasing internal tempera-
was applied for too short a time or if the 
ture. Boles and Swan  
(2002b) 
 reported 
temperature was not high enough, then the 
similar results. The fi nal internal temperature 
proper cured color would not be reached. 
increased lightness, and decreased redness 
Any products cooked to lower temperatures 
and yellowness of cooked beef roasts.  
will have a less stable color. Fox et al.  (1967)  
reported samples cooked to 68.9 
° 
C had a 
 Types of Cooking 
more stable pigment than those cooked to 
54.4 ° C. 
 Many small processors utilize smokehouses 
 
Fresh meat color is also affected by 
to cook their processed products. These 
cooking. The extent of denaturation of the 
houses can be very complicated with com-
globular portion of myoglobin affects how 
puter controls or more simple with manual  
consistent the brown color is in cooked meat. 
controls. Small batch ovens (Fig.  
8.1 
) are 
Protection of the myoglobin pigment by high 
often used by small processors because of 
pH results in a redder appearance of the 
space restraints as well as versatility. Larger 
cooked meat at the same internal temperature 
processors may utilize continuous cooking 
(Swan and Boles  2002 ). This phenomenon is 
ovens to increase output. These ovens have 
sometimes called the  “ hard to cook ”   defect  
stages that allow for different cooking rates, 
and is often seen in high pH meat products. 
as well as smoke application. Other options 
Meat with normal pH will appear redder at 
that are used for cooking of processed meat 
lower fi nal internal temperatures than at 
products are steam jacketed kettles and water 
higher internal temperatures. Lyon et al. 
baths. Products cooked in this equipment are 
 (1986)  reported as fi nal internal temperature 
submerged in the heated water to cook and 
 Figure 8.1.    View of a smokehouse.  
176    Chapter 8
are usually vacuum packaged prior to 
other methods of cookery. Radio frequency 
cooking.   
heating is another rapid cooking alternative 
 The rate of heat penetration depends on 
that is regarded as a volumetric form of 
the type of cookery used (Seideman and 
heating in which heat is generated within the 
Durland  1984 ). For example steam cookery 
product, which reduces cooking times and 
or other moist heat methods of cookery will 
could potentially lead to a more uniform 
result in faster heat penetration (McCrae and 
heating (Zhang et al.  
2006 
). Zhang et al. 
Paul  1974 ) than dry cooking methods ( Buck  
 (2006)  reported that radio frequency cooking 
et  al.   1979 ).  Drummond  and  Sun   (2006)  
resulted in a signifi cant reduction in cooking 
reported moist heat methods of cooking 
times for leg and shoulder hams. However, a 
resulted in more rapid surface temperature 
number of quality attributes of the radio fre-
increases compared with dry heat cooking. 
quency cooked samples differed from those 
However, surface browning, which contrib-
of their steam 
- 
cooked counterparts. Radio 
utes to the aroma of cooked meat, did not 
frequency cooked hams had signifi cantly 
develop the same when moist heat cookery 
lower water 
- 
holding capacity and higher 
was used. 
yields than their steam cooked counterparts. 
 For a product to reach a specifi c internal 
Additionally, radio frequency cooking 
temperature, the cooking apparatus must be 
resulted in a less well - done coloration with 
set at a higher temperature than the target  
higher Hunter a *  values (Zhang  2006 ) than 
temperature. Evaporative cooling prevents 
the steam - cooked  product. 
the product from being the same temperature 
 Contact cooking, as seen with pan frying 
as the set point. Therefore, cooking tempera-
or clamshell grills, is a popular method of 
tures must be greater than the desired internal 
cooking meat patties. Oroszv á ri et al.  (2005b)  
temperature. Boles and Swan  
(2002a) 
  showed that the higher heating temperature 
reported cooking time was faster when roasts 
resulted in shorter total frying times to reach 
were cooked at a constant temperature as 
the same internal temperature. Oroszv á ri et 
compared with roast cooked by a step 
- 
up 
al.  
(2005a) 
 also found that the longer the 
(maintain 10 
° 
C differential between the 
thawing time in the frying pan, the less total 
internal temperature and the cooking tem-
water was lost. These researchers reported 
perature) or delta  T process. This shows that 
that the thawing time was the longest part of 
cooking temperature does affect the rate of 
the frying time for beef burgers cooked from 
cooking. Bengtsson et al.  
(1976) 
 reported 
the frozen state. For heating of the core of a 
that increasing the oven temperature from 
hamburger from 0 ° C to 72 ° C, lower losses 
175 °  to 225 ° C resulted in steeper temperature 
were favored with quick heat transfer. The 
gradients, shorter cooking times, and lower 
interconnections of all these parameters show 
yields. 
the interaction between heat and mass trans-
 
Microwave or radio frequency cooking 
fer. Oroszv á ri et al.  (2005a)  reported that the 
are newer methods that have been introduced 
time required to reach the fi nal temperature 
to the meat industry. Welke et al  
(1986) 
 
in pan 
- 
fried beef burgers was controlled 
reported roasts cooked by microwave took 
mainly by the water content of the product.  
less time to reach endpoint temperatures than 
did roast cooked by convection or conven-
tional methods. The shorter cooking times 
 Major Effects of Cooking 
associated with microwave cooking doesn ’ t 
 Dimensional Changes 
give enough time for the browning reaction. 
Meat cooked with microwaves does not have 
 During cooking, meat products change size 
the typical browned surface associated with 
and shape. This is especially obvious in 
Thermal Processing    177
products like hamburger patties or fresh 
the product during cooking helps improve 
pork sausage patties. Cooking has a lesser 
juiciness (Ritchey and Hostetler  
1965 
) but 
effect on whole - muscle products, but it still 
also helps with the profi tability of producing 
happens. The change in dimension is caused 
cooked, further processed products. Cooking 
by moisture loss and changes at the myofi -
temperature (Loucks et al.  1984 ; Shin et al. 
brillar level. Boles and Shand  (2008)  reported 
 
1992 
), cooking rate (Hearne et al.  
1978 
; 
dimensional changes of stir - fry slices were 
Boles and Swan  
2002a 
), and fi nal  internal 
affected by both meat cut used and slice  
temperature (Ritchey and Hostetler  
1965 
; 
thickness. The greatest dimensional changes 
Laakkonen et al.  1970 ; Beilken et al.  1986 ; 
(esp. shrinkage of length and width) were 
Fjelkner - Modig  1986 ) all affect cook yields. 
observed in slices made from the inside and 
 Increased cooking temperatures result in 
outside round. Samples that had intact con-
higher temperature gradients from the outside 
nective tissue around the slices had less 
to the inside of the processed products. 
dimensional changes, suggesting that intact 
Increased surface temperature during frying 
connective tissue may have some impact on 
resulted in increased evaporative losses but 
the dimensional changes observed. Bouton et 
had little effect on the water drip loss from 
al.  (1976)  reported that connective tissue had 
the product (Oroszv á ri et al.  2005b ). Hearne 
a major impact on the dimensional changes 
et al.  (1978)  however found greater evapora-
in meat. Collagen shrinkage with increased 
tive and total cooking losses when meat cores 
cooking temperature will contribute to  were heated at a slow rate compared with a 
dimensional changes seen in a meat product. 
faster rate of cooking. 
As slice thickness increased (2, 4, or 8  mm), 
 Laakkonen et al.  (1970)  reported weight 
the changes in length and width were reduced. 
loss of meat pieces increased almost linearly 
As the slices became thinner, there would 
to the seventh hour of cooking and remained 
be less water available to migrate to the 
relatively constant after that as the samples 
surface, causing fi bers to become drier and 
were held at 60 
° 
C. Ritchey and Hostetler 
shrink more on heating, increasing cook 
 (1965)  observed that as internal temperature 
loss and dimensional change (Boles and 
of steaks increased, the cooking losses also 
Shand  2008 ). Bouton et al.  (1976)  reported 
increased.  Fjelkner - Modig   (1986)   reported 
increased myofi brillar contraction as end 
increased cooking losses from 15% to 25% –
 point temperature increased. This change in 
 30% as internal temperature of pork increased 
contraction was associated with increased 
from 68 
° 
C to 80 
° 
C. Internal product tem-
cooking loss. Bouton et al.  (1976)  suggested 
perature can affect the type of losses seen 
that changes in meat fi bers ’   length  happened 
from meat. Hearne et al.  
(1978) 
 reported 
in three zones. Temperatures between 40 ° C 
evaporative losses were greater when cores 
and 45 ° C resulted from changes in the myo-
were cooked to higher internal temperatures. 
fi brillar structure, while changes between 
Bengtsson et al.  
(1976) 
 reported increased 
55 
° 
C and 60 
° 
C were primarily caused by 
cooking loss as the time of cooking and inter-
changes in collagen, and above 70 ° C were 
nal temperature increased. These researchers 
both from myofi brillar and connective tissue 
found evaporative losses created an almost 
changes.  
straight line, indicating that evaporation 
occurred from the wet surface of the meat for 
the entire cooking time and that surface 
 Cooking Losses 
temperature was therefore below the oven 
 
Cooking losses or cook yields are very 
temperature. Additionally, these researchers 
important in processed products as well as 
reported that most of the losses occurring 
fresh products. Maintenance of moisture in 
between 65 
° 
C and 70 
° 
C were evaporative 
178    Chapter 8
losses. Beyond 70 ° C, drip losses rose rapidly. 
related to changes in protein solubility. The 
These researchers suggest that drip loss can 
matrix density decreases as temperature is 
be minimized if internal temperatures can be 
raised (Barbut et al.  1996 ). The major changes 
kept below 65 ° C. Furthermore, evaporative 
in microstructure could be related to changes 
losses could be kept to a minimum by increas-
observed in gel rigidity and the reduction in 
ing the relative humidity in the cooking 
extractable proteins.  
environment. 
 Hamm and Deatherage  (1960)  suggested 
 Effect of Heat on Proteins and 
that the changes in water 
- 
holding capacity 
Protein Structure 
during cooking, and thus cooking losses, are 
due to changes in charges and unfolding of 
 
Although the exact nature of denaturation 
proteins. This results in the shifting of the 
and coagulation is not fully understood, there 
isoelectric point to a more basic pH. 
are distinct and easily recognized physical 
 Palka  (2003)  reported increased cooking 
changes in meat proteins during cooking 
losses when starting meat was aged for 7 
(Table   8.4 ).  Solidifi cation of the muscle and 
days compared with 12 days postmortem. 
color changes are readily observed and are 
Boles and Swan  (2002b)  also reported cook 
closely associated with the reduction in 
yields decreased as refrigerated storage of 
solubility. Heating meat up to 45 ° C internal 
inside rounds and fl ats increased to 8 weeks 
temperature resulted in a slight decrease 
of storage. Furthermore, an increase in pH 
in the amount of water 
- 
soluble fraction 
was found during refrigerated storage of 
extracted from meat (Laakkonen et al.  1970 ). 
inside rounds and fl ats, and was related to a 
Between the temperatures of 45 
° 
C and 
decrease in cook yield. 
58.5 ° C,  the  water - soluble  fraction  decreased 
 Cooking is responsible for the setting of 
rapidly, and only a slight decrease in water -
gels that make it possible to manufacture sau-
 
soluble fraction is seen during holding at 
sages and restructured products. Increasing 
60 ° C (Laakkonen et al.  1970 ). Solubility of 
internal temperature results in increased gel 
the myofi 
brillar fraction also decreases 
strength (Barbut et al.  1996 ). Increased gel 
with increasing temperature (Hamm and 
strength is paralleled by a decrease in soluble 
Deatherage  1960 ; Lyon et al.  1986 ; Barbut et 
protein. Changes in gel structure can be 
al  1996 ). The decrease in solubility is great-
 Table 8.4.    Effect of cooking on meat proteins 
   Authors  
   Temperature  
   Effect  on  proteins  
  Laakkonen  et  al.,   1970   
  45 – 58.5 ° C 
 Rapid decrease in water soluble fraction of meat. No 
 Hold  at  60 ° C  
further decrease in water soluble fraction when 
held.  
  Hamm  and  Deatherage,   1960 ; 
  40 – 60 ° C  
  Reduction  in  solubility  of  myofi brillar fraction  
Lyon et al.,  1986 ; Barbut 
et  al.,   1996   
  Leander  et  al.,   1980   
  63 ° C  
  Slight  disfi gurement of the myofi bril, some swelling 
of the perimysial connective tissue  
    
  68 ° C  
  Swelling  of  the  A - band,  connective  tissue  coagulated  
    
  73 ° C  
  Sarcomeres  contraction  and  breakage  at  Z - line, 
Coagualtion of sarcolemma, increased loss of 
sarcomeric structure  
  Bendall  and  Restall,   1983   
  40 – 90 ° C  
  Decreased  myofi ber diameter  
  Martens  et  al.,   1982   
  53 – 63 ° C  
  Denaturation  of  collagen,  breaking  up  of  fi brous 
structure  
  Welke  et  al.,   1986   
    
  Increased  epimysial  connective  tissue  with  cooking  
Thermal Processing    179
est between 40 ° C and 60 ° C, with the proteins 
cluded that the change in volume was mostly 
being essentially insoluble above 60 
° 
C 
due to moisture loss. Expulsion of water from 
(Hamm and Deatherage  
1960 
; Lyon et al. 
the myofi ber was slow and incomplete from 
 
1986 
). Hamm and Deatherage  
(1960) 
  40 ° C to 52.5 ° C but accelerated markedly to 
reported denaturation occurred in different 
maximal rate between 57.5 ° C and 60 ° C. The 
steps. The fi rst reaction was the unfolding of 
acceleration of moisture lost was attributed 
the tertiary structure of the protein. The 
to collagen shrinkage. 
second was the aggregation of protein chains, 
 Changes in connective tissue are also seen 
resulting in the coagulation of proteins. The 
when meat is cooked. Welke et al.  
(1986) 
 
initial changes are confi ned to the surface, 
observed increased weights of epimysial con-
but as time and temperature increase, the 
nective tissue after cooking, indicating 
action penetrates further into the interior of 
hydration and hydrolysis of the collagen. 
the meat.  
Martens et al  (1982)  reported collagen dena-
 Changes in the muscle structure are seen 
tured  between  53 – 63 ° .  The  denaturation  of 
during cooking. Leander et al.  (1980)  reported 
collagen involved the breaking up of the 
slight disfi gurement of the myofi brils  after 
fi brous structure, probably fi rst by the break-
cooking to an internal temperature of 63 ° C, 
age of hydrogen bonds. If collagen is not 
with some evidence of induced swelling of 
stabilized by intermolecular bonds, it will 
the perimysial connective tissue. Increased 
dissolve and form gelatin on further heating 
temperatures to 68 ° C resulted in more swell-
(Tornberg  
2005 
), especially when meat is 
ing in the A - band due to thermally induced 
cooked with moisture.  
contraction of the sarcomeres. Muscle fi bers 
remained intact, while connective tissue 
 Surface Drying 
sheaths underwent coagulation and appeared 
granular. These researchers reported the 
 Reduction of moisture at the surface of meat 
greatest effects were observed in samples 
and meat products serves several purposes. 
heated to 73 ° C. Sarcomeres exhibited ther-
Lowering surface moisture reduces the water 
mally induced contraction and breakage at 
activity on the surface and thus reduces 
the Z 
- 
line, while some transverse lines 
microbial growth. The reduced surface mois-
remained intact. Coagulation of the sarco-
ture plays a key role in preventing not only 
lemma and exposure of myofi brils were also 
the growth of surviving bacteria, but also the 
observed. Increased loss of sarcomeric struc-
growth of any bacteria that may recontami-
ture was observed, with increased fi nal 
nate the surface of the product. 
internal temperature. Hearne et al.  
(1978) 
 
 
Surface drying during cooking is also 
also observed greater fi ber  disintegration, 
responsible  for   skin   formation  in  produc -
with increased fi nal internal temperature. 
tion of hams and other similar products. 
Furthermore, these researchers found faster 
Coagulation of the surface proteins results in 
cooking rates to result in greater fi ber disin-
the formation of an outer layer that serves as 
tegration compared with slow rates of 
a  “ skin ”  when the casings are removed. The 
cooking to an endpoint of 60 ° C. 
skin formed during cooking is a function of 
 
Bendall and Restall  
(1983) 
 reported no 
the temperature the product reached during 
change in sarcomere length when fi bers were 
cooking and the time it was held at that tem-
heated, but diameter of fi bers changed mark-
perature. The nature of the skin is most 
edly. Myofi bers heated in aqueous medium 
important for peelability or removal of casing 
to fi nal temperatures of 40 ° C to 90 ° C resulted 
or netting. Drying of the surface also aids in 
in a decrease in diameter of myofi bers  but 
giving the skin a dense texture and imparts 
no change in length. These researchers con-
the characteristic appearance of skinless 
180    Chapter 8
products. Although the ingredients have 
 2004 ). Increased levels of oil or oilseed seeds 
some infl uence on peelability, proper cooking 
in the diet can also increase the levels of  α -
without excess weight loss and wrinkling are 
 tocopherol found in the meat (Leskanich et 
important in imparting good peelability. The 
al.  1997 ). Increased levels of  α  - tocopherol  or 
cooking process must be carefully controlled 
Vitamin E fed to pigs can result in lower 
to make the product readily peelable and of 
TBARS (Corino et al.  
1999 
; Hasty et al., 
good appearance.  
 2002 )) and thus less oxidation of the lipids 
(Corino et al.  1999 ). 
 Warmed - over  fl avor (WOF) occurs in 
 Lipids 
uncured products after they are cooked. 
 The changes that occur during cooking also 
Nitrites in cured products function as a potent 
affect lipids. Oxidation of lipids occurs 
inhibitor of WOF development. As little as 
when oxygen is present and will occur at 
50  ppm of nitrites effectively prevents lipid 
a faster rate as the temperature increases. 
oxidation (Sato and Hegarty  1971 ). However, 
These changes in lipids help to give the char-
one of the most noticeable reactions in meat 
acteristic odor and fl avor of cooked meat. 
when nitrites are fi rst added is the oxidation 
Cooked meat exposed to oxygen results in 
of the heme pigments to the ferric form (Fox 
further lipid oxidation, which can cause off -
and Benedict  1987 ). Nitrite is readily reduced 
 fl avors and odors to appear in just a few 
by endogenous reductants in the meat to form 
hours.  This  off - fl avor development has been 
nitric oxide, which combines with myoglobin 
traditionally  referred  to  as   “ warmed - over ”  
to form the cured 
- 
meat pigment (Fox and 
fl avor. More recently, some researchers have 
Benedict  1987 ). The nitric oxide is an effi -
referred to the process as cooked - meat fl avor 
cient radical chain terminator that slows the 
deterioration. 
propagation of lipid oxidation (Fox and 
 Oxidation of lipids in whole - muscle prod-
Benedict  1987 ). Other antioxidant properties 
ucts occurs relatively slowly unless a catalyst 
have been suggested for nitrite.  
is present. In processed products, salt acts  
as a catalyst and can result in rapid lipid 
 Vitamins 
oxidation. For many years, researchers have 
investigated what catalyzes the oxidation of 
 Most of the effects cooking has on meat are 
lipids in fresh cooked meats. During cooking, 
positive: improved palatability, reduction of 
the muscle cells are broken, allowing high 
bacteria, and fl avor development. However, 
molecular weight iron sources to be released 
cooking does have a negative impact on the 
(Morrissey et al.  1998 ). Denatured heme iron 
vitamin content of meat, especially water 
from myoglobin is one possible candidate for 
 soluble vitamins such as thiamine, ribofl avin, 
catalysis, along with free iron (Fox and 
and niacin (Al - Khalifa et al.  1993 ; Lombardi -
Benedict   1987 ). 
 
Boccia et al.  
2005 
; Riccio et al.  
2006 
). 
 The stability of the lipids during cooking 
Reported retention of vitamins, however, is 
is affected by the fatty acid makeup of the 
much more variable, with retention of thiamin 
lipids and dietary compounds that can func-
being reported as low as 39% (Al 
- 
Khalifa 
tion to reduce oxidation. Increasing the 
et al.  1993 ) and as high as 66% (Rhee et al. 
degree of unsaturated fatty acids will reduce 
 1993 ). 
lipid stability. Also, altering diet to include 
 Severity of heating has a major impact on 
rapeseed oil, corn oil, or oil seed meals will 
the retention of water 
- 
soluble vitamins 
increase the unsaturated fats in the meat. This 
(Riccio et al.  2006 ). Kumar and Aalbersberg 
is especially true in pork and poultry (Romans 
 (2006)  reported that microwave oven cooking 
et al.  1995 ; Corino et al.  2002 ; Rey et al. 
tended to retain higher amounts of vitamins. 
Thermal Processing    181
thermal denaturation of proteins in beef muscle 
. 
Low retention of retinol, thiamin, and ribo-
 Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 
fl avin was seen in earth - oven - cooked meat 
 18 : 31  –  46 .  
compared with microwave - cooked meat. The 
    Boles ,   J.  A.  ,  and    P.  J.    Shand  .   2008 .   Effect  of  muscle 
location, fi ber direction, and slice thickness on the 
difference in vitamin retention could be due 
processing characteristics and tenderness of beef stir -
to a higher cooking temperature of earth 
 fry strips from the round and chuck .  Meat Science    78 : 
 
oven cooking compared with microwave 
 369  –  374   
    Boles ,   J.  A.  ,  and    J.  E.    Swan  .   2002a .   Heating  method  and 
cooking. Riccio et al.  (2006)  observed that 
fi nal temperature affect processing characteristics of 
cooking, in general, produced a decrease in 
beef semimembranosus muscle 
.  
Meat Science 
the B vitamins content, both under mild (70 –
 62 : 107  –  112 .  
    Boles ,   J.  A.  ,  and    J.  E.    Swan  .   2002b .   Meat  and  storage 
 90 ° C)  and  severe  (120 ° C)  conditions.  These 
effects on processing characteristics of beef roasts . 
researchers found that after 5 minutes of 
 Meat Science    62 : 121  –  127 .  
cooking at 100 ° C, all B vitamins analyzed 
    Boles ,   J.  A.  ,    F.  C.    Parrish ,   Jr.  ,    C.  L.    Skaggs  ,  and    L.  L.  
 Christian  .   1991 .   Effect  of  porcine  somatotropin,  stress 
were not detectable in the homogenized 
susceptibility, and fi nal end point of cooking on 
boiled ham without fortifi cation. 
the sensory, physical, and chemical properties of 
 Rhee et al.  (1993)  reported that samples 
pork loin chops 
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Chapter 9
 Fermentation: Microbiology and Biochemistry  
 Spiros   Paramithiotis  ,   Eleftherios H.   Drosinos  ,   John N.   Sofos  , and 
 George - John E.   Nychas  
 
 Introduction 
 The microbiota of batter freshly stuffed 
into casings is dominated mainly by microor-
 Meat fermentation has been the subject of 
ganisms present in the raw materials, with 
intensive study over the last decades. It has 
raw meat and casings being their major 
been early recognized that the development 
source ( Comi et al.  2005 ; Lebert et al.  2007 ). 
of a proper ecosystem is a prerequisite in 
As a result, pseudomonads and members of 
order to address safety and organoleptic, as 
the  
Enterobacteriaceae  
 family may reach 
well as nutrition - related, issues. The estab-
levels as high as 10 5  and 10 4    cfu    g  − 1 ,  respec-
lishment and application of new molecular 
tively (Drosinos et al.  
2005 
; Lebert et al. 
tools has provided new insights that have led 
 2007 ). The presence of pathogens, such as 
researchers to more comprehensive under-
 Escherichia coli 
, aerobic spore formers, 
standing regarding both the microbial dynam-
 Staphylococcus aureus , and  Listeria monocy-
ics and the biochemical changes that occur 
togenes 
, has also been reported (Samelis 
during the development of this ecosystem. In 
et al.  1998 ; Comi et al.  2005 ; Chevallier et al. 
this chapter, an update concerning the eco-
 2006 ). On the other hand, lactic  acid  bac -
system of spontaneously fermented sausages, 
teria, Gram - positive  catalase - positive  cocci, 
the biochemical changes during ripening, and 
enterococci, and yeasts 
- 
molds are usually 
the development of starter cultures is pro-
present at populations lower than 10 5     cfu    g  − 1 . 
vided, as well as nutritional and public health 
During ripening and as the water activity is 
aspects.  
reduced to 0.96 – 0.97 and the oxygen con-
sumed, a shift in the microbiota composition 
toward lactic acid bacteria and Micrococcaceae 
 The Spontaneously Fermented 
takes place (Luecke  
1998 
). By the end of 
Sausage Ecosystem 
ripening — depending upon the raw materials, 
 Spontaneously fermented sausage production 
ripening conditions, and hygienic parame-
includes mixing of minced meat and fatty 
ters 
— 
the microecosystem usually consists 
tissue with curing agents, carbohydrates, and 
of 10 
7  – 10 9     cfu    g  − 1  lactic acid bacteria, 10 4 –
spices; stuffi ng into casings; and ripening, 
 10 6     cfu    g  − 1  Micrococcaceae and enterococci, 
which can be further subdivided into fermen-
and 10 2  – 10 4     cfu    g  − 1   yeasts - molds. 
tation and aging. Variations in the type and 
 
Apart from composition, microbial 
amount of raw materials, fermentation, and 
dynamics has also been a fi eld of extensive 
drying conditions lead to an extended diver -
study, especially over the last decade with the 
sity concerning the dominating microbiota, 
advancement of new molecular tools, in par-
giving rise to a wide range of products with 
ticular the ones based on the polymerase 
unique sensorial traits. 
chain reaction (PCR). The availability of 
185
186    Chapter 9
new, powerful, and reliable techniques has 
is not taken into consideration. This weak-
enabled the detailed study of this complex 
ness can be addressed by the application of 
ecosystem. Table  
9.1 
 lists techniques used 
techniques such as PCR 
- 
DGGE, which 
for the identifi cation of technological micro-
instead of relying on culturing of the bacteria, 
biota in fermented sausages throughout the 
incorporates the direct extraction of the DNA 
world. The phenotypic approach (i.e., the 
from the food sample. Furthermore, another 
identifi cation based on assimilation – fermen-
technique that has not yet been applied in 
tation – growth challenges) has been the fi rst 
fermented sausages is fl uorescence in situ 
to be applied and is still in use, despite its 
hybridization ( FISH ). In this technique, the 
drawbacks regarding reliability and accu-
direct detection of a microorganism in a food 
racy, even at species level. The most fre-
sample is achieved by using specifi c probes 
quently applied and most reliable technique 
that allow spatial distribution studies to take 
is sequencing of the 16S - rRNA gene. This 
place.   
technique has been applied either in combi-
 
The microorganisms that are most fre-
nation with other techniques, such as SDS -
quently encountered are   Lactobacillus curva-
 PAGE of whole cell proteins, RAPD - PCR, 
tus ,   Lb. plantarum ,   Lb. sakei ,   Staphylococcus 
or PFGE, or directly to the isolated microor-
carnosus ,   St. saprophyticus , and  St. xylosus 
ganism. Although this approach provides 
(Table  9.1 ). These microorganisms seem to 
accurate identifi cation at strain level, an 
be autochthonous in this ecosystem and have 
equally important part of the microbiota, 
the capacity to prevail during fermentation. 
namely the viable but not culturable fraction, 
The competitiveness of  Lb. sakei  has been 
 Table 9.1.    Microbial diversity in spontaneously fermented sausages throughout the world 
   Species  
   Origin  of  spontaneously 
   Identifi cation approach  
fermented sausages  
 Lb. alimentarius 
  Greece 
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Hungary  
 PCR - DGGE  7 
 Phenotypic  10 
 Lb. bavaricus 
  Hungary  
  Phenotypic  10 
 Lb. brevis 
  Greece 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 Croatia 
 Phenotypic  10 
 Italy 
 PCR - DGGE  1, 16 
 Spain  
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  20 
 Lb. casei 
  Italy  
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 PCR - DGGE  1 
 RAPD - PCR — sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  21 
 Lb. casei/paracasei 
  Greece  
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 PCR - DGGE  7 
 Lb. cellobiosus 
  Serbia  
  Phenotypic  10 
 Lb. collinoides 
  Serbia  
  Phenotypic  10 
 Lb. curvatus 
  Italy 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1, 12 
 Greece 
 PCR - DGGE  1, 3, 7, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23 
 Hungary 
 Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Croatia 
 Phenotypic  10 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 RAPD - PCR - Species  specifi c PCR  13 
 Spain 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  14, 21 
 Argentina  
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  20 
 Lb. delbrueckii   spp. 
  Serbia  
  Phenotypic  10 
 bulgaricus 
Table 9.1.  Microbial diversity in spontaneously fermented sausages throughout the world (cont.)
   Species  
   Origin  of  spontaneously 
   Identifi cation approach  
fermented sausages  
 Lb. fermentum 
  Croatia 
  Phenotypic  10 
 Italy 
 Serbia  
 Lb. paracasei 
  Italy  
  Phenotypic  10 
 RAPD - PCR - Species  specifi c PCR  13 
 Lb. paraplantarum 
  Italy 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 Greece  
 PCR - DGGE  1, 7, 16 
 Lb. paraplantarum/
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  16 
pentosus 
 Lb. paraplantarum/
  Greece 
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
plantarum 
 Hungary  
 PCR - DGGE  7 
 Lb. pentosus 
  Greece 
  Phenotypic  10 
 Croatia 
 PCR - DGGE  15 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 Argentina  
 Lb. plantarum 
  Italy 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 Greece 
 PCR - DGGE  1, 3, 7, 14, 15, 16, 22 
 Hungary 
 Phenotypic  4, 10, 24 
 Croatia 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  4, 14 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Argentina 
 RAPD - PCR - Species  specifi c PCR  13 
 Spain  
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  20 
 Lb. plantarum/pentosus 
  Greece 
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Italy  
 PCR - DGGE  7 
 Lb. rhamnosus 
  Greece  
  Phenotypic  10, 24 
 Lb. sakei 
  Italy 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1, 12 
 Greece 
 PCR - DGGE  1, 3, 7,14, 15, 16, 23 
 Hungary 
 Phenotypic  4, 10, 24 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  4, 14, 21 
 Spain 
 sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Argentina  
 RAPD - PCR - Species  specifi c PCR  13 
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  20 
 Lb. sanfranciscensis 
  Hungary  
  Phenotypic  10 
 Lc. garvieae 
  Italy  
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 PCR - DGGE  1 
 Lc. lactis 
  Italy  
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 PCR - DGGE  1 
 Phenotypic  10 
 Lc. lactis  ssp.  lactis 
  Italy 
  PCR - DGGE  3, 7, 16 
 Greece  
 Phenotypic  10 
 Ln. carnosum 
  Italy  
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 PCR - DGGE  1 
 Ln. citreum 
  Hungary 
  PCR - DGGE  7, 16 
 Italy  
 Ln. mesenteroides 
  Italy 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 Hungary 
 PCR - DGGE  1, 7, 16 
 Spain  
 Phenotypic  10 
 Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  12 
 Ln. mesenteroides 
  Hungary 
  Phenotypic  10 
mesenteroides 
 Serbia  
(continued)
187
Table 9.1.  Microbial diversity in spontaneously fermented sausages throughout the world (cont.)
   Species  
   Origin  of  spontaneously 
   Identifi cation approach  
fermented sausages  
 Pd. acidilactici 
  Italy 
  PCR - DGGE  3, 15 
 Argentina 
 Phenotypic  10 
 Spain  
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  20 
 Pd. pentosaceus 
  Italy  
  Phenotypic  10 
 Ws. hellenica 
  Italy  
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 PCR - DGGE  1 
 Ws. paramesenteroides 
  Italy 
  Species  specifi c PCR  1 
 Greece  
 PCR - DGGE  1 
 Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Ws. paramesenteroides/
  Greece 
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
hellenica 
 Hungary 
 PCR - DGGE  7, 16 
 Italy  
 Ws. viridescens 
  Greece 
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Hungary  
 PCR - DGGE  7 
 St. aureus 
  Spain  
  SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  18 
 St. auricularis 
  serbian  
  Phenotypic  10 
 St. capitis 
  Serbia 
  Phenotypic  10 
 Croatia  
 St. caprae 
  Greece 
  Phenotypic  10 
 Bosnia - Herzegovina  
 St. carnosus 
  Slovakia 
  Species  specifi c PCR  2,11 
 Spain 
 16S – 23S rDNA intergenic region amplifi cation —
 Croatia 
 species  specifi c PCR  9 
 Italy  
 Phenotypic  10 
 St. cohnii 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  11 
 St. cohnii cohnii 
  Greece  
  Phenotypic  24 
 St. cohnii urealyticum 
  Greece  
  Phenotypic  10 
 St. epidermidis 
  Spain 
  16S – 23S  rRNA  intergenic  region  amplifi cation - species 
 Bosnia - Herzegovina 
specifi c PCR  9 
 Italy  
 Phenotypic  10 
 Species  specifi c PCR  11 
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  18 
 St. equorum 
  Italy 
  PCR - DGGE  6,11,14, 15, 23 
 France 
 PFGE - Sequencing  of   sodA int   gene  8 
 Argentina 
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  18 
 Spain  
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  21 
 St. gallinarum 
  Greece  
  Phenotypic  24 
 St. haemolyticus 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  6 
 St. hominis 
  Greece 
  Phenotypic  10 
 Italy  
 St. lentus 
  Hungary 
  Phenotypic  10 
 Italy  
 St. pasteuri 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  6, 11 
 St. saprophyticus 
  Italy 
  PCR - DGGE  6, 14, 15 
 Greece 
 Phenotypic  10, 24 
 Boznia - Herzegovina 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  14 
 Croatia 
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  18 
 Argentina 
 Spain  
188
Table 9.1.  Microbial diversity in spontaneously fermented sausages throughout the world (cont.)
   Species  
   Origin  of  spontaneously 
   Identifi cation approach  
fermented sausages  
 St. sciuri 
  Italy 
  Phenotypic  4, 10 
 Boznia - Herzegovina  
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  4 
 St. simulans 
  Greece 
  Phenotypic  10, 24 
 Bosnia - Herzegovina  
 St. succinus 
  Italy 
  PCR - DGGE  6, 23 
 France  
 PFGE - Sequencing  of   sodA int   gene  8 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  21 
 St. vitulus 
  Spain  
  SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  18 
 St. warneri 
  Italy 
  PCR - DGGE  6 
 France 
 PFGE - Sequencing  of   sodA int   gene  8 
 Spain 
 16S – 23S Rdna intergenic region amplifi cation - species 
 Serbia  
specifi c PCR  9 
 Phenotypic  10 
 Species  specifi c PCR  11 
 St. xylosus 
  Slovakia 
  Species  specifi c PCR  2, 11 
 Italy 
 Phenotypic  4, 10, 24 
 Spain 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  4 
 Greece 
 PCR - DGGE  6, 18,22, 23 
 Croatia 
 16S – 23S rDNA intergenic region amplifi cation - species 
 Hungary  
specifi c PCR  9 
 SDS - PAGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  18 
 Mc. caseolyticus 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  11 
 Bc. subtilis 
  Italy  
  RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  21 
 Kc. varians 
  Spain  
  16S – 23S  rDNA  intergenic  region  amplifi cation - species 
specifi c PCR  9 
 En. faecalis 
  Greece 
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 Serbia 
 PCR - DGGE  15 
 Argentina  
 En. faecium 
  Greece  
  PFGE - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  25 
 En. faecium/durans 
  Greece  
  Sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  5 
 PCR - DGGE  7 
 En. fl avescens 
  Argentina  
  PCR - DGGE  15 
 En. mundtii 
  Argentina  
  PCR - DGGE  15 
 En. pseudoavium 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  7, 16 
 En. durans 
  Argentina  
  PCR - DGGE  15 
 Db. hansenii 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  3, 17, 22, 23 
 RAPD - PCR - sequencing  of  16S - rRNA  gene  21 
 Cd. psychrophila 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  3 
 Sc. barnettii 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  3 
 Pn. hirsutum 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  3 
 Mt. pulcherrima 
  Italy  
  PCR - DGGE  17 
 Lc.: Lactococcus; Lb.: Lactobacillus; Ln.: Leuconostoc; Pd.: Pediococcus; Ws.: Weissella; St.: Staphylococcus; Mc.: 
Macrococcus; Bc.: Bacillus ; Kc.: Kocuria; En.: Enterococcus; Db.: Debaryomyces; Cd.: Candida; Sc.: Saccharomyces; 
Pn.: Penicillium; Mt.: Metschnikowia 
 1     Urso  et  al.   2006 ;       2     Simonova  et  al.   2006 ;       3     Silvestri  et  al.   2007 ;       4     Rebecchi  et  al.   1998 ;       5     Rantsiou  et  al.   2006 ;       6     Rantsiou 
et  al.   2005a ;       7     Rantsiou  et  al.   2005b ;       8     Morot - Bizot  et  al.   2006 ;       9     Martin  et  al.   2006 ;       10     Kozacinski  et  al.   2008 ;       11     Iacumin 
et  al.   2006 ;       12    Aymerich  et  al.   2006 ;       13    Andrighetto  et  al.   2001 ;       14     Fontana  et  al.   2005a ;       15     Fontana  et  al.   2005b ;   
 16     Comi  et  al.   2005 ;       17     Cocolin  et  al.   2006 ;       18     Cocolin  et  al.   2001 ;       19     Benito  et  al.   2008a ;       20     Benito  et  al.   2008b ;       21     Baruzzi 
et  al.   2006 ;       22    Aquilanti  et  al.   2007 ;       23     Villani  et  al.   2007 ;       24     Drosinos  et  al.   2007 ;       25     Paramithiotis  et  al.   2008    
189
190    Chapter 9
studied in detail and has been attributed 
apart from contributing to the inhibition of 
partly to the presence of genes involved in 
spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, 
the energetic catabolism of nucleosides, such 
favors water release through protein coagula-
as adenosine and inosine that are abundant in 
tion, as well as the hydrolytic action of both 
meat (Chaillou et al.  2005 ), and partly to its 
cathepsin D and lysosomal acid lipase. 
mode of arginine catabolism (Champomier -
Addition of heterofermentative lactic acid 
 
Verges et al.  
1999 
; Zuriga et al.  
2002 
; 
bacteria results in the production of addi-
Chaillou et al.  2005 ). Other species, such as 
tional compounds, such as acetoin and diace-
the ones mentioned in Table  
9.1 
, are also 
tyl. On the other hand, addition of sugars, 
likely to be sporadically present.  
apart from being the decisive parameter on 
the fi nal pH, means that their residual amount 
will inevitably contribute to taste develop-
 Biochemical Changes 
ment, given that they are present in levels 
during Ripening 
above their sensory threshold. 
 
The main biochemical changes that occur 
 As a general rule , proteolysis, at least at 
during ripening, affecting appearance, organ-
its early stages, is primarily a function of the 
oleptic quality, and safety of fermented 
muscle proteinases (Luecke  2000 ), especially 
sausages, are shown in Figure  
9.1 
. These 
cathepsin D. Complete hydrolysis into free 
biochemical reactions lead to the formation 
amino acids takes place by bacterial pepti-
of a variety of metabolic end products, which 
dases, along with endogenous ones (Sanz 
are  summarized  in  Table   9.2 .     
et al.  
1999a 
). The proteolytic capacity of 
 Carbohydrates serve as carbon and energy 
several lactic acid bacteria and staphylococci 
sources for the native microbiota or the added 
strains isolated from fermented meat prod-
starter culture. Microbial fermentation results 
ucts has been investigated (Fadda et al.  1998, 
in the production of lactic acid, the confi gura-
1999a, b ; Sanz et al.  1999a, b ; Mauriello et 
tion of which depends upon the dominant  
al.  2002 ; Drosinos et al.  2007 ), and a rather 
species. The lactic acid results in a decrease 
rare proteolytic capacity of lactic acid bacte-
of the pH value that has a manifold effect on 
ria has been stated, as well as a compara-
the quality of the product. This pH drop , 
tively common one of staphylococci. In both 
triglycerides
ATP
glycogen
proteins
is
phospholipids
olys
e 
drolysis
hy
Muscl
proteases
glycogen
sue lipases
ribose
glucose
peptides
amino acids
Tis
long chain free 
fatty acids
microbial metabolism
biogenic amines
oxidation
Flavor volatiles
organic acids
 Figure 9.1.    Main biochemical changes occurring during sausage fermentation.  
Fermentation: Microbiology and Biochemistry    191
 Table 9.2.   Metabolic end products formed during fermentation and ripening of dry fermented 
sausages 
   End  product  
   Natural  fl ora  
   Starter  culture  
 Kocuria   added  
   Yeast - molds  added  
  Lactic  acid  
  x  
  x  
  x  
    
  Acetic  acid  
  x  
  x  
  x  
    
  Butyric  acid  
  x  
  x  
    
    
  Oxalic  acid  
  x  
    
    
    
  Citric  acid  
  x  
    
    
    
  Pyruvic  acid  
  x  
    
    
    
  Malic  acid  
  x  
    
    
    
  Formic  acid  
  x  
    
    
    
  Fumaric  acid  
  x  
    
    
    
  Propionic  acid  
  x  
  x  
    
    
  Diacetyl  
  x  
  x  
  x  
    
  Acetoin  
  x  
  x  
  x  
    
  2,3 - butyleneglycol  
  x  
    
    
    
  Ethanol  
  x  
  x  
  x  
    
  Free  fatty  acids  
  x  
  x  
    
  x  
  Peptides  
  x  
  x  
    
  x  
  Free  amino  acids  
  x  
  x  
  x  
  x  
  Amines  
  x  
  x  
    
  x  
  Ammonia  
  x  
  x  
  x  
  x  
  Aldehydes,  ketones  
  x  
    
    
  x  
cases, it seems that the mode of proteolysis 
xylosus 
 strain AS27) has been reported, 
is a strain - dependent property. Drosinos et al. 
whereas in the study by Drosinos et al. 
 (2007)  reported that six  Lb. sakei  strains were 
 (2007) ,  seven   Staphylococcus 
 sp. strains 
found proteolytic only against the myofi bril-
hydrolyzed the sarcoplasmic protein fraction 
lar protein fraction and by a mode quite dif-
by the same mode and only one  St. xylosus 
ferent from the one already described by 
strain LQC 5401 by a different mode. As far 
Fadda et al.  (1999a)  referring to  Lb. planta -
as the myofi brillar protein fraction was con-
rum  strain CRL 681. In the former case , a 
cerned, Mauriello et al.  (2002)  reported that 
complete decomposition of myosin, actin, 
strains ES2 and BS5 resulted in a complete 
and all myofi 
brillar proteins ranging in 
decomposition of myosin and actin, and the 
molecular weight from 200 to 12  kDa was 
appearance of bands at about 100 and 25  kDa. 
observed, compared with the partial hydroly-
On the other hand, Drosinos et al.  
(2007) 
 
sis of only actin and myosin that was 
reported that all 53  Staphylococcus  sp. strains 
observed by  Lb. plantarum  strain CRL 681 
found to be proteolytic were able to com-
(Fadda et al.  1999a ). Comparable differences 
pletely hydrolyze the myofi brillar fraction to 
were observed in the proteolysis of sarco-
polypeptides with molecular weight less than 
plasmic and myofi brillar protein fractions by 
12    kDa. 
staphylococci (Drosinos et al.  
2007 
). The 
 Lipolysis in fermented sausages has been 
results obtained in that study were not in 
attributed partly to the microbiota and partly 
accordance with the ones obtained by 
to tissue lipases. It has been estimated that 
Mauriello et al.  
(2002) 
 referring to the 
muscle lipases contribute at 60% – 80%, with 
decomposition of sarcoplasmic proteins. In 
the rest being due to microbial ones (Molly 
the latter study, the decrease in intensity of 
et al.  
1996, 1997 
). Several authors have 
protein bands at approximately 48.4, 41.6, 
studied the lipolytic activities of both lactic 
22.4, and 20.3  kDa ( St. xylosus  strains BS5 
acid bacteria and staphylococci in pork fat. 
and ES1) or their complete hydrolysis ( St. 
In general, lactic acid bacteria hydrolyze 
192    Chapter 9
mono - , di - , and triacylglycerols at a lower 
The rationale is to minimize the variability 
rate (Sanz et al.  
1998 
), stating their weak 
quelling from spontaneous fermentation and 
lipolytic system (El Soda et al.  1986 ; Montel 
to enrich organoleptic quality and safety. 
et al.  1998 ; Drosinos et al.  2007 ), whereas 
Toward this direction, a huge amount of 
the production of lipolytic enzymes among 
research has taken place. Desirable techno-
staphylococci seems to be a common charac-
logical features include acidifi cation,  cata-
teristic (Miralles et al.  1996 ; Coppola et al. 
lase, protease, and lipase activity, as well as 
 1997 ; Kenneally et al.  1998 ; Mauriello et al. 
avoidance of possible discoloration phenom-
 2004 ; Casaburi et al.  2007 ). Once free fatty 
ena through the production of peroxides 
acids are released, they are subjected to 
according to Figure  9.2 . Regarding the safety 
oxidative reactions that give rise mainly to 
of the product, bacteriocin production is 
aliphatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, 
involved in antibiotic resistance, as well as 
ketones, and esters, with the latter being pro-
the absence of amino acid decarboxylase 
duced in the absence of nitrite in the recipe. 
activity and transferable genes.  
Excessive oxidation results in the formation 
 Acidifi cation possesses a key role in fer-
of  off - fl avors such as rancidity. The micro-
mented sausage manufacture, as it enables 
biota, through the consumption of oxygen, 
control of spoilage and pathogenic microbi-
negatively affects rancidity formation.  
ota and affects fl avor, color, and texture 
development. It has also been reported that a 
rapid decrease of the pH value can prevent 
 Development of Starter Cultures 
biogenic amine accumulation (Maijala et al. 
 The concept of starter cultures for fermented 
 
1993 
). Catalase activity is important, as it 
sausages is nearly as old as the product itself. 
hydrolyses the hydrogen peroxide (produced 
-2e
-2e
Myoglobin (purple-red) Fe 2+
NO
NO
NO
3
2
2H
H2O
OH-
H+
Myoglobin (brown) Fe 3+
Nitric oxide metmyoglobin
(brown) Fe 3+
Hexose
-O2
Bacterial
action
Nitric oxide myoglobin
(bright pink) Fe 2+
Heat or Smoking 
Lactate
H O
2
2
Cholemyoglobin 
Nitrosohemochrome
(Green)
(pink stable) Fe 2+
 Figure 9.2.    Color development in fermented sausages.  
Fermentation: Microbiology and Biochemistry    193
by most lactobacilli), which increases rancid-
the assessment of such a potential in strains 
ity and discoloration of the fi nal  product. 
involved in meat fermentation. In has been 
Despite the fact that catalase production is a 
shown that several  Lb. alimentarius ,   Lb. cur-
constitutive characteristic of coagulase - neg-
vatus ,   Lb. plantarum , and  Lb. sakei   strains 
ative staphylococci, it is still regarded as a 
harbor such genes, making horizontal gene 
desirable property for lactic acid bacteria as 
transfer possible (Gevers et al.  2003 ). 
well, and therefore its presence and activity 
 Whole - genome  sequencing  of  bacteria 
in lactic acid bacteria has been studied 
and, more accurately, of bacteria capable of 
(Abriouel et al.  
2004 
; Noonpakdee et al. 
serving as starter cultures has provided new 
 2004 ;  Ammor  et  al.   2005 ). 
tools in the quest for the suitable starter 
 
The utilization of bacteriocinogenic  culture. Genome analysis of  Lb. sakei   23K 
strains, either as starter or as protective 
revealed a lack of main aroma 
- 
production 
cultures, has drawn special attention. Several 
pathways, as well as genes responsible for 
autochthonous meat lactic acid bacteria, 
amino acid decarboxylation (Chaillou et al. 
among them  Lactococcus lactis   (Rodriguez 
 2005 ). Similarly , genome analysis of  St. car-
et al.  
1995 
; Noonpakdee et al.  
2003 
),  
Lb. 
nosus TM 300 has revealed that the genetic 
sakei  (Mortvedt et al.  1991 ; Aymerich et al. 
background was present for encoding a series 
 2000 ), 
 Pediococcus acidilactici  
(Cintas 
of desired technological properties, such as 
et al.  1995 ; Albano et al.  2007 ),  Lb. curvatus 
branched - chain  amino  acid  aminotransferase 
(Mataragas et al.  2003 ; Messens et al.  2003 ), 
producing fl 
avor compounds, superoxide 
 Enterococcus faecium 
 (Cintas et al.  
1997, 
dismutase, and catalase contributing to the 
1998 ), 
and 
 Leuconostoc mesenteroides 
control of lipid oxidation (Barriere et al. 
(Mataragas et al.  2003 ; Drosinos et al.  2006 ) 
 2001 ; Madsen et al.  2002 ). The presence of 
strains have been screened for bacteriocin 
the required genes does not necessarily mean 
production against several food - borne patho-
a functional biochemical pathway, but once 
gens. Bacteriocin production has been in 
the mechanisms that infl uence their transcrip-
many cases optimized, and mathematical 
tion and translation are understood, it will be 
models have been created in order to predict 
possible to assess the presence of desired 
its production under various conditions 
properties, merely by the use of specifi c 
(Drosinos et al.  
2008 
). Increased attention 
probes bypassing classical microbiological 
has also been given to the production and 
techniques.  
concomitant accumulation of biogenic 
amines, due to their potential toxic effects on 
 Nutritional Aspects 
consumption. The biogenic amine content of 
a variety of meat products has been studied 
 Generally, lactic acid fermentation can have 
(Ruiz - Capillas 
and 
Jimenez - Colmenero 
multiple effects on food nutritional value, 
 2004 ). In the case of fermented sausages, the 
either by modifying the level and bioavail-
microorganisms present possess a key role in 
ability of nutrients or by interacting with the 
their formation, and thus absence of amino 
gut microbiota and even the human immune 
acid decarbolyxase activity has become a key 
system. The nutrients that determine the 
requirement in the selection of a starter 
nutritional value of meat are the high biologi-
culture (Ammor and Mayo  
2007 
). Finally , 
cal value proteins and micronutrients such as 
the increased concern regarding the transmis-
vitamins B1 and B12, niacin equivalents, 
sion of antibiotic resistance genes, along with 
zinc, and iron, with the latter being mainly in 
the ability of several food - associated lactic 
the heme form that can be effi ciently absorbed 
acid bacteria to survive passage through the 
by  humans  (Hambraeus   1999 ;   Mann    2000 ). 
human gastrointestinal tract , inevitably led to 
Currently, there is no data available concern-
194    Chapter 9
ing the effect of fermentation on the level of 
gested by Pennacchia et al.  (2004) , leading 
the above - mentioned nutrients. 
to the isolation of twenty potentially probi -
 The substitution of NaCl and fat and the 
otic  
Lactobacillus 
 strains, eleven of which 
concomitant re 
- 
formulation of fermented 
exhibited good adhesion capability to Caco - 2 
sausage recipes has also been the subject of 
cell layers, most of them belonging to  Lb. 
extensive research, the former due to its rela-
plantarum 
 group (Pennacchia et al.  
2006 
). 
tion to the development of hypertension in 
Klingberg and Budde  
(2006) 
 demonstrated 
sensitive individuals, and the latter due to the 
the capacity of two  Lb. plantarum  strains to 
high saturated fatty acid and cholesterol 
survive the passage through the human GIT 
content and their relation to cardiovascular 
either as freeze - dried culture or embedded in 
disease. Since both ingredients possess a spe-
a sausage matrix. Microencapsulation has 
cifi c role in the manufacture of dry fermented 
also been proposed as an alternative for the 
sausages, this task seems to be quite chal -
incorporation of either probiotic or bacterio-
lenging. Potassium chloride, potassium  cinogenic strains. In the latter case, though, 
lactate, glycine, manganese chloride, calcium 
the inhibitory action of reuterin, producing 
chloride, and calcium ascorbate (Ibanez et al. 
 Lb. reuteri 
 against  
E. coli 
 O157:H7, was 
 1995, 1996, 1997 ; Gou et al.  1996 ; Gimeno 
found to be reduced during sausage fermen-
et al.  1998, 1999, 2001 ) have been examined 
tation compared with that of the free micro-
for their potential to substitute sodium chlo-
organism (Muthukumarasamy and Holley 
ride, and the difference regarding the senso-
 2006,  2007 ).  
rial quality of the end product has been 
pointed out, without, however, studying the 
 Public Health Aspects 
effect on safety from a microbiological 
point of view. On the other hand, fat reduc-
 
The ability of pathogens (e.g.,  
Salmonella 
tion with the addition of compounds such as 
spp.,  E. coli ,   L. monocytogenes ) to survive in 
inulin (Mendoza et al.  2001 ) and dietary fi ber 
many low - acid as well as low - water activity 
(Garcia et al.  2002 ) and even substitution by 
meat products, such as fermented meat prod-
olive oil (Bloukas et al.  
1997 
; Muguerza 
ucts, makes it unlikely that complete sup-
et al.  2001, 2002 ) or soy oil (Muguerza et al. 
pression can be achieved by the application 
 2004 ) has been studied with interesting and 
of control measures at a single source 
promising results. 
(Skandamis and Nychas  2007 ). Thus, effec-
 Since the idea of using probiotic starter 
tive control strategies must consider the 
cultures in sausage fermentation has devel-
multiple points at which pathogens can 
oped, several lactic acid bacteria have been 
gain access to the human food chain. The 
screened for their capacity to survive their 
persistence and the ability of very small 
passage through the human gastrointestinal 
numbers of these organisms to establish life -
tract and their possible in 
- 
site actions.  
Lb. 
 threatening infections with serious long - term 
curvatus 
 strain RM10 and  
Pd. acidilactici 
clinical consequences, particularly among at -
strain P2, isolated from freeze 
- dried  com-
 risk sections of the human population, mean 
mercial meat starter cultures, exhibited the 
that many elements of our food safety strate-
strongest capacity for surviving acidic condi-
gies have to be improved. Measures to control 
tions and 0.30% bile salts (Erkkila and Petaja 
pathogens during fermented meat produc-
 
2000 
). The suitability of three probiotic 
tion, processing, and distribution, at the 
 Lb. rhamnosus 
 strains (GG, E 
- 
97800, and 
retail level and during commercial/domestic 
LC 
- 
705) to produce dry sausage has been 
preparation, should be considered in detail. 
demonstrated by Erkkila et al.  (2001) . A very 
Therefore, the best approach to control 
effective screening procedure has been sug-
pathogens in fermented meat products is to 
Fermentation: Microbiology and Biochemistry    195
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A 
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Chapter 10
 Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation  
 Pier Sandro   Cocconcelli   and   Cecilia   Fontana  
 
 Introduction 
identifi ed in traditional fermented sausages 
are  Lactobacillus sakei ,   Lactobacillus curva-
 
Dry sausages are made from a mixture of 
tus 
, and  
Lactobacillus plantarum   (Fontana 
frozen pork, beef, and pork fat. In addition, 
et al.  
2005 
; Aymerich et al.  
2006 
; Urso 
these fermented products contain sugars, salt, 
et al.  
2006 
). Among GCC+ isolates, 
nitrite and/or nitrate, and spices. Fermentation 
 Staphylococcus xylosus, Staphylococcus 
is a crucial phase of sausage production, 
equorum , 
 Staphylococcus succinus , 
and 
since the major physical, biochemical, and 
 Staphylococcus saprophyticus 
 are men-
microbiological transformations take place at 
tioned, often with  
S. xylosus   predominant 
this stage (Lizaso et al.  1999 ; Villani et al. 
(Mauriello et al.  2004 ; Fontana et al  2005 ; 
 2007 ). All these transformations, which are 
Corbi è re  Morot - Bizot  et  al.   2006 ;  Drosinos 
infl uenced by the microbiota, the ripening 
et al.  2007 ). 
conditions, and the ingredients, have a con-
 
Improvement of quality and safety of 
siderable effect on the sensorial quality of 
sausage and other fermented meat products 
fermented meat products. These changes can 
can be achieved by the introduction of selec-
be summarized as follows: decreases in pH; 
tive decontaminating procedures targeted 
changes in the microbial populations; reduc-
toward spoilage and pathogenic bacteria but 
tion of nitrates to nitrites a; formation of 
preserving technological microbiota (Ammor 
nitrosomyoglobin; solubilization and gelifi -
et al.  2004 ), and by the addition of microbial 
cation of myofi brillar and sarcoplasmic pro-
starter cultures selected from meat - process-
teins; proteolytic, lipolytic, and oxidative 
ing environment in order to drive the fermen-
phenomena; and dehydration (Casaburi et al. 
tation process. 
 2007 ). 
 
Meat starter cultures are  
“ 
preparations 
 
Knowledge and control of the bacteria 
which contain living or resting microorgan-
present in the batter and involved in the fer-
isms that develop the desired metabolic 
mentation are essential in terms of the 
activity in the meat 
”   (Hammes   1996 ). 
microbiological quality, sensory characteris-
Inoculation of the sausage batter with a 
tics, and food safety. In the last decade, 
starter culture composed of selected LAB 
numerous studies on the ecology of tradi-
(i.e., homofermentative lactobacilli and/or 
tional fermented sausages confi rmed  and 
pediococci) and GCC+ (i.e., nonpathogenic, 
extended the knowledge, especially in terms 
coagulase - negative 
staphylococci 
and/or 
of technological lactic acid bacteria (LAB) 
kocuriae) improves the quality and safety 
and Gram 
- 
positive catalase positive cocci 
of the fi nal product and standardizes the pro-
(GCC+), (Aymerich et al.  
2003 
; Corbi 
è 
re 
duction process (Campbell 
- 
Platt and Cook 
Morot - Bizot et al.  2004 ; Giammarinaro et al. 
 1995 ;  Hugas  and  Monfort   1997 ;  L ü cke   1998, 
 2005 ; Rantsiou and Cocolin  2006 ; Urso et al. 
2000 ; H ü fner and Hertel  2008 ; Talon et al. 
 
2006 
). The LAB species most commonly 
 2008 ). 
199
200    Chapter 10
 The aim of this chapter is to provide the 
natural diversity of wild strains that occur in 
most recent information on bacterial inocu-
traditional artisan foods is being explored. 
lants and their potential functionalities, 
These approaches permit rapid high - through-
explaining how they can improve the quality 
put screening of promising wild strains, with 
of fermented meat products.  
interesting functional properties that lack 
negative characteristics to develop starter 
cultures based on indigenous technological 
 Starter Cultures for 
bacteria of traditional sausages, since these 
Fermented Meats 
strains are well adapted to the environment 
(Villani et al.  2007 ; Talon et al.  2008 ).  
 History 
 
Research on the use of starter cultures in 
 Bacterial Starter Cultures for 
meat products began in the United States in 
Meat Fermentations 
the 1940s, inoculating the batter with lacto -
bacilli, with the aim being to govern and 
 Lactic acid bacteria play a major role in the 
accelerate fermentation. In the late fi fties, 
microbial consortium of fermented and cured 
the Finn Niinivaara  (1955)  helped to launch 
meat: they affect both the technological prop-
this idea in Europe , developing mixed cul-
erties and the microbial stability of the fi nal 
tures of  
Micrococcus 
 sp. and  
Pediococcus 
product through the production of lactic and 
cerevisiae . After this experience, a fi rst gen-
acetic acids, and the consequent pH decrease. 
eration of meat starter bacterial cultures, 
At pH values of 4.6 
– 
5.9, muscle proteins 
generally based on microorganisms derived 
coagulate and lose their water - holding capac-
from cultures for vegetable fermentation, 
ity. This results in an improvement in the 
was developed. These bacterial cultures, 
fi nal product 
’ 
s sliceability, fi rmness,  and 
mainly selected for their acidifi cation 
cohesiveness. Ripening is also favored at this 
pro 
perties, were usually composed of  
L. 
acidic environment, as well as color develop-
plantarum 
 and members of the genus  
ment. Moreover, the accumulation of lactic 
 Pediococcus . Successively, a new generation 
and acetic acids inhibits growth of spoilage 
of starter cultures composed of strains iso-
and pathogenic microorganisms. Gram 
lated from meat, such as  L. sakei  and coa-
 positive catalase - positive cocci also have a 
gulase negative staphylococci (CNS), was 
relevant role in the manufacture of fermented 
developed that harbored phenotypic traits 
sausages. They enhance color stability, 
of technological relevance (Buckenh 
ü 
skes 
prevent rancidity, reduce spoilage, decrease 
 1994 ). This second generation is now widely 
processing time, and contribute to fl avor 
used in the industrial processes of fermented 
development. Yeasts and molds are used 
meat production. 
mainly for fl avor development, the fi rst 
 In the last years, more efforts have been 
through carbohydrate fermentation and the 
dedicated to the study of technological 
latter by lactate oxidation, proteolysis, degra-
properties of LAB and staphylococci isolated 
dation of amino acids, and lipolysis (Hugas 
from traditional fermented sausages to  and  Monfort   1997 ;  L ü cke   2000 ). 
develop functional starter cultures, with 
 Actually, most of the commercially avail-
increased diversity, stability, and industrial 
able meat starter cultures contain mixtures of 
performance (Garc 
í a - Varona  et  al.   2000 ; 
LAB ( 
Lactobacillus 
 and  
Pediococcus )  and 
Mauriello et al.  2004 ; Casaburi et al.  2005 ; 
GCC+ ( Staphylococcus  and  Kocuria ).  These 
Drosinos et al.  
2007 
). Using comparative 
bacterial groups are responsible for basic 
genomics, microarray analysis, transcrip-
microbial reactions that occur simultane-
tomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, the 
ously during fermentation. Table  
10.1 
 lists 
 Table 10.1.    Composition of some commercial starter cultures used for meat fermentation 
   Species  
   Functional  and  technological 
   Quality  characteristics  
properties for meat fermentation  
 Lactobacillus curvatus, 
  Fast  acidifi cation, and positive mild 
  Preservation 
Staphylococcus carnosus 
aroma developments as well as a 
 Firmness  (consistency) 
stable color in the product. The 
 Aroma  
fi nal pH may be adjusted with the 
amount of fermentable sugars 
added to the meat mix.  
 Pediococcus acidilactici, 
 Create a combination of normal 
  Preservation 
Pediococcus pentosaceus, 
acidifi cation, a positive aroma 
 Firmness  (consistency) 
development, and a good, stable 
 Aroma  
red color in the product. The fi nal 
pH may be adjusted with the 
amount of fermentable sugars 
added to the meat mix.  
 Staphylococcus xylosus, 
  Acidifi cation process initiates 
  Preservation 
Pediococcus pentosaceus 
quickly and results in a medium 
 Firmness  (consistency)  
pH - decline.   S. xylosus  gives a 
strong and stable color and an 
aromatic fl avor.  
 Pediococcus acidilactici, 
 Fast fermentation, distinct and very 
 Preservation (pH and bacteriocin) 
Lactobacillus curvatus   and 
good taste, good color formation 
 Firmness  (consistency) 
 Staphylococcus xylosus 
and stability. Due to bacteriocin 
 Aroma  
production, both  L. curvatus   and 
 P. acidilactici  contribute to 
suppressing growth of  Listeria 
monocytogenes .  
 Lactobacillus sakei, 
  Mild  acidifi cation, and positive mild 
  Preservation 
Staphylococcus carnosus 
aroma developments as well as a 
 Firmness  (consistency) 
stable color in the product.  
 Aroma  
 Pediococcus pentosaceus, 
  Mild  acidifi cation, and positive mild 
  Preservation 
Staphylococcus carnosus 
aroma developments as well as a 
 Firmness  (consistency)  
stable  color  in  the  product  *    
 Lactobacillus pentosus, 
 Aromatic cultures with intermediate 
  Color 
Staphylococcus carnosus 
acidifi cation  
 Aroma 
 Preservation  
 Lactobacillus sakei, 
  Proteolysis 
  Color 
Staphylococcus xylosus   and 
 Amino acid catabolism 
 Aroma 
 Staphylococcus carnosus 
 Lipolysis 
 Preservation  
 Antioxidant properties: catalase and 
SOD 
 Nitrate  reduction  
 Staphylococcus equorum 
  Flavor  development 
  Color 
 Nitrate  reduction  
 Aroma 
 Preservation  
 Kocuria varians 
  Nitrate  reduction  
  Color 
 Preservation  
    *     Bacteriocin  production  is  discussed  in  Chapter   14 .   
201
202    Chapter 10
the compostition of some commercial starter 
been investigated (Chaillou et al.  2008 ) by 
cultures.   
analyzing the genomic variations. This study 
revealed that  L. sakei  strains show extensive 
differences in chromosomal size, which 
 Lactic Acid Bacteria 
range from 1.8 to 2.3  Mb. Cluster analysis 
 The genus  Lactobacillus  is of great impor-
revealed that there are ten different strains 
tance in meat fermentation, and for this 
clusters, comprising two main groups of 
reason, species of this genus are frequently 
strains:  L. sakei  subsp.  carnosus , the more 
used as starter cultures in sausage and cured 
diverse, comprised of seven clusters; and  L. 
meat production. The genus  
Lactobacillus 
sakei 
 subsp.  
sakei 
, comprised of three 
includes more than 150 different species, 
clusters. 
with a large variety of phenotypic, biochemi-
 L. sakei  has evolved to adapt itself to the 
cal, and physiological traits (Axelsson  2004 ). 
meat environment, harboring the genetic 
The diversity and complexity of  Lactobacillus 
function that gives it the ability to grow and 
genus is refl ected by the presence of three 
survive there.  L. sakei  seems very well suited 
phylogenetic groups: the  L. casei   subgroup, 
to derive energy from other compounds 
containing the facultative heterofermentative 
that are more abundant in meat. Its adaptation 
lactobacilli; the  
Leuconostoc 
 group, which 
to meat, an environment rich in amino 
encompass the obligate heterofermentative; 
acids because of the activity of endogenous 
and the  L. acidophilus  group, composed of 
proteases, has caused it to lose biosynthetic 
obligate homofermentative lactobacilli. 
pathways for amino acid synthesis.  L. sakei 
 Only a limited number of  Lactobacillus 
is therefore auxotrophic for all amino 
species is commonly isolated from meat fer-
acids except aspartic and glutamic acid 
mentations and used as starter cultures. 
(Champomier - Verges  et  al.   2002 ).  Amino 
Among them,  L. sakei ,   L. curvatus  and  L. 
acid metabolism can provide an alternative 
plantarum 
, belonging to the sub 
- 
group of 
energy source for  
L. sakei 
 when glucose 
facultative heterofermentative lactobacilli, 
is exhausted, and this affects the sensorial 
are generally used for this purpose. The main 
properties of the sausage, as discussed 
energetic metabolism of these bacteria is the 
later. The genome shows a particularly well -
dissimilation of sugar to organic acid by 
 developed potential for amino acid catabo-
means of glycolysis and phosphoketolase 
lism, and in addition,  L. sakei  has the ability 
pathways. When hexoses are the energy 
to use purine nucleosides for energy produc-
source, lactic acid is the major fermentation 
tion (a unique property among lactic acid 
end product. Several studies clearly demon -
bacteria). 
strated that  
L. sakei 
 is the predominant 
 Although   L. plantarum  has been identifi ed 
species in fermented meat products, and its 
as part of the meat microbiota and is used as 
use as a starter culture for sausage production 
starter cultures for meat fermentation, this 
is widespread (Leroy et al.  2006 ). 
species lacks the specifi c adaptation to meat 
 The  fi rst complete genome sequence of 
environment found in  L. sakei .   L. plantarum 
bacteria from meat fermentation was that of 
is a highly versatile bacterium, frequently 
the sausage isolate  
L. sakei 
 23K (Berthier 
encountered in a variety of different environ-
et al.  1996 ). Its 1.88 - Mb chromosome, which 
ments, such as vegetable and dairy fermen-
encodes 1,883 predicted genes, harbors the 
tation and the gastrointestinal tract of 
genetic determinates for a specialized meta -
warm 
- 
blooded animals. The metabolic and 
bolic repertoire that refl ects the adaptation to 
environmental fl exibility of this organism is 
meat fermentation (Chaillou et al.  2005 ). The 
refl ected by the size of its genome, 3.3  Mb 
intra - specifi c diversity of  L. sakei  species has 
(Kleerebezem et al.  
2003 
), which is the 
Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation    203
largest of the  Lactobacillus   genus.  Although, 
with other Gram 
- 
positive cocci, such as 
 L. curvatus  is frequently isolated from meat 
 Micrococcus  genus, because these two genera 
fermentations and has a role in the control of 
often cohabit the same habitats. However, 
undesirable bacteria due to the production of 
molecular taxonomy has revealed that these 
antimicrobial peptides (see Chapter  14 ), less 
genera are phylogenetically separate and dis-
information on its physiology and genetics is 
tinct. The genus  Staphylococcus  belongs to 
available. 
the  Clostridium  subdivision of Gram - positive 
 Pediococci, although they do not compose  
bacteria, while  
Micrococcus 
 is part of the 
a relevant part of the microbial community 
 Actinomycetales .,   Kocuria varians   (formerly 
of European fermented sausages, occasion-
classifi ed as  
Micrococcus varians 
), is a 
ally occur in small amounts (Papamanoli et 
member of the  Micrococcaceae  family, and 
al.  
2003 
). They are more common in fer-
is used in meat starter cultures for its nitrate 
mented sausages from the United States, 
reductase ability. 
where they are intentionally added as starter 
 
The genus  
Staphylococcus   comprises 
cultures to accelerate acidifi cation of the 
41 validly described species and subspecies 
meat batter. Pediococci are Gram 
- 
positive, 
of  Gram - positive,  catalase - positive  cocci 
coccus  - shaped lactic acid bacteria, showing 
(Ghebremedhin et al.  
2008 
; Bannerman 
the distinctive characteristic of tetrad forma-
 2003 ; Kwok and Chow  2003 ; Spergser et al. 
tion via cell division in two perpendicular 
 2003 ), 10 of which contain subdivisions with 
directions on a single plane. Pediococci is 
subspecies designations (Place et al.  2003 ; 
a typical example of a rapid fermentative 
Spergser et al.  2003 ; Garrity et al.  2004 ). The 
organism, with a higher optimum growth 
staphylococci present a spherical shape, and 
temperature requirement, and of homo-
the cells are often grouped to form clusters. 
fermentative lactate production during  These microorganisms are widespread in 
sausage 
fermentation 
(Axelsson 
 2004 ). 
nature; their major habitats are skin, skin 
Phylogenetically  Pediococcus  species belong 
glands, and the mucous membranes of 
to the  L.  casein - Pediococcus   sub - cluster  of 
mammals and birds. Some species, mainly 
the  Lactobacillus  cluster. The genus consists 
coagulase - negative 
staphylococci 
(CNS) 
currently of nine species, but only  P. pento-
such as  Staphylococcus xylosus ,   S. carnosus , 
saceus  is generally used as a starter culture 
 S. equorum 
, and  
S. saprophyticus ,  are 
for meat fermentation. The species  P. cerevi-
frequently isolated from dry fermented 
siae , frequently mentioned as a starter culture, 
sausages, but other species occur, too. 
has now been reclassifi ed as  P. pentosaceus . 
Staphylococci are facultative anaerobes 
The genome - sequencing project of  P. pento-
capable of metabolizing a number of differ-
saceus ATCC 25745 is complete ( 
http://
ent sugars. Under anaerobic conditions, the 
genome.jgi-psf.org/draft_microbes/pedpe/
major end product is lactic acid, but acetate, 
pedpe.info.html ).  
piruvate, and acetoin are also formed. 
 Since   S. xylosus 
 and  
S. carnosus   are 
highly competitive in meat fermentation, 
 Gram - Positive Catalase - Positive Cocci 
present important technological properties, 
( GCC +) 
and generally lack virulence determinants, 
 Micrococcaceae  were frequently mentioned 
these are the most common CNS species 
as components of meat starter cultures, 
used as starter cultures. These organisms 
but this term generally referred to members 
show the ability to survive under environ-
of the  
Staphylococcus 
 genus (which  mental stress, such as high salt and low 
belongs to the family  
Staphylococcaceae) . 
temperatures encountered during meat fer-
 Staphylococcus 
 were originally grouped  mentation. CNS primarily contribute to the 
204    Chapter 10
development and stability of the desired red 
ing the shift from aerobic to anaerobic 
color of fermented sausages by means of 
metabolism as a function of environmental 
their nitrate reductase activity (Miralles et al. 
conditions. 
 
1996 
). In addition, they contribute to the 
 The genome sequencing of  S. xylosus   is 
development of other organoleptic properties 
ongoing, and information can be obtained at 
such as texture and fl avor (Hammes and 
 www.cns.fr/externe/English/Projets/Projet_
Hertel  
1998 
). These functions are accom-
NN/NN.html . Knowledge of the whole chro -
plished by specifi c enzymes involved in the 
mosome sequence of  S. xylosus , whose size 
metabolism of proteins and lipids. Previous 
has been estimated to be 2.86  Mb (Dordet -
studies have demonstrated that the aroma of 
 Frisoni et al.  2007 ), will provide for a better 
fermented meat products can be modulated 
understanding of the physiology of this 
by the presence of different  Staphylococcus 
species. A proteomics approach to study 
spp. (Berdagu é  et al.  1993 ; Stahnke  1995 ; 
cell - envelope proteins of  S. xylosus  has been 
Sondergaard and Stahnke  2002 ). 
developed (Planchon et al.  2006, 2007 ), in 
 A deeper view of the technological prop-
which a signifi cant set of cell 
- 
enveloped 
erties of  S. carnosus  derives from the analy-
proteins can be recovered. When such infor -
sis of its genome sequence (Rosenstein et al. 
mation is integrated with future analyses 
 2009 ).   S. carnosus TM300 has a genome size 
of the transcripts, a more integrated and com-
of 2.56 
 Mb, similar to that of pathogenic 
prehensive knowledge of the mechanism 
members of the  Staphylococcus  genus, such 
by which meat starter bacteria contribute to 
as  S. aureus   (2.71 – 2.91    Mb)  and   S. epidermi-
the fermentation of meat can be obtained, as 
dis  (2.49 – 2.64). Although this species has a 
can how these bacteria interact with one 
set of conserved genes corresponding to 
another.   
46% 
– 
50% of the entire chromosome, in 
common with  S. aureus ,   S. epidermidis ,   S. 
haemolyticus , and  S. saprophyticus , the lack 
 Starter Cultures: Technological 
of known staphylococcal virulence factors in 
Advantage in the Meat 
 S. carnosus 
 was confi 
rmed by genome 
Environment 
sequence. Thus, gene coding for  
alpha -
 Competitiveness 
 hemolysin,    gamma   - hemolysin,  exfoliative 
toxins, and superantigens, such as toxic 
 To make the ideal starter culture for any par-
shock syndrome toxin 1 and enterotoxins, 
ticular technology and recipe, it is necessary 
was not found in  S. carnosus   TM300  genome. 
to understand the function we seek and to 
A complete set of genes involved in meat 
have tools to monitor the effi cacy of the 
adaptation and coding for technological rel-
culture (Hansen  2002 ). One of the fundamen-
evant properties is harbored in the genome of 
tal properties of bacterial starter cultures is 
 S. carnosus . Genome - based analysis of the 
the ability to compete with the adventitious 
metabolic pathways for energy generation 
microbiota of meat, to colonize this environ-
revealed that this species possesses the 
ment, and to dominate the microbial com-
genetic potential for the transport into the cell 
munity of the fermented products. The starter 
and the metabolism of several sugars occur-
culture must compete with the natural micro-
ring in meat or added in the batter, such as 
biota of the raw material and undertake the 
glucose, lactose, and ribose. All the enzymes 
metabolic activities expected of being condi-
of the glycolytic pathway, the lactate dehy-
tioned by its growth rate and survival in the 
drogenase and the tricarboxilic acid cycle, 
conditions prevailing in the sausage (i.e., an 
and all components of the respiratory chain 
anaerobic atmosphere, rather high salt con-
are coded by the  S. carnosus  genome, allow-
centrations, low temperatures, and low pH). 
Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation    205
 
Two of the most common preservative 
 2005 ), thus increasing the competitiveness of 
conditions employed in meat processing are 
 L. sakei  in a meat environment. 
low temperatures and high salt concentra-
 The competiveness during fermentation is 
tions.  L. sakei  is remarkably well equipped 
strictly related to the ability of the cells to 
to cope with these conditions. It contains 
adapt to the environmental conditions of the 
several transporters for osmoprotective sub-
meat batter and to the ecological conditions 
stances and has more cold stress proteins 
present during fermentation. In a study on  L. 
than other lactobacilli.  L. sakei  has psychro-
sakei  gene expression, environmental condi-
trophic and osmotolerant properties, and is 
tions of sausage were found to induce 15 
able to grow at low temperatures and in the 
genes (H ü fner et al.  2007 ). Consistent with 
presence of up to 10% sodium chloride 
the expected metabolic adaptation, these 
(NaCl). These physiological features are 
genes code for proteins involved in the amino 
associated with the presence in its genome of 
acids and carbohydrate transport, lipid 
a higher number of genes coding for stress -
metabolism, and stress response. The inacti-
 
response proteins, such as cold shock and 
vation of the heat shock regulator gene  ctsR 
osmotolerance proteins, than found in other 
resulted in an improved growth of  L. sakei   in 
lactobacilli.  L. sakei  lacks proteins involved 
fermented sausages. 
in adhesion to intestinal mucous, but its 
 The ability of CNS to colonize cured and 
genome codes for numerous proteins that 
fermented meats has been well described 
may be involved in adhesion to the meat 
(Leroy et al.  2006 ). Thus, these organisms, 
surface (e.g., to collagen), aggregation, 
which are present in the adventitious micro-
and biofi lm formation. Thus, the bacterium 
biota of meat or are added as starter cultures 
seems well equipped to adhere to and spread 
to the batter, become a dominant population 
on a meat surface (Eijsink and Axelsson 
during fermentation. Physiological proper-
 2005 ). 
ties, such as the ability to grow at low tem-
 Sanz  and  Toldr á    (2002)   reported  an  argi-
peratures and low water activity, contribute 
nine - specifi c aminopeptidase activity in  
L. 
to the competiveness. Information derived 
sakei  that is important for the release of the 
from the  S. carnous  genome provides a sci-
free amino acid, since it could be further 
entifi c basis for adaptation to low water 
channeled into the arginine deiminase  activity environments, such as cured and fer-
pathway. The genes encoding the proteins 
mented meat. Nine pathways involved in 
required for arginine catabolism in  L. sakei 
osmoprotection, which contribute to the 
are organized in a cluster (Z ú r í ga et al.  2002 ), 
accumulation of biocompatible solutes in the 
and their transcription is repressed by glucose 
cytoplasm, are present in  S. carnous   TM300. 
and induced by arginine. Arginine, in par-
These include four proline transport systems; 
ticular, is an essential amino acid for  L. sakei 
three glycine betaine transporters; one multi-
and specifi cally promotes its growth in meat; 
component transporter for choline, glycine 
it is used as an energy source in the absence 
betaine, and carnitine; and one system for the 
of glucose (Champomier - Verges et al.  1999 ). 
choline uptake (Rosenstein et al.  2009 ).  
The concentration of free arginine in raw 
meat is low, although it is relatively abundant 
 Acid Production 
in muscle myofi brillar proteins. Moreover, 
the genome analysis has shown that  L. sakei 
 Sugars (glucose and occasionally lactose or 
harbors a second putative arginine deaminase 
sucrose) are usually included in the industrial 
pathway, containing two peptydil 
- 
arginine 
manufacture of fermented meat products, 
deaminases, enzymes that can contribute to 
though in Spain, chorizo is traditionally man-
the metabolism of arginine (Chaillou et al. 
ufactured with little or no added sugar. 
206    Chapter 10
During fermentation and ripening, LAB 
inosine hydrolase, and nucleoside phosphor-
convert glucose (their primary energy source) 
ylase, all of which enable the release of a 
to lactic acid, which is the main component 
ribose moiety from nucleoside (adenosine 
responsible for the pH decrease. This acidifi -
and inosine) and its subsequent metabolism 
cation has a preservative effect, due to inhibi-
(Chaillou et al.  2005 ). Moreover, the pres-
tion of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria with 
ence of methylglyoxal synthase, a novel 
little resistance to low pH, and it contributes 
genetic trait in lactic acid bacteria, has been 
to the development of the typical organolep-
proposed as a pathway to counteract frequent 
tic characteristics of the fermented sausages 
glucose starvation and modulate the metabo-
(Bover - Cid et al.  2001 ). Although it is well 
lism of alternative carbon sources (Chaillou 
established that fermentable carbohydrates 
et  al.   2005 ).   
have an infl uence on fl avor, texture, and yield 
 The effect of environmental challenges on 
of fermented sausages, carbohydrates for use 
the growth and acidifi cation kinetics of  
L. 
in dry sausages formulations are generally 
sakei  in sausages has been recently studied 
chosen to ensure an adequate initial drop in 
by H ü fner and Hertel  (2008) . In this study, it 
meat  pH  (Bacus   1984 ;  L ü cke   1985 )  for  pres-
was demonstrated that  
L. sakei   improves 
ervation reasons, and less importance is 
its acidifi cation performances if cells are 
given to the product texture. The level of 
exposed to sub - lethal stresses, such as cold 
acidifi cation and the selection of the starter 
and osmotic shocks. This adaptation to stress 
culture to be used depend on the desired sen-
improves the performance of  L. sakei   during 
sorial properties of the product. In northern 
sausage fermentation.  
European sausage technologies, more acid 
products are preferred, obtained by adding 
 Catalase Activity 
 Lactobacillus  starter cultures and more car-
bohydrates to the sausage matrix (0.6% 
–
 The metabolism of most lactic acid bacteria, 
 0.8%). On the other hand, less acidic products 
such as the adventitious lactobacilli that con-
are obtained using a lower concentration of 
taminate raw meat, could lead to the forma-
glucose and also by using  
Staphylococcus 
tion of hydrogen peroxide, a compound that 
starter cultures, as occurs in typical southern 
interferes with the sensorial properties of 
European fermented sausages. In these last 
meat products, as it is involved in discolor-
products, which are characterized by a longer 
ation of nitroso - heme pigment and lipid oxi-
ripening period (up to 60 days), an increase 
dation. Bacterial strains used in meat cultures 
of pH occurs in the later stages of fermenta-
can produce catalase, antioxidant enzymes 
tion, related to ammonia release from ATP 
that cause disproportionate levels of hydro-
and amino acid metabolisms. 
gen peroxide compared with oxygen and 
 Acidifi cation could also be the result of 
water, preventing the risk of reduced quality 
alternative pathways. In  L. sakei , the pres-
in the fermented meat. Thus, catalase produc-
ence of genes involved in the energetic catab-
tion is considered a relevant technological 
olism of nucleoside, such as adenosine and 
property of starter cultures for fermented 
inosine, is an example of the adaptation of 
meat products (Leroy et al.  2006 ). Production 
this organism to the meat environment. 
of this antioxidant enzyme is a common trait 
Glucose, the favorite carbon source of  
L. 
in aerobic bacteria, such as CNS. The char-
sakei 
, is rapidly consumed in meat, while 
acterization of catalase and superoxide dis-
adenosine and inosine are abundant, reaching 
mutase in  S. carnosus  and  S. xylosus   has  been 
twice the concentration of glucose. In addi-
reported. The catalase gene  kat A  of   S. xylosus 
tion (as shown in Fig.  10.1 ),  L. sakei   harbors 
has been studied in detail (Barri 
è 
re et al. 
genes coding for adenosine deaminase, 
 2001a, b, 2002 ). Transcriptional activity of 
Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation    207
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
GLYCOGEN
ATP
GLUCOSE
NITRATE
O2
lipase
ph
nitrate
peptides
glucose
os
NAD o
glycoly
phoketolas
fatty-acids
 reductase
x
idase
sis
b-ox
glycoly
Arg
a.a.
idation
catalase
catalase
e
a.a. metabolism
sis
t
decarbo
r
deimin
ansaminase
x
Methylketones
ase
ilase
LACTATE
LACTATE
NITRITE
H O
2
2
ACETATE
LACTATE
NH3
Orn
ALDEHYDES  B.A.  
NH
ACIDS
3
ESTERS 
ALCHOOLS
 Figure 10.1.   Meat starter culture bacteria: major metabolic pathways in meat fermentation . Main 
enzymatic activities of coagulase negative staphylococci and lactobacilli are indicated by light grey arrows and 
dark grey arrows, respectively. The metabolic activities ascribed to both bacterial groups are indicated by white 
arrows. Dotted - line arrows indicate action of endogenous meat enzymes. Abbrevations: a.a., amino acids; Arg, 
arginine; B.A., Biogenic Amines; Orn, ornithine. Sugars added to the batter are rapidly metabolized to lactate 
by starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria. Glycogen, proteins, and lipids catabolism are also used for microbial 
growth during fermentation. Ribose is released by ATP hydrolysis, and the subsequent metabolism of ribose -
 derived molecules is used for energy production by  L. sakei . When sugar concentration declines, free amino 
acids (a.a) are utilized for microbial growth. Via the arginine deiminase (ADI) pathway, arginine is converted to 
ornithine and supports the growth of lactobacilli in the latter stage of meat fermentation. Staphylococci modu-
late the aroma through the conversion of amino acids (particularly the branched - chain amino acids leucine, 
isoleucine, and valine) into methyl - branched aldehyde, methyl - branched acids and sulphites, diacetyl, and ethyl 
ester . The methyl ketones (2 -  pentanone and 2 - heptanone) derive from intermediates of an incomplete  ß  -
 oxidation pathway in staphylococci.  
this gene is activated and induced by oxygen 
heme catalase and the second group nonheme 
and hydrogen peroxide upon entry into the 
Mn - containing  catalase.  The  presence  of  a 
stationary phase. Moreover, a second gene 
heme 
- 
dependent catalase has been demon-
coding for heme - dependent catalase has been 
strated in  L. plantarum  (Igarashi et al.  1996 ) 
detected in  
S. xylosus .  The  well - described 
and  L. sakei  (Noonpakdeea et al.  1996 ); it can 
antioxidant property of  S. carnous   TM300, 
be active in meat products because these 
involved in the protection of meat products 
substrates contain abundant heme sources 
from hydrogen peroxide damage, depends on 
(Hertel et al.  1998 ). Moreover, analysis of the 
a set of genes, one superoxide dismutase, two 
genome of  L. sakei  revealed that this meat 
catalases, and various peroxidases, involved 
organism harbors systems for protection 
in the protection against oxygen reactive 
against reactive oxygen species, such as Mn -
species (Rosenstein et al.  2009 ). 
 
dependent SOD and heme 
- 
dependent cata-
 
Although lactic acid bacteria have long 
lase (Chaillou et al.  
2005 
). The  
L. sakei 
been considered as catalase - negative micro-
genome contains genes encoding a heme 
organisms, two groups of catalase activity 
 dependent catalase, a superoxide dismutase, 
have been reported in the last decade in 
and a NADH oxidase to cope with reactive 
genera  
Lactobacillus , 
 Pediococcus , 
and 
oxygen species, and there are several systems 
 Leuconostoc .  The  fi rst group is defi ned  as 
to cope with changes in the redox potential. 
208    Chapter 10
 A summary of the main metabolic path-
 The pattern of the proteolysis in fermented 
ways used by the meat starter bacteria 
sausages is infl uenced by several variables, 
( Lactobacillus  and  Staphylococcus ) is given 
such as product formulation, processing con-
in  Figure   10.1 .  
dition, and starter culture (Hughes et al. 
 
2002 
). The volatiles so far recognized as 
being produced by staphylococci are primar-
 Nitrate Reduction 
ily amino acid catabolites, piruvate metabo-
 Nitrate is added to fermented sausages for its 
lites, and methylketones from incomplete 
capacity to obtain and fi x the typical color of 
 β 
- 
oxidation of fatty acids (Stahnke et al. 
cured products, rather than for its antimicro-
 2002 ). In particular,  S. xylosus  and  S. carno-
bial properties. To be effective, the added 
sus 
 modulate the aroma through the con-
nitrate must be reduced to nitrite. Besides 
version of amino acids (particularly the 
contributing to fl avor,   Staphylocuccus   and 
branched - chain amino acids BCAA: leucine, 
 Kocuria 
 also have a role because of their 
isoleucine, and valine). The BCAA can be 
nitrate reductase and antioxidant activities 
degraded  into  methyl - branched  aldehydes, 
(Tal ó n et al.  1999, 2002 ). These microorgan-
alcohols, and acids by  
S. xylosus 
 and  
S. 
isms reduce nitrate to nitrite, which is impor-
carnosus 
 (Vergnais et al.  
1998 
; Larrouture 
tant for the formation of nitrosylmyoglobin, 
et al.  2000 ; Beck et al.  2002 ). Furthermore, 
the compound responsible for the character-
addition of  
S. carnosus 
 starter culture has 
istic red color of fermented meats. The nitrate 
been shown to decrease the maturation time 
reductase activity is widespread in CNS; it 
of Italian dried sausages by more than two 
has been detected in  S. xylosus ,   S. carnosus , 
weeks (Stahnke et al.  
2002 
). Olesen et al 
 S. epidermidis ,   S. equorum ,   S. lentus , and  S. 
 (2004)  reported that curing conditions had a 
simulans  (Tal ó n et al.  1999 ; Mauriello et al. 
considerable infl uence on the development of 
 2004 ).  In   S. carnosus , the molecular genetic 
volatile compounds in sausages. In addition, 
determinants for nitrogen regulation, the 
major differences were observed in the 
 nre ABC genes, were identifi ed and shown to 
development of volatile compounds, depend-
link the nitrate reductase operon ( nar GHJI) 
ing on whether  S. xylosus  or  S. carnosus   were 
and the putative nitrate transporter gene 
used as starter culture. 
 nar T. The data provide evidence for a global 
 Even though microbial proteolytic activity 
regulatory system, with oxygen as the effec-
is generally low in the conditions found in 
tors molecule (Fedtke et al.  2002 ). The high 
fermented sausages (Kenneally et al.  1999 ), 
dissimilatory nitrate respiration, typical of  S. 
a minor, strain - dependent activity may still 
carnosus  and involved in nitrate reduction in 
partly contribute to initial protein breakdown 
meat products, was found to be present in the 
(Molly et al.  
1997 
; Fadda et al.  
1999a, b, 
genome of  S. carnosus   TM300  (Rosenstein 
2002 ; Sanz et al.  1999 ). Several studies lead 
et  al.   2009 ).  
the hypothesis that both endogenous and bac-
terial peptidases are required for complete 
hydrolysis of oligopeptides, and the activity 
 Flavor Formation 
of these enzymes could be strongly involved 
 The  fl avor and aroma of fermented meats is 
in the quality of the fi nal product (Rodr í guez 
a combination of several elements. Lactic 
et al.  1998 ; Fadda et al.  1999a, b ; Mauriello 
acid bacteria produce lactic acid and small 
et al.  
2002, 2004 
; Casaburi et al.  
2005 
; 
amounts of acetic acid, ethanol, and acetoin; 
Drosinos et al.  2007 ). It has been described 
however, to ensure the sensory quality of 
 in vitro  that several  Lactobacillus  spp. exhibit 
fermented sausages, the contribution of the 
proteolytic activity on porcine muscle myo-
proteolytic and lipolytic activities of staphy-
fi brillar and sarcoplasmic proteins. Fadda 
lococci is fundamental . 
et al.  
(2001a) 
 reported the contribution of 
Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation    209
curing conditions to the generation of hydro-
LAB, referred to as bioprotective cultures. 
philic peptides and free amino acids by the 
Bioprotective cultures may act as starter cul-
proteolytic activity of  L. curvatus  CRL 705. 
tures in food fermentation processes, such as 
Moreover, it has been demonstrated that  L. 
dry sausage manufacturing, or they may 
sakei  plays an important role in amino acid 
protect foods without any detrimental organ-
generation (Fadda et al.  1999a, b ; Sanz et al. 
oleptic changes. 
 1999 ). 
 The ability to produce different antimicro-
 
Lipolysis, together with proteolysis, is 
bial compounds, such as bacteriocins and/or 
believed to play a central role in aroma 
low 
- 
molecular mass antimicrobial com-
formation. This phenomena is only the fi rst 
pounds, may be one of the critical character-
step in the process and is followed by further 
istics for effective competitive exclusion. As 
oxidative degradation of fatty acids into 
mentioned above, one of the main roles of 
alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, and 
meat LAB starter cultures is the rapid pro-
ketones (Viallon et al.  1996 ; Chizzolini et al. 
duction of organics acids; this inhibits the 
 1998 ), which enhances the development of 
growth of unwanted biota and enhances 
the fl avor. In fact, medium -  and long - chain 
product safety and shelf life. Likewise, 
fatty acids act as precursors of aroma com-
several authors have reported the role of 
pounds, whereas the short - chain fatty acids 
 Staphylococcus  in proteolysis, lipolysis, and 
(Co6) lead to strong cheesy odors (Ansorena 
formation of fl avor in sausages (Berdagu é  et 
et al.  
2001 
). Although some authors  al.  1993 ; Montel et al.  1998, 1996 ; Engelvin 
(Molly et al.  1997 ; Kenneally et al.  1998 ; 
et al.  2000 ; Stahnke  2002 ; Olesen et al.  2004 ; 
Galgano et al.  
2003 
) have concluded that 
Tjener et al.  2004 ). Some strains are able to 
tissue lipases are primarily responsible for 
produce antimicrobial substances (Mart 
í 
n 
lipolysis during fermentation, numerous  et al.  2007 ). 
studies over the last decade described 
 The production of bacteriocins, one of the 
lipolytic bacteria, especially staphylococci 
most promising technological features of 
(Hugas and Monfort  
1997 
; Montel et al. 
starter cultures, is discussed in Chapter  14 .  
 
1998 
; Mauriello et al.  
2004 
). Hugas and 
Monfort  (1997)  highlighted the need to use 
 Probiotics 
selected  strains  of  Gram - positive,  catalase -
 positive cocci to ensure sensory quality of 
 Foods that have health benefi ts beyond their 
fermented sausages. Moreover, Stahnke et al. 
nutritional content (functional foods), and 
 (2002) , Beck et al.  (2004) , and Olesen et al. 
particularly foods containing probiotics, are 
 
(2004) 
 described the capability of  products that are growing in popularity. 
 Staphylococcus xylosus  and  Staphylococcus 
Probiotics are available as dietary supple-
carnosus 
 strains to modulate the aroma 
ments or they may be incorporated directly 
through the conversion of amino acids and 
into foods. They are live microorganisms that 
free fatty acids (FFA). Strains of  S. xylosus 
when administered in adequate amounts, 
have been recommended for the production 
confer a health benefi t to the host (FAO 
of the very aromatic sausages of southern 
 2006 ); they are added to a variety of foods. 
Europe (Samelis et al.  1998 ).  
Recently, attention has been directed to the 
use of fermented sausages as a food carrier 
because these products could contain high 
numbers of viable lactic acid bacteria. To use 
 Bacteriocin and Biopreservation 
probiotics as starter cultures for fermented 
 In recent years, there has been a considerable 
sausages, in addition to the demonstrated 
increase in studies of the natural antimicro-
probiotic features (FAO  2006 ), other proper-
bial compounds on and in food produced by 
ties are demanded. 
210    Chapter 10
 
Although dairy products are the most 
bile resistance, from fi nished  products 
commonly used food vehicles for delivery 
(Papamanoli et al.  2003 ; Pennacchia et al. 
of probiotics, the future of dry 
- 
fermented 
 2004 ). This approach requires an extensive 
sausages in this fi eld has been termed  “ prom-
study of the isolates for other benefi cial prop-
ising ”   (Incze   1998 ).  The  probiotic  culture 
erties, such as intestinal colonization poten-
should be well adapted to the conditions 
tial and inhibitory activity against pathogenic 
of the fermented sausage in order to domi -
bacteria. 
nate in the fi nal product, competing with 
 
Commercial probiotic cultures, such as 
other bacterial populations from meat and 
strains  L. rhamnosus  GG,  L. rhamnosus   LC -
from the starter culture. In addition, the 
 705,   L. rhamnosus   E - 97800,  and   L. planta-
culture should not develop off - fl avors in the 
rum  E - 98098, have been tested as functional 
fi nal product. 
starter culture strains in northern European 
 The potential for dry - fermented sausages 
sausage fermentation without negatively 
to serve as a vehicle for probiotic organisms 
affecting the technological or sensory proper-
has been comprehensively reviewed by 
ties, with the exception of  
L. rhamnosus 
Ty ö pp ö nen et al.  (2003) . Most of the studies 
LC - 705  (Erkkil ä   et  al.   2001 ).  Klingberg 
discussed in this review relied on the fermen-
et  al.   (2005)   identifi ed   L. plantarum   and 
tative abilities of the probiotic organisms 
 L. pentosus 
 strains, originating from the 
used, so the selection of probiotics was 
dominant NSLAB of fermented meat pro-
limited to organisms that were capable of 
ducts, as promising candidates for probiotic 
fermenting carbohydrates in meat. 
meat starter cultures suitable for the manu-
 Various studies have shown that probiotic 
facture of the Scandinavian - type fermented 
organisms have poor survival in fermented 
sausage. 
foods such as yoghurt, fermented milks, and 
 
It is worthwhile to mention that in the 
dry 
- 
fermented sausages (Kailasapathy and 
European Union there is specifi c  regulation 
Rybka   1997 ;  L ü cke   2000 ;  Shah   2000 ; 
(EC No 1924/2006) aimed at ensuring 
Shah and Ravula  2000 ; Erkkil ä  et al.  2001 ). 
that any health claim made on a food 
Dry 
- 
fermented sausages with their low a 
w 
label is clear, accurate, and scientifi cally 
and pH, plus curing salts and competing 
substantiated.  
organisms, would seem to present a challeng-
ing environment for the survival of probiotics 
 Safety of Selected Bacterial 
during processing. Kearney et al.  
(1990) 
 
Starter Cultures 
was the fi rst to report the use of microen-
capsulation in alginate to protect starter cul-
 
Members of the genus  
Lactobacillus   and 
tures during meat fermentation. Recently, 
 Pediococcus 
 are generally considered non-
Muthukumarasamy and Holley  (2006)  used 
pathogenic for the consumer. The safety of 
microencapsulation technology as a means to 
these two bacterial genera has recently been 
protect a recognized probiotic organism ( L. 
assessed by EFSA in the risk 
- 
assessment 
reuteri ) from the harsh environment during 
approach named Qualifi ed  Presumption 
sausage processing. Based on their results, 
of Safety (EFSA  
2008 
). However, risk 
the authors suggest that microencapsulation 
factors could be the production of biogenic 
may be an option for formulation of fer-
amines or the presence of transmissible 
mented meat products with viable health 
determinants for the antibiotic resistance. 
 
promoting bacteria. Another approach for 
The  Staphylococcus  genus also encompasses 
selecting bioprotective and probiotic cultures 
several species responsible for infections or 
for use in dry - fermented sausages involved 
intoxications. For this reason, the production 
the isolation of LAB, which possess acid and 
of enterotoxins and the presence of acquired 
Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation    211
resistance to antibiotic are major concerns 
relation between pH and BA contents, the 
in CNS. 
lowest pH generally being characterized by 
highest amine levels (Vandekerckove  1977 ; 
Eitenmiller et al.  1978 ; Hal à sz et al.  1994 ; 
 Biogenic Amines 
Bover - Cid et al.  1999 ; Parente et al.  2001 ), 
 The accumulation of biogenic amines (BA) 
according to the hypothesis that biogenic 
in foods requires the presence of amino acid 
amine production could be a protective 
precursors, microorganisms with amino  mechanism for microorganisms against 
acid decarboxylase activity, and favorable 
acidic environmental conditions. 
conditions (temperature and pH) for growth 
 The  fi nal BA contents in fermented sau-
and decarboxylation. The large quantities of 
sages depend on the microbial composition 
protein present and the proteolytic activity 
of meat used as raw material, but also on the 
found during the ripening of meat products 
type and activity of the starter culture inocu-
provide the precursors for later decarboxyl-
lated. Most strains of  L. curvatus , one of the 
ase reactions performed by both starter cul-
main species used as a starter in sausage pro-
tures and wild microbiota (Suzzi and Gardini 
duction, are associated with high BA produc-
 2003 ; Komprda et al.  2004 ). The presence in 
tion (Bover - Cid and Holzapfel  1999 ; Pereira 
food of biogenic amines (BA), such as cadav-
et al.  2001 ). 
erine, putrescine, spermidine, histamine, 
 The use of starter cultures with negative 
phenethylamine, agmatine, and tyramine, is 
decarboxylase activity was shown to prevent 
a health concern because their biological 
the growth of biogenic amine producers and 
effect can lead to toxicological symptoms, 
lead to end products nearly free of BA, as 
such as pseudo  - allergic reactions, histaminic 
long as the raw material was of suffi cient 
intoxication, and interaction with drugs 
quality. Several papers have reported on the 
(Shalaby  
1996 
). Excessive consumption of 
ability of selected starter culture ( 
L. sakei 
these amines could cause nervous, gastric, 
CTC494) to greatly reduce BA accumulation 
intestinal, and blood pressure problems 
in fermented sausages (Bover 
- 
Cid et al. 
(Suzzi and Gardini  
2003 
). Nowadays,   2001 ;  Gonz á lez - Fern á ndez  et  al.   2003 ).  This 
increasing attention is given to BA because 
negative 
- 
decarboxylate strain can decrease 
of the growing number of consumers who are 
the pH quickly during the fermentation step 
sensitive to them; in such people, the action 
and be predominant throughout the process, 
of amine oxidases, the enzymes involved in 
thus preventing the growth of bacteria that 
the detoxifi cation of these substances, is defi -
can produce BA. 
cient (Suzzi and Gardini  2003 ). High levels 
 
The introduction of starter strains that 
of BA, especially tyramine but also hista-
possess amine oxidase activity might be 
mine and the diamines putrescine and cadav-
a way to further decrease the amount of 
erine, have been described in fermented 
BA produced during meat fermentation 
sausages (Hern á ndez - Jover  et  al.   1997a,  b ; 
(Martuscelli et al.  2000 ; Fadda et al.  2001b ; 
Bover - Cid et al.  2000a, b ). 
Gardini et al.  
2003 
; Suzzi and Gardini 
 Many LAB from meat and meat products 
 2003 ).  
can decarboxylate amino acids (Bover 
- 
Cid 
and Holzapfel  1999 ). Rosenstein et al. ( 2009 ) 
 Antibiotic Resistance 
reported that  S. carnosus  encodes an orni-
thine decarboxylase (Sca0122) that could 
 The safety of bacterial strains intentionally 
account for the synthesis of putrescine 
added to food, such as starter cultures used 
from ornithine or cadaverine from lysine. 
for meat products, is becoming an issue. 
Many studies have reported a signifi cant cor-
Although meat starter cultures have a long 
212    Chapter 10
history of apparent safe use, safety concerns 
have occurred (Ahn et al.  1992 ; Tannock et 
can be associated with lactic acid bacteria 
al.  1994 ; Lin et al.  1996 ; Gevers et al.  2003 ; 
and, more frequently, with CNS. A risk 
Ammor  et  al.   2008 ) 
factor potentially associated with all bacterial 
 Antimicrobial resistance in CNS has been 
groups used as starter cultures for sausage is 
studied in detail due to its clinical relevance. 
the presence of acquired genes for antimicro-
These bacteria display a high prevalence of 
bial resistance. 
antibiotic resistance (Agvald 
- 
Ohman et al. 
 
The food chain has been recognized as 
 2004 ) and can constitute reservoirs of antibi-
one of the main routes for the transmission 
otic - resistance genes that can be transferred 
of antibiotic 
- 
resistant bacteria between  to other staphylococci (Wielders et al.  2001 ). 
animal and human populations (Witte  2000 ). 
Antibiotic 
- 
resistant strains were found in 
The European Food Safety Authority has 
food (Gardini et al.  2003 ; Martin et al.  2006 ), 
recently concluded that bacteria deliberately 
and genes for antimicrobial resistance to tet-
introduced in the food chains, such as the 
racycline,  tet (M) and  tet (K);  erythromycin, 
starter cultures, might pose a risk to human 
 ermB 
 and  
ermC 
; and two  
β  - lactams  ( blaZ 
and animal health because of carrying 
and mecA) have been detected in CNS iso-
acquired resistance genes (EFSA  
2007 
). 
lated from fermented meat. Moreover,  
S. 
Fermented meats that are not heat treated 
xylosus  strains, isolated from poultry infec-
before consumption provide a vehicle for 
tions, were found to be resistant to strepto-
such bacteria and can act as a direct link 
gramins, harboring the  
vatB 
 and the  
vgaB 
between the indigenous microbiota of animals 
genes. 
and the human gastrointestinal tract. 
 An additional concern is that, even in the 
 
Lactobacilli are generally recognized as 
absence of selective pressure, mobile genetic 
safe and are not responsible for human infec-
elements carrying antibiotic resistance can be 
tions in healthy people (Z 
’ 
Graggen et al. 
transferred at high frequency through the 
 2005 ). However, they might act as reservoirs 
microbial community during sausage fer-
of transmissible antibiotic 
- 
resistance genes 
mentation (Vogel et al.  
1992 
; Cocconcelli 
that under certain conditions could be trans-
et al.  2003 ). 
ferred to food or gut microbiota (Jacobsen 
 For these reasons, the absence of acquired 
et al.  2007 ). In addition, the emergence of 
resistance to an antibiotic of clinical rele -
antibiotic - resistant 
food - borne 
pathogens 
vance should be a parameter to be used in the 
originating from meat products (Doyle and 
selection of starter cultures for food.  
Erickson  2006 ) raises the question of the pos-
sibility of gene transfer between industrial 
 Toxigenic Potential 
bacterial species and food - borne  pathogens. 
 
Several studies have reported antibiotic 
 Some members of the CNS group, primarily 
resistance in LAB from meats and meat prod-
 S. epidermidis 
, are common nosocomial 
ucts; a few strains involved in sausage fer-
pathogens, and the presence of regulatory 
mentation such as  L. sakei ,   L. curvatus ,  and 
elements, involved in the control of virulence 
 L. plantarum  have been found to show such 
factor synthesis, has been recently identifi ed. 
resistance (Holley and Blaszyk  1997 ; Teuber 
Remarkably, strains of  S. xylosus  were iso-
and Perreten  2000 ; Gevers et al.  2003 ). Some 
lated from patients who had an underlying 
genetic determinants, such as chlorampheni-
disease. The same species has been reported 
col acetyltransferase ( cat  - TC),  erythromycin 
to be involved in infections of poultry 
( erm B), and tetracycline ( tet L,   tet M, and  tet S 
(Aarestrup et al.  2000 ). 
resistance genes), have been identifi ed, sug-
 Although CNS of food origin has not been 
gesting that horizontal gene transfer may 
found to produce nosocomial infections, 
Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation    213
some strains that produced enterotoxins have 
the selection of strains well adapted to the 
been  described.  Vernozy - Rozand  et  al. 
environment and able to compete with con-
 
(1996) 
 reported enterotoxin E as the most 
taminant bacteria. 
frequent enterotoxin found in  S. equorum   and 
 In the process of selection and choice of 
 S. xylosus 
, though Martin et al.  
(2006) 
 
a starter culture, the safety aspects such as 
reported that the occurrence of staphylococ-
antibiotic resistance, virulence genes, and 
cal enterotoxin genes in CNS from slightly 
undesirable metabolite formation should not 
fermented sausages was rare, detecting only 
be overlooked.  
 ent C in  S. epidermidis .  The  coagulase - posi-
tive species,  
S. intermedius 
 and  
S. aureus , 
have been more frequently related to staphy-
 References 
lococcal intoxication to date. Moreover,  
S. 
    Aarestrup ,   F.  ,    Y.    Agers ø   ,    P.    Ahrens  ,    J.   Ø .    J ø rgensen  ,    M.  
intermedius 
 are opportunistic pathogens in 
 Madsen  ,  and    L.  B.     Jensen  .   2000 .   Antimicrobial  sus-
implant infections, due to their ability to form 
ceptibility and presence of resistance genes in staphy-
lococci from poultry 
.  
Veterinary Microbiology 
biofi lm on prosthetic materials. 
 74 : 353  –  364 .  
 The   S. xylosus  and  S, carnosus  strains cur-
    Agvald - Ohman ,   C.  ,    B.    Lund  ,  and    C.    Edlun  .   2004 . 
rently used as starter cultures or isolated from 
 Multiresistant  coagulase - negative  staphylococci  dis-
seminate frequently between intubated patient into a 
fermented meat products generally lack toxin 
multidisciplinary intensive care unit 
.  
Critical Care 
genes. The absence of genes coding for 
 8 : 42  –  47 .  
staphylococcal enterotoxins or enterotoxin 
    Ahn ,   C.  ,    D.    Collins - Thompson  ,    C.    Duncan  ,  and    M.  
 Stiles  .  1992 .  Mobilization and location of the genetic 
 like superantigens is a qualifi cation required 
determinant of chloramphenicol resistance from 
for CNS strains selected for use as starter 
Lactobacillus plantarum caTC2R 
.  
Plasmid  
 27 :
cultures.   
 169  –  176 .  
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 2002 . The product of arcR, the sixth gene of the arc 
 67 : 447  –  452 .  
peron of Lactobacillus sakei, is essential for expres-
    Ty ö pp ö nen ,   S.  ,    E.    Pet ä j ä   ,  and    T.    Mattila - Sandholm  . 
sion of the arginine deiminase pathway 
.  
Applied 
 2003 .  Bioprotectives and probiotics for dry sausages . 
Environmental Microbiology    68 ( 12 ): 6051  –  6058 .   
 
 
 
Chapter 11
 Drying  
 Endre   Zuk á l   and   K á lm á n   Incze  
 
 Introduction 
( “ salami - masters ” ),  who  had  high  prestige 
and earnings.  
 Drying is probably the most ancient way of 
preservation, along with heating (cooking, 
 Basis of Drying 
frying, etc.) and chilling or freezing. While 
chilling and freezing were applicable only 
 During drying, water is removed as vapor . 
seasonally or in arctic regions, drying as such 
Thus: 
or in combination with smoking could be 
   •       the  activity  of  microorganisms  decreases 
practiced all over the world. This method was 
because the portion of water they can 
of vital importance to early humans, when 
utilize decreases, and this in turn means the 
fi shing and hunting were not always success -
shelf life of the product increases  
ful and/or when the meat and fat of a large 
   •       the  mass  and  volume  of  product  decreases  
animal was too much to be eaten within a 
   •       the  texture  will  be  harder  
short period of time. Unsalted or salted dried 
meat also had great importance during wars 
   •       aroma  compounds  develop  during  longer 
and maritime navigation. 
processes, mainly in nonheated products  
 As a consequence of the development in 
 By means of these changes, meat products 
general, meat processing (drying) began to 
can be manufactured, stressing and improv-
be done at a larger scale, and simple ways of 
ing the favorable texture of raw meat and 
 “ conditioning ”  were worked out and gradu-
developing products with extraordinary 
ally improved. Good dried meat products 
attributes.  
were also made before air conditioning. 
Naturally, the process needed  “ conditioning ”  
 The Effect of Preservation 
at that time, too, but this process had other 
names. The drying rooms had big doors 
 The pressure of water vapor will be constant 
and windows, and the air conditions were 
in the closed space around the material. This 
regulated by opening and closing the doors 
pressure is lower or equal to vapor pressure 
and windows according to the daily outside 
above pure water at the same temperature. 
temperature and humidity. The water loss 
The numerical expression of this is the water 
of the product was examined by touch, and 
activity (a w ):
then eventually, on the basis of color, shape, 
 a =
w
water pressure above the material
 
and fl exibility of slices. This procedure 
water pressure above th
he pure water
needed a lot of experience, and it was still 
not always precise and well - founded enough. 
 Microorganisms cannot grow below their 
That is why there was a strong demand 
specifi c  a w   (Table   11.1 .)  (IFT/FDA   2003 ; 
for the classical salami 
- 
drying specialist 
Leistner  and  R ö del   1976 ;  Mossel   1971 ).   
219
220    Chapter 11
 Table 11.1.    The lower a w  range of development of microorganisms 
   Bacteria  
   Yeasts  
   Molds  
   a w 
 E. coli 
    
    
  0.99  
 Str. fecalis 
    
    
  0.98  
 Vib. metschnikovii 
    
    
  0.97  
 Pse. fl uorescens 
    
    
  0.97  
 Clo. botulinum 
    
    
  0.97  
 Campylobacter ssp. 
    
    
  0.97  
 Shighella 
    
    
  0.97  
 Yersinia enterocolitica 
    
    
  0.97  
 Clo. perfringens 
    
    
  0.96  
 Bac. cereus 
    
    
  0.96  
 Bac. subtilis 
    
    
  0.95  
 Sal. newport 
    
    
  0.95  
 Ent. aerogenes 
    
    
  0.94  
 Microbacterium 
    
    
  0.94  
 Vib. parahaemolyticus 
    
    
  0.94  
 Lac. viridescens 
 Schizosaccharomyces 
 Rhisopus 
  0.93  
 
 Mucor 
  0.93  
 Rodotorula 
    
  0.92  
 Mic. roseus 
 Pichia 
    
  0.91  
 Anaer. Staphylococcus 
    
    
  0.91  
 Lactobacillus 
 Saccharomyces 
    
  0.90  
 Pediococcus 
 Hansenula 
    
  0.90  
 Candida 
 Asp. niger 
  0.88  
 
 Debaryomyces 
  0.88  
 Torulopsis 
 Cladosporium 
  0.87  
 Staphylococcus aureus 
 Torulaspora 
 Paecilomyces 
  0.86  
 Listeria monocyt. 
    
    
  0.83  
 
 Penicillium 
  0.80  
 
 Asp. ochraceus 
  0.80  
 Halophilic bacteria 
    
    
  0.75  
 
 Asp. glaucus 
  0.72  
 
 Chrysosporium fastidum 
  0.70  
 Zygosaccharomyces rouxii 
 
 Monascus bisporus 
  0.60  
 The  a w  of the material has to be decreased 
rial. Two groups of components are able to 
to a certain level in order to inhibit the growth 
diminish the a w   value: 
of contaminating microorganisms. During 
   •       the  water  soluble  compounds  
drying, this decrease will be achieved by 
lowering the moisture content. It is necessary 
   •       materials  able  to  swell  in  water  (In  meat, 
to know the relation between the moisture 
structural proteins are such components.)  
content and a w . This relation is rather com-
 In meat products, the fi rst group is impor-
plicated and changes from material to mate-
tant, and in meat meal, it is the second one. 
Drying    221
It needs to be stressed that the other compo-
7.00
nents of meat — for  example,  fat — are  inef-
fective in terms of a w , and therefore, a w   does 
not depend on the material ’ s moisture content 
6.50
but on the ratio of water to the effective com-
spoiling
ponents. The raw fat has an a w  close to 1 
6.00
independent of its low moisture content. 
 The soluble components decrease a 
pH
w   value 
by means of their  “ diluting ”  effect. The basic 
5.50
stable range
relation for a w   is:
a =
5.00
w
number of water particles number of
water particles + numbeer of particles in
solution)(Nernst law)
 
 
4.50
Number of particles = mass of component in
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
 
the solution mass off particles
 
aw
 The mass of a particle is the molecular 
 Figure 11.1.   The stable a w - range as a function of 
pH.  
mass in the case of molecules, and ion mass 
in the case of ions. If the solubility is limited 
in a saturated solution, no more soluble com-
 Fat - free raw meat has a content of water 
ponent goes into solution, and consequently 
of about 80%, with swelling protein content 
the a w  does not change either. 
of about 19% and soluble components at 
 Some soluble particles, particularly ions, 
about 1%. Figure  11.2  shows the domain of 
further decrease the water activity because 
a w  water content connection calculated from 
they bind water particles. 
various experiments (Hamm  1972 ; Lewicki 
 During preservation, the task is to dimin-
 2004 ;  Ruiz - Ramirez  et  al.   2005a ).  The  fi gure 
ish the a w  to the desired value. This value 
depends on the storage temperature of the 
1.0
product. Dried meat products need no chill-
ing; they can be stored at room temperature. 
0.9
Traditional dried meat products have a pH of 
0.8
about 6.0; they need an a w  below 0.9. The 
0.7
lactic fermented ones have a pH about 5.0, 
0.6
and in this latter case, an a 
w
w 
 below 0.95 is 
a 0.5
needed for ensuring a safe product (Fig.  11.1 ) 
(Incze   2004 ).   
0.4
 The swelling components bind a little part 
0.3
of water independent of the a w ; another part 
0.2
of water is bound increasingly parallel with 
0.1
a w 
- 
increase. The amount of bound water 
depends on the state of swelling material 
0.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(denaturation). 
moisture content of raw meat in %
 The contents of water, soluble materials, 
and swelling materials together determine 
low limits
high limits
the a 
w 
; the other components have no 
 Figure 11.2.    Relationship between a w  and moisture 
infl uence. 
content of raw meats.  
222    Chapter 11
also shows that the water content of raw meat 
 The saturated solution of NaCl contains 
must be decreased to 40% to get an a w   of 
26.5% NaCl (a w     =    0.75).  The  NaCl  content  is 
0.90.   
much lower in meat products; NaCl does not 
 The meat loses 60% of its original mass 
separate in solid form (Krispien et al.  1979 ). 
during this process. This loss and the amount 
Other meat components (phosphates, amino 
of used energy is too high. In addition, the 
acids) can be crystalized by strong drying 
product has a skin - like texture; the product 
(Zuk á l   1959 ). 
can become edible only by a complicated 
 The fat - free part of raw meat must contain 
swelling process. 
6.6% NaCl to reach a w     =    0.95.  Such  product 
 That is why raw meat as such is not dried 
is inedibly salty. The salty taste can be 
without some supplementary treatment. Meat 
decreased by adding fat to the mix. This 
powder and meat granules are produced from 
method is used when producing meat creams, 
cooked meat to use in soup powders, soup 
but these products are not dried. Another 
insets, and feeds. 
method to reduce the salty taste of the end 
 
Less drying is necessary when soluble 
product is to start with lower salt content 
materials are introduced into the meat. Two 
and then dry to the necessary extent. In this 
materials, NaCl and sugar, can be used 
case, the salty taste eases because of the 
because of health and organoleptic reasons. 
higher content of proteins and fat. This 
Lower amounts of NaCl than sugar is neces-
method is used with dried meat products; 
sary for a suffi cient reduction of a w ,  because 
therefore, the raw material of these products 
of the lower particle mass of NaCl. NaCl is 
is salted or cured meat. Another benefi t  of 
used in meat products and in some sour veg-
the salt treatment is that salt swells the 
etables, while sugar is added to fruits and 
meat, and so the chewiness and sliceability 
candies because of accustomed taste. 
of the product is improved. These are impor-
 
The Na+ and Cl 
−  ions bind about two 
tant attributes of dried meat products. 
molecules of water in solution; therefore, the 
 During the planning of a w  reduction, the 
NaCl decreases the a w  more than would be 
following factors need to be taken into 
expected according to Nernst law (Fig.  11.3 ).  
account: 
1
0.9
wa
0.8
0.7 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
NaCl content in % of the solution
measured
calculated by Nernst law
 Figure 11.3.    The a w  of NaCl solutions.  
Drying    223
 Figure 11.4.    Change of a w  as a function of water loss and initial salt content of meat products.  
   •       the  characteristic  composition  of  the  end 
   •       The  mechanical  and  organoleptical  pro-
product (water, meat 
- 
protein, salt, other 
perties of the originally soft material 
soluble materials, insoluble materials)  
improve.    
 •   a w   to  be  reached.    
 Meat ’ s  a w — which is necessary for stabil-
 Details of the Steps 
ity — depends on pH. The higher the pH, the 
 The water vapor leaves the surface layer of 
lower the a w  must be (Fig.  11.1 ). 
the product if the a w  of the surface layer is 
 The loss of mass and the initial salt content 
higher than the relative humidity of the air 
can be calculated on the basis of the planned 
around the product. In reversed cases, the 
end  characteristics  (Fig.   11.4 ).   
surface layer binds water and becomes wet. 
 The next task is to determine the drying 
The rate of drying depends on: 
rate. To do this, we need to understand the 
drying process.  
   •       the  measurements  of  the  drying  surface  
   •       the  difference  between  the  a w 
 and the 
humidity of the air (driving force)  
 The Drying Process 
   •       the  characteristics  of  the  outer  layers  with 
 During  drying 
pores (e.g .,  casing, mold, surface layer of 
the  product/drying  resistance)    
   •       Water  vapor  evaporates  from  the  surface  of 
the product, and consequently, the compo-
 
The drying surface is the geometrical 
sition of the surface layer changes.  
surface multiplied by the ratio of the water -
   •       Materials  move  from  one  layer  of  the 
 
permeable elements (meat) to the surface. 
product to the other.  
Ham with skin dries only on the meat side; 
   •       The  thickness  (and  eventually  the  shape 
the skin side is isolated by the fat. This barrier 
too) of the layers changes to different 
effect is utilized during ripening of some 
degrees.  
types of hams. If the meat surface is smeared 
224    Chapter 11
with fat, the ripening process that produces 
radius of product is more equilibrated than 
aroma proceeds with very slow drying. 
the water content. So the salt content com-
 The geometric surface of chopped prod-
pared with the water mass is lower in the 
ucts decreases during drying because the 
outer  layers  (Fig.   11.5 )  (K á rp á ti   1960 ;  Gou 
diameter of the rods decreases. The perme -
et  al.   2004 ).   
able part of the surface decreases to a higher 
 In the initial phase of drying, the moisture 
degree than the geometrical surface because 
content of outer layers decreases, while the 
the impermeable fat particles fl atten  out, 
inner layers lose water in the later periods. 
occupying a greater part of the surface. The 
The equilibration of water content becomes 
water vapor leaving the surface increases the 
slower and slower, which in turn slows down 
moisture content of the ambient air. The rela-
drying. The differences in water content of 
tive vapor content will be higher because the 
the layers barely changes after the end of 
evaporation cools down the surface and the 
drying  (Fig.   11.6 )  (Imre   1974 ).   
environment. The air surrounding the product 
 The mechanical properties of dried meat 
has to become drier and warmer to maintain 
products, such as chewiness, easy slicing, 
the driving force. 
appropriate fi rmness, and suffi cient fl exibil-
 The high rate of air circulation decreases 
ity, are very important. During drying 
the air - side drying resistance too. The prod-
   •       the  initial  plasticity  comes  to  an  end.  
uct - sided resistance depends on the porosity 
of the casing, the mold, and the fat fi lm on 
   •       the  mentioned  attributes  increase.  
the surface. This resistance steadily increases 
   •       chewiness  and  sliceability  improve.    
during the process, lowering the drying rate. 
 The salt content of the surface layer grows 
 The  fi rmness is highest in the surface layer 
with the water loss and decreases with the 
as a consequence of the higher content of dry 
diffusion of salt into the inner layer. The 
material  (Fig.   11.7 )  (Kov á cs   1961 ;  Ruiz -
driving force of diffusion is the difference in 
 Ramirez et al.  2005b ). Too low water content 
the salt content compared with the water 
in overdried products causes denaturation of 
content. The diffusion of salt seems to be 
proteins and a loss of swelling capacity. The 
quicker because the salt content along the 
result is a product that is too chewy.  
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
r= distance from the center in % of radius
moisture content in % of the initial one
0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
days
r=0
r=50
r=80
r=100
 Figure 11.5.    Pattern of moisture content in the layers of salami during drying.  
Drying    225
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
fat-free material 5.5
5.0
4.5
salt content in % compared to the
4.00
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
days
outer layer
intermediate part
central part
 Figure 11.6.    The salt content in the layers of salami during drying.  
 The loss of volume causes tensile strength 
 
The oxygen itself and the initiation of 
in the outer layer; therefore, at fi rst, this layer 
aerobic microbe activity makes the inner 
stretches plastically, and later, elastically. 
part rancid and green, with a bad odor. That 
Too rapid drying makes denaturation in the 
is why the meat products must be dried 
external layer, so this layer becomes irrevers-
slowly in order to avoid case hardening. The 
ibly hard (case hardening). The layer should 
air holes remaining in the sausage batter 
shrink during further drying, but it is unable 
during stuffi ng mechanically weaken the 
to do so. The external layer will be separated 
product. Such products become hollow more 
from the inner layers, causing hollows and 
easily. 
breakages. Therefore, air gets into the deeper 
 
The chopped products always have fat 
part of the product. 
particles. Case hardening, air holes, and form 
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
tensile-strength kPa
20
10
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
the distance from center in % of radius
dried 3 months
dried 2 months
dried 1 month
 Figure 11.7.    The change of tensile strength of the layers of salami during drying.  
226    Chapter 11
defects occur too often without this compo-
 Air Circulation 
nent. However, fat softens the product, so 
 Canals for both blowing air and sucking it 
more drying is necessary for the suffi cient 
are built into drying rooms. In one 
- level 
hardness. The fat particles need to stick 
rooms, the blowers are along the sides at the 
to meat particles; otherwise, the product 
bottom and blow the air horizontally to the 
becomes crumbly. Good adhesion requires a 
middle of the room; or the blowers are high 
surface of fat tissue particles without fat fi lm 
on the walls and blow vertically down along 
and a surface of meat covered with solved 
the walls (Fig.  11.8 ). Rooms with more levels 
proteins, gluing the surfaces together. 
have horizontal blowers placed at the bottom 
 Smeared fat slows down the drying rate 
of all levels, while sucking the air back takes 
by covering the outer surface and by block-
place higher, mostly in the middle of the 
ing inner channels that could otherwise serve 
room.    
for moisture migration. 
 As a result of the enzymatic decomposi-
tion of proteins, the meat softens during the 
 Control of Air Conditions 
drying - ripening  (Toldr á    2006 ).  The  soft 
texture can be controlled by mild thermal 
 The only regulating factor in the drying of 
treatment (under 50 
° 
C) at the end of the 
meat products is, in fact, the air. The amount 
drying (Morales et al.  2008 ).  
of water vapor, the temperature, and the rate 
of circulation must be controlled. The tem-
perature is the most effective regulator; tra-
 Preparation 
ditional meat products, especially at the 
 The raw material of dried products has to be 
beginning of drying, need low temperature 
selected following stricter hygienic direc-
(about 10 ° C) to prevent microbial activity. 
tives than that of cooked products because of 
The product dries more slowly because 
the initial, critical period of drying and 
control is more diffi cult at this temperature; 
because of the rational decisions to be reached 
however, the danger of case hardening and 
for achieving the proper a w . 
other mechanical faults is also lower. The 
 Meat pieces will be salted without water 
range of the relative humidity expands from 
(dry salting). In the preparation of the raw 
70% to 95%, according to the product 
’ 
s 
mass of chopped products, the fat must be 
drying program. 
chopped frozen, with a sharp knife , to avoid 
 When working with the starter culture for 
the fat fi lm. During stuffi ng, smearing and air 
manufactured meat products, initial (incuba-
holes have to be avoided. Air holes cannot be 
tion) temperature is in general 20 – 24 ° C. (See 
left over in the mass (vacuum chopping, 
Chapter  21  on mold ripened sausages.) 
fi lling).  
 The regulation of air parameters is per-
formed in the device connected to the drying 
room. The air sucked from the room is mixed 
 Drying 
with outside air from time to time. The super -
 Meat products are dried in ventilated rooms, 
fl uous humidity is eliminated by condensa-
hung upon suitable (eventually mobile) 
tion or by absorption. With condensation, the 
frames. The size of the room and the number 
temperature of the air is lowered below the 
of levels depends on the capacity, the timing 
dewpoint temperature, and the water partially 
of production, and the choice of products. 
condenses. The dry air is warmed and even-
The frames are mostly mobile, so that they 
tually moistened. To absorb water, two 
can be cleaned and loaded more easily.  
methods are used. One of the methods is by 
Drying    227
 Figure 11.8.    Front view (cross section) of a single level drying room.  
spraying an absorbing fl uid into the air. The 
must be changed or regenerated. The total 
other method sends air through layers of 
energy demand is lower as well (Fig.  11.9 ).  
water 
- 
absorbing granules (e.g., silica gel). 
 The dried air is recirculated into the drying 
These systems leave out the cooling and 
room (Imre  1974 ). Temperature and relative 
warming of the air to achieve moisture con-
humidity of this air is adjusted to the drying 
densation. The regulation of air humidity is 
program. This program determines the rate of 
easier, too. However the absorbing medium 
air circulation, too. The circulation is either 
room
outside
air
mixing
moisture and
removal
temperature
of water
adjustment
condensation
cooling and
warming
absorbent
absorbtion
condensating
fluid spraying
by silica-gel
replacement
regenerating
of fluid
 Figure 11.9.    The arrangement of the air control unit.  
228    Chapter 11
continuous, with relatively low velocity, or 
equilibrium can be reached, and sausages 
periodic. With the periodic system, the room 
with lower moisture content are then dried 
is rinsed through with relatively dry, high -
further the traditional way. 
 velocity air. Then air circulation stops, and 
 In  the  Quick - Dry - Slice  (QDS)  technology 
the product saturates the air; then the rinse  
(Comaposada et al.  
2008 
), sausages are 
comes again . In this system, the product reg-
fermented, and, after fermentation, they are 
ulates its own drying, and case hardening can 
frozen and sliced; in this form, they are dried 
be avoided. 
by convection and vacuum drying. This 
 
Smoking needs lower humidity. The 
method of drying lasts 30 minutes only, and 
smoke hinders the growth of microbes and 
the products are similar in quality to the sau-
rancidity on the surface, makes the evapora-
sages produced traditionally, according to the 
tion easier by tanning the outer sausage layer, 
authors. 
and gives a specifi c, pleasant fl avor. 
 One might call it  “ indirect drying ”  when 
 
Mold growth needs high humidity. The 
part of the meat is freeze dried, which lowers 
cover of mold balances the drying rate, 
initial moisture and shortens total drying 
hinders the rancidity, and helps to develop 
time. 
aroma by its enzyme - activity. Smoking and 
 
At present, none of these technologies 
mold growth make the drying slower and 
can be considered to be widespread. This is 
need special drying programs (Andres et al. 
due to several reasons, such as high - energy 
 2007 ;  Zuk á l   1973 ).  
demand, the need for further investments, the 
need for more space, problems with reaching 
high quality, or even in some cases, no real -
 Observation of Drying 
 time  savings.  
 The temperature, humidity, and velocity of 
the blown and sucked air are easy to measure 
and register at the input and output of the air 
 References 
channels. However, these data give an overall 
    Andr é s ,   A.  ,    J.  M.    Barat  ,    J.    Grau  ,  and    P.    Fito  .   2007 . 
view inside the room. This distribution must 
 Principles of drying and smoking . In  Handbook of 
be periodically examined at various places in 
Fermented Meat and Poultry ,  edited  by    F.    Toldr á   . 
 Ames,  Iowa :   Blackwell  Publishing .  
the room. 
    Comaposada ,   J.  ,    J.    Arnau  ,    M.    Garriga  ,    M.    Xargay ó   ,    L.  
 The water loss can be measured simply by 
 Freixanet  ,    J.    Bernardo  ,    M.    Corominas  ,    P.    Gou  ,    J.  
the (eventually continuous) weighing of 
 Lagares  ,  and    J.  M.    Monfort  .   2008 .   Verfahren  unter-
st ü tzt  trendorientierte  Formate .   Fleischwirtschaft 
some of the product units in the room. This 
 10 : 34  –  38 .  
can be solved by weighing devices mounted 
    Gou ,   P.  ,    J.    Comaposada  ,  and    J.    Arnau  .   2004 .   Moisture 
on the drying frames.  
diffusivity in the lean tissue of dry - cured ham at dif-
ferent process times .  Meat Science    67 : 203 .  
    Hamm ,   R.     1972 .   Kolloidchemie des Fleisches .   Berlin 
and  Hamburg :   P.  Parey .  
 Special Methods for Drying 
   IFT/FDA .   2003 .   Factors  that  infl uence  microbial 
growth .   Comp Rew Food Science and Food Safety 
 In order to avoid case hardening, a phenom-
 2 : 21 .  
enon occurring mainly in the fi rst part of 
    Imre ,   L.     1974 .   Drying  of  salami  sorts .  In   Handbook of 
ripening - drying, a method was worked out 
Drying   (in  Hungarian),  edited  by    L.    Imre  .   Budapest : 
 M ü szaki  Kiad ó   (Publisher  of  the  Technics) .    
where after stuffi ng, sausages were put in 
    Incze ,   K.     2004 .   Dry  and  semi - dry  sausages .  In 
tanks with saline. Sausages with lower salt 
 Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences ,  edited  by    W.  K.  
content lose water into the higher - concentra-
 Jensen  ,    C.    Devine  ,  and    M.    Dikeman  .   London :   Elsevier 
Academic  Press .  
tion salt solution; in other words, the sau-
    K á rp á ti ,   G.     1960 .   The  changing  of  salt  and  water  content 
sages dry. When the salt content of the saline 
of salami during ripening (in Hungarian) 
.  
H ú sipar 
and the sausage are adjusted properly, an 
(Meat  Industry)   9 ( 2 ): 77 .  
Drying    229
    Kov á cs ,   E.     1961 .   Ripening  and  hardness  of  salami  (in 
    Ruiz - Ramirez ,   J.  ,    X.     Serra  ,    J.    Arnau  ,  and    P.    Gou  .   2005a . 
Hungarian) .   H ú sipar   (Meat  Industry)   10 ( 4 ): 146 .  
 Profi les of water content, water activity and texture in 
    Krispien ,   K.  ,    W.    R ö del  ,  and    L.    Leistner  .   1979 .   A  sug-
crusted dry - cured loin and in noncrusted dry - cured 
gested method for calculating the water activity of 
loin .   Meat Science    69 : 519   
meat products from the water and common salt con-
    Ruiz - Ramirez ,   J.  ,    X.    Serra  ,    J.    Arnau  ,  and    P.    Gou  .   2005b . 
tents .   Fleischwitschaft    59 ( 8 ): 1173 .  
 
Relationship between water content, NaCl content, 
    Leistner ,   L.  ,  and    W.    R ö del  .   1976 .   Inhibition  of  microor-
pH and texture parametes in dry - cured muscles .  Meat 
ganisms in food by water activity . In  Inhibition and 
Science    70 : 579   
Inactivation of Vegetative Microbes ,  edited  by    F.  A.  
    Toldr á  ,   F.     2006 .   The  role  of  muscle  enzymes  in  dry -
 Skinner  ,    W.  B.    Hugo  .   London,  New  York,  San 
 cured meat products with different drying conditions . 
Francisco :   Academic  Press .  
 Trends in Food Science and Technology    17 : 164   
    Lewicki ,   P.  P.     2004 .   Drying .  In   Encyclopedia of Meat 
    van ’ t    Hooft ,   B.  J.     1999 .   Development  of  binding  and 
Sciences ,  edited  by    W.  K.    Jensen  ,    C.    Devine    and    M.  
structure in semidry fermented sausages 
.  
Thesis 
 Dikeman  .   London :   Elsevier  Academic  Press .  
Universiteit Utrecht .   Utrecht,  Neth. :   Ponsen   &  
    Morales ,   R.  ,    J.    Arnau  ,    X.    Serra  ,    L.    Guerrero  ,  and    P.    Gou  . 
Loyen .  
 2008 .  Texture changes in dry - cured ham pieces by 
    Zuk á l ,   E.     1973 .   Meat  Processing .  In   Handbook of Meat 
mild thermal treatments at the end of the drying 
Industry   (in  Hungarian),  edited  by    F.    L ö rincz    and 
process .   Meat Science    80 :   231 .  
  J.    Lencsepeti  .   Budapest :   Mez ö gazdasagi  Kiad ó  
    Mossel ,   D.  A.  A.     1971 .   Physiological  and  metabolic 
(Publisher  of  Agriculture) .  
attitudes of microbial groups 
.  
Journal of Applied 
    Zuk á l ,   E.     1959 .   Crystals  precipitated  in  salami  (in 
Bacteriology    34 : 95 .  
Hungarian) .   H ú sipar   (Meat  Industry)   8 ( 2 ): 108 .   
    Offer ,   G.  J.      Tirinck  .   1983 .   On  the  mechanism  of  water 
 
holding in meat .  Meat Science    8 : 245 .  
 
Chapter 12
 Smoking  
 Zdzis ł aw E.   Sikorski   and   Edward   Ko ł akowski  
 
 Introduction 
forced by mechanical equipment and shaped 
according to a computer program adjusted to 
 Smoking, drying, and salting of meats belong 
the kind of smoked goods . The temperature 
to the oldest methods of food preservation. 
of the smoke affects the sensory properties 
Ages ago, meat hung above a fi re was pre-
and the preservative effect, and controls the 
served by the combined action of drying and 
rate of the process. Cold smoking takes place 
smoking, which was often preceded by pick-
in the range of 12 – 25 ° C and warm smoking 
ling in brine. Smoking extended the shelf life 
at 23 – 45 ° C. In hot smoking, since thermal 
and changed the sensory properties of the 
denaturation of the meat proteins is required, 
meats. The procedures of smoking have been 
the smoke temperature during various stages 
gradually improved to suit the requirements 
of the process ranges from about 50 
° 
 to 
of people in different regions of the world in 
90 ° C. 
respect to shelf life and sensory properties. 
 In the past few decades, various aspects of 
The role of the preservative effect of smoking 
the process of meat smoking have progressed. 
diminished in many countries, while fl avor-
In traditional smoking, the most signifi cant 
ing and safety are of paramount importance 
developments include: 
for the processor and consumer. Nowadays, 
various smoking procedures are applied 
   •       control  of  the  composition  of  the  smoke  by 
throughout the world in rural households for 
applying rational procedures of smoke 
treating the meat and sausages for domestic 
generation;  
use, as well as in large processing plants for 
   •       use  of  engineering  principles  regarding 
the market . It is estimated that as much as 
heat and mass transfer to shorten the pro-
40% – 60% of the total amount of meats and 
cessing time and control the weight loss of 
meat products are smoked. 
the product;  
 The meats hung in a kiln are exposed to 
   •       optimization  of  the  process  parameters  to 
smoke and heat for a time suffi cient to cause 
assure the required sensory properties and 
the desirable sensory and preservative effect. 
safety of the smoked goods  
The smoke generally comes from smoulder-
   •       modernization  of  smokehouses,  which 
ing wood chips or sawdust, either directly 
affects smoke generation as well as han-
below the hanging meat or in an external 
dling of the smoked material and control of 
generator . Its density, relative humidity, and 
the process; and  
fl ow rate are controlled in a traditional 
   •       treatment  of  the  spent  smoke  to  avoid  pol-
smoking oven by natural draft and depend on 
lution of the environment.  
the construction of the kiln, the weather con-
ditions, and the actions of the operator. In 
 
In nontraditional smoking, various new 
modern, automatic smokehouses, the draft is 
liquid smoke preparations have come into 
231
232    Chapter 12
use, along with procedures for their  coalescence of some particles. Due to the 
application. 
action of the gravitation and centrifugal 
forces, as well as the temperature gradient, 
some components are deposited on the 
 Curing Smoke 
smoked goods, in the smoke ducts, and on 
the walls of the smokehouse. This leads to 
 Generation and Properties of 
changes in their concentration in the smoke. 
Wood Smoke 
The surface electrical charge of the particles 
 
Curing smoke develops as a result of the 
also contributes to the physicochemical state 
partial burning of wood with a limited oxygen 
of the aerosol. The dispersed components 
supply. Generally, hardwood is used, mainly 
absorb and disperse light; thus their concen-
oak and beech. However, for imparting spe-
tration affects the optical density of the 
cifi c color or fl avor to some products, wood 
smoke. The optical density is proportional to 
from other trees that are rich in resins, includ-
the number of particles in a unit volume of 
ing coniferous, as well as heather, may be 
the smoke. In constant conditions, when the 
used. In some areas, other carbohydrate 
- 
dimensions of the particles do not change, the 
rich material (e.g., bagasse [sugarcane], beet 
optical density is correlated to the mass con-
refuse from sugar making, or coconut husks) 
centration of the dispersed components in the 
is used. 
smoke. Thus photo optical measurements can 
 The smoke consists of gaseous products 
be used for the determination of smoke 
of thermal degradation and subsequent partial 
density, which refl ects the contents of all 
oxidation of the wooden material and of the 
components.   
dispersed soot and compounds present in 
fl uid or particle form. The temperature of 
thermal degradation in the wood constitu-
 Chemical Composition of Smoke 
ents — hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignin —
 Introduction 
 ranges  from  180 °   to  300 ° C,  260 °   to  350 ° C, 
and 300 °  to 500 ° C, respectively. The tem-
 
The chemical composition of smoke and 
perature in the glowing zone may even reach 
smoke condensates produced from various 
up to 900 ° C. 
kinds of wood was comprehensively reviewed 
 The numerous components of the smoke 
over two decades ago (T 
ó 
th and Potthast 
differ in chemical and physical properties. 
 
1984 
). In numerous later publications, the 
The gases and low - boiling compounds con-
effect of the conditions of smoke production 
stitute the gaseous phase, while the higher 
prevailing in different generators has also 
boiling ones are dispersed in the form of fl uid 
been investigated. 
droplets or solid particles. The mass of the 
 
Wood smoke contains air, water vapor, 
dispersed phase makes up about 90% of the 
CO 2 , CO, and at least several hundred organic 
total mass of the smoke. The proportion of 
compounds in different concentrations. 
different smoke constituents in both phases 
About 400 of them have been unequivocally 
depends not only on their chemical composi-
identifi ed by chromatographic and spectral 
tion, but also on the conditions of smoke 
analytical methods. The composition of the 
generation and the temperature and turbu-
smoke depends on the kind of wood used for 
lence in the duct leading from the generator 
smouldering (i.e., mainly on its dryness and 
to the smokehouse. Cooling increases the 
the contents of hemicelluloses, cellulose, 
weight proportion of the higher boiling com-
lignin, and resins), as well as on the tempera-
pounds, while heating raises the concentra-
ture and access of air to the zone of oxidation 
tion of vapors. Brownian motion leads to 
of the volatile products. The content of water 
Smoking    233
vapor in the smoke is related to the humidity 
pyrocatechol, phenol, and their various alkyl 
of the wood and air. The relative humidity of 
derivatives. The highest yield of phenols, 
the smoke varies within a broad range and 
especially of guaiacol and syringol and their 
can be controlled by the operator. Although 
derivatives, compounds that are essential for 
numerous investigations have been carried 
the sensory and preservative action of 
out on the effect of the parameters of genera-
smoking,  is  at  400 – 600 ° C. 
tion on the composition of the curing smoke, 
 Aldehydes and ketones of smoke form a 
it is still not possible to predict precisely the 
group of about 110 compounds, which 
contents of various compounds in the smoke. 
includes also a number of aldehydealcohols, 
However, it is known which factors affect the 
ketoalcohols, and ketoaldehydes. In the 
generation of phenols, aldehydes, ketones, 
smoke from alder and fi r wood, 28 and 34 
alcohols, acids, esters, and hydrocarbons. 
carbonyl compounds, respectively, were 
The concentrations of these fractions in the 
identifi ed (Borys  1978 ). Aliphatic and cyclic 
curing smoke, in mg/m 3  of the aerosol or in 
carbonyl compounds, as well as furan deriva-
mg/100 
 g of wood, differ considerably as 
tives, are the products of pyrolytic degrada-
reported by different investigators, since the 
tion of cellulose and hemicelluloses, while 
conditions of smoke production in various 
aromatic carbonyls are formed from lignin. 
experiments were different. The yield and 
The total content of carbonyl compounds 
gross chemical composition of smoke  ranges from about 25 to 110  mg/m 3 ; thus it is 
depends more on the temperature and oxygen 
similar to that of phenols. The carbonyls 
access than on the humidity and kind of 
present in the highest concentrations are acet-
wood.  
aldehyde, formaldehyde, and acetone; also, 
several O - heterocyclic carbonyls have been 
identifi ed in wood smoke (e.g., furfuralde-
 The Main Groups of Compounds 
hyde  and  5 - hydroxymethyl - 2 - furaldehyde). 
 The phenolic fraction of wood smoke con-
 
Wood smoke contains several aliphatic 
sists of about 250 components, with 85 of 
and aromatic alcohols, including methanol, 
them identifi ed. Phenols are formed primar-
ethanol, allylalcohol, n - amylalcohol, benzyl 
ily due to pyrolysis and oxidation of lignin, 
alcohol , and phenylethylalcohol. Methanol 
at comparatively low temperature (200 
–
may be the substrate for the generation of 
 400 ° C),  and  cellulose  at  700 ° C.  The  total 
formaldehyde and formic acid. 
contents of phenols depend on the kind of 
 
The group of carboxylic acids in wood 
wood, temperature, and the density of the 
smoke consists of about 30 various com-
analyzed smoke. According to different data, 
pounds. In the aliphatic fraction, the follow -
it may be from 10 to 200  mg/m 3 ; the yield of 
ing acids were identifi ed: acetic, propionic, 
phenols from 100  g of wood ranges from 50 
isobutyric, butyric, crotonic, isocrotonic, 
to 5000 
 
mg. This fraction includes com-
valeric, isovaleric, heptanoic, caprylic, and 
pounds containing one, two, or three hydroxyl 
nonanoic  (K ł ossowska   1979 ).  Among  the 
groups bound to the benzene ring, besides 
dicarboxylic acids are oxalic, malonic, 
alkyl or ether derivatives, as well as those 
fumaric, maleic, and succinic acids. Wood 
containing additional alcohol, aldehyde, acid, 
smoke also contains several ketocarboxylic 
and ester groups. Therefore, they differ in 
acids. In the esters group, the methyl esters 
water solubility, boiling point, sensitivity to 
of formic, acetic, butyric, and acrylic acids 
oxidation, chemical reactivity, sensory prop-
were identifi ed, as well as the benzoic acid 
erties, and antibacterial activity. Among the 
ethyl ester. 
identifi 
ed phenols, those present in the 
 
One of the important groups of smoke 
highest concentrations are syringol, guaiacol, 
constituents contains aliphatic and aromatic 
234    Chapter 12
hydrocarbons. In the fraction of about 20 
phase is more effective than that of the 
aliphatic hydrocarbons, the compound  particles and droplets. A rise in the tempera-
present in the highest concentration is 
ture of the smoke also accelerates sorption 
methane, known also as the product of dry 
of these compounds by the meat being 
distillation of wood. Much larger is the 
smoked. 
group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 
 The quantity of different smoke compo-
(PAH) identifi ed in numerous investigations 
nents accumulated in the meat depends on 
(Obiedzi n´ ski and Borys  1977 ). Some smoked 
the temperature, humidity, agitation, and 
products contain up to 100 different PAH and 
composition of the smoke; the properties of 
their alkylated derivatives, of molecular 
the components, particularly their volatility 
weights from 116 (indene) to 302 (dibenzo-
and solubility; the characteristics of the 
pyrenes). They are generated at temperatures 
surface of the product; and the duration of 
above 420 ° C and, having high boiling tem-
smoking. Wet surfaces absorb about 20 times 
perature, are present mainly in the dispersed 
more phenols than dry ones. The published 
phase of smoke. Thus the contents of PAH 
data on the total amount of smoke compo-
can be decreased by reducing the wood 
nents absorbed by meat products are incom-
smouldering temperature and fi ltering  the 
plete and vary within a broad range. The 
smoke. 
large range of values is caused both by the 
 Smoke  fl avorings produced commercially 
properties of the products and the parameters 
for the food industry contain only traces of 
of smoking, as well as by differences in the 
PAH. They are generally smoke extracts fi l-
analytical procedures applied by various 
tered and separated from the tars or distillates 
investigators. The use of phenol as a standard 
of pyroligneous liquids. Various fl avorings 
in colorimetric determination of total phenols 
of different brands are available as aqueous 
may lead to signifi cant  underestimation, 
solutions or in free - fl owing, dry form on salt, 
since the amount of phenol in smoked meats 
yeast, or other material. 
is rather low. The content of phenols in dif-
 Wood smoke also contains a number of 
ferent smoked sausages, according to pub-
other chemicals , including NO, NO 
2 , 
and 
lished data, ranges from about 0.02 to 
NO 3 , as well as various heterocyclic com-
300     μ g/g. In smoked pork belly strips and 
pounds,  including  the  N - heterocyclic  pyrrole, 
summer sausage, the total recovery of phenols 
pyrazine,  and  carbazole.    
was, according to Lustre and Issenberg 
 (1970) ,  about  280     μ g/g  and  60     μ g/g,  respec-
tively. The composition of the absorbed 
 Accumulation and Interactions of 
fraction depends more on the conditions 
Smoke Components in Meats 
of smoking, especially the humidity of the 
surface of the meats, than on the concentra-
 Deposition on Smoked Surfaces 
tion of individual phenols in the smoke. The 
 Due to Brownian motion, the smoke particles 
quantity of formaldehyde in cold smoked 
and droplets undergo coalescence and settle 
goods  may  be  as  high  as  20 – 40     μ g/g.  The 
on the smoked products under the effect of 
amount of formaldehyde in different assort-
gravitational and centrifugal forces. Their 
ments of sausages may reach 2 to 50  μ g/g; 
natural, electrostatic charge and absorption 
the surface layers of some products may 
in the wet surface layer also contribute some-
contain about fi ve times more than the inner 
what to deposition on the meat. Thus, the 
layer. 
high humidity of the smoke increases the rate 
 The rate of deposition of smoke compo-
of smoking. On wet surfaces, the deposition 
nents can be greatly increased by applying 
of components present in the dispersing 
high - voltage electrostatic precipitation, as in 
Smoking    235
the deposited compounds, as well as by the 
thermal conditions of smoking. In electro -
–40 kV
static smoking, the rapidly formed thick, 
sticky coat of smoke components is initially 
not fi xed to the meat surface and can be 
easily removed (Fig.  12.1 ). However, during 
subsequent heating to the desired tempera-
ture, rapid penetration of the smoke compo-
nents into the mass of the meat takes place. 
Most phenols accumulate on the skin, on 
the sausage casing, and under the surface at 
about a 6  mm deep layer, especially in the 
fatty tissue. However, in some products, even 
 Figure 12.1.    Artist ’ s view of the principle of electro-
as much as 60% of the total mass of phenols 
static smoking.  (Courtesy of Pawe ł  Kowalski.)  
can diffuse into deeper layers. Carbonyl 
compounds and acids are rather equally dis-
tributed throughout the mass of some smoked 
meat products. 
an electrostatic fi lter. If the meat is placed on 
 
The smoke compounds accumulated in 
a metal conveyor connected by a conducting 
the meat cannot be 100% recovered by 
wire to the ground, and a corona discharging 
extraction, since many of them interact 
wire electrode under high voltage is arranged 
chemically with the meat components. The 
nearby, the smoke particles in the space 
proteins and lipids of meat contain various 
between the meat and the electrode get 
reactive groups, which in appropriate condi-
ionized and deposited under the effect of 
tions, especially at high temperature, can 
the electrostatic fi eld (Fig.  12.1 ). At a proper 
react with phenols, carbonyl compounds, and 
distance between the product and the elec-
acids of the smoke. The most reactive are the 
trode, a thick, viscous layer of smoke com-
 – SH,   – NH 2   ,  and   – NH – C( = NH)NH 2   groups 
ponents can be deposited in a few minutes. 
of amino acid residues in proteins and of 
Usually, the installation works at about 20 to 
nonprotein nitrogen compounds, as well as 
60  kV at an electrode distance of 7 to 20  cm. 
the polyenoic fatty acids and different reac-
In the conditions for electrostatic smoking, 
tive oxygen species and oxidation products 
not only deposition of the dispersed, ionized 
like  
· O 2  −  ,   · OH,  RO · ,  ROO · , and ROOH. 
smoke particles is accelerated, but also that 
Smoke compounds may react with amino 
of the components of the vapor phase. This 
acids in meat products, leading to a signifi -
happens because the rapid movement of the 
cant decrease in the contents of amino 
particles  creates  an   “ electrical  wind, ”   which 
acids in acid hydrolysates (Seuss  
1986 
). 
increases the motion of the smoke toward the 
Coniferaldehyde and sinapaldehyde present 
meat surface.  
in the smoke condensates were not recovered 
from the smoked meats in the experiments of 
Lustre and Issenberg  (1970) , possibly due to 
 Diffusion and Interactions 
their interactions with the meat proteins. A 
 
The components deposited on the product 
signifi cant decrease in the contents of smoke 
and dissolved in the humid surface fi lm  grad -
carbonyl compounds caused by reactions 
ually diffuse into the deeper tissues due to the 
with gelatine was shown by Ziemba  (1969) . 
concentration gradient. The rate of diffusion 
High loss of available lysine in sausage 
is controlled by the properties of meat and of 
casings due to smoking was found by Ruiter 
236    Chapter 12
 (1979) . In laboratory experiments, the smoke 
sheet to smoke in the high - voltage fi eld of an 
phenols have been shown to reduce signifi -
electrostatic apparatus; in two or three 
cantly the concentration of thiol and amino 
minutes, the sheet turns yellow or brown. 
groups in solutions of amino acids, peptides, 
According to Ziemba  
(1969) 
 and Ruiter 
and proteins and in meat. Such interactions 
 (1979) ,  a  signifi cant contribution to the for-
may decrease the lysine availability some-
mation of the color of smoked goods comes 
what. However, since the concentration of 
from the reactions of carbonyl compounds, 
smoke components is the highest on the 
mainly glycolaldehyde and methylglyoxal 
surface and in the thin outer parts of the 
present predominantly in the vapor phase of 
smoked meat products, no signifi cant 
the smoke, with the amino groups of proteins 
decrease in the nutritional value of the meat 
and nonprotein nitrogen compounds. The 
proteins should be expected. Furthermore, 
smoke phenols form stable colors in reac-
the phenolic constituents of smoke absorbed 
tions with proteins at weak alkaline 
by the sausage can be oxidized. The contents 
conditions. 
of guaiacol and phenol in smoked sausages 
 The intensity  J  of the color of the smoked 
stored 1 month may decrease by about 35%.  
products is primarily related to the optical 
density of the smoke  
E 0  
 and the time of 
smoking   τ :
 The Sensory Effects 
 J = kE τ
0
 
 Introduction 
 
The value of  
k 
 increases with the rise in 
 The desirable, sensory properties of smoked 
smoke temperature and velocity. High tem-
products result from the concerted action of 
perature favors the development of dark 
salting or curing, seasoning, pre 
- 
drying, 
color, since it increases the concentration of 
smoking, and heating, and in some cases also 
the components of the dispersing phase of 
dyeing. The smoke compounds induce smoky 
smoke and the rate of the carbonyl 
- 
amino 
color and fl avor themselves and by interact-
reactions and polymerization of various com-
ing with the meat components, which results 
ponents. The higher the temperature and 
in the creation of other sensory - active sub-
water activity of the surface of small - caliber 
stances. Interactions with the nitrogenous 
Br 
ü 
hwurst sausages, within limits set by 
meat constituents may lead to some texture 
other technological requirements, the darker 
changes. The desirable intensity of sensory 
is the color of the sausages. The kind of wood 
changes induced by smoking depends on the 
used for smoke generation is also important. 
kind of meat products; some assortments are 
Smoking with beech, maple, ash, sycamore, 
expected to acquire only a slight smoky note, 
or lime 
- 
tree smoke leads to gold 
- 
yellow 
while for others, mainly regional products, 
color; yellow - brownish tint comes from oak, 
very heavy smoking must be applied to suit 
nut, and alder smoke, and lemon - like from 
the typical consumer preferences.  
acacia smoke. Products treated with smoke 
from coniferous wood have dark coloration.  
 The Color 
 The Flavor and Taste 
 The color developed on the surface of the 
products is due to the presence of colored 
 
The smoke compounds are the dominant 
smoke components and to the interactions of 
factor directly responsible for the smoky 
reactive compounds with those in the meat or 
fl avor. Smouldering wood smoke generated 
sausage casings. The direct coloring role may 
at 450 – 550 ° C is regarded as the most suitable 
be easily shown by exposing a plate of tin 
for imparting the smoky fl avor  to  smoked 
Smoking    237
meats. The products of thermal decomposi-
during processing, concentration of salt, and 
tion of cellulose and hemicelluloses are the 
composition and quantity of smoke deposited 
result of carmelization and the source of 
in the meat. Various products preserved by 
fruity and fl oral scents, while the phenols 
curing and heavy smoking may have a shelf 
generated by decomposition of lignin con-
life of even several months at room tempera-
tribute the fl avor associated with smoke, 
ture, while mild treatment, as applied in 
scorch, spices, vanillin, and clover. Various 
manufacturing of some frankfurter - type sau-
fractions of smoke condensates separated by 
sages, yields products that can be kept only 
chromatography reveal different fl avors, 
a few days under refrigeration. By smoking 
including fruity, diacetyl - like, spicy, protein 
frankfurters 30 minutes at internal tempera-
hydrolysate 
- 
like, or that of freshly baked 
tures 60 – 76 ° C, the total number of aerobic 
bread. The desirable smoky fl avor is associ-
bacteria may be reduced by about two log 
ated with the presence of a mixture of 
cycles; higher temperature and longer pro-
syringol and 4 - methylsyringol, although 4 - 
cessing time is slightly more effective. 
allylsyringol,  guaiacol,  4 - methylguaiacol, 
Smoke components delay the growth of 
and trans - isoeugenol also contribute to the 
microfl 
ora in cold 
- 
stored frankfurters, 
typical sensory sensation. However, the mul-
whereby the effect increases with the smoking 
titude of variations of the smoky fl avor  is 
time. Natural smoking can retard the onset 
probably due to the contribution of the osmic 
of greening of frankfurters caused by 
effect of different carbonyl compounds and 
 Leuconostoc mesenteroides 
 during storage 
their reaction products, furans, esters, short -
(Anifantaki et al.  2002 ). 
 
chain carboxylic acids, pyrazine and its 
 
Numerous smoke compounds (phenols, 
derivatives, terpenes, and other unidentifi ed 
carboxylic acids, and formaldehyde) in con-
constituents, as well as various products of 
centrations similar to those in heavily smoked 
interactions of smoke compounds and reac-
goods are effective antimicrobial agents. 
tive meat constituents. 
Their activity against various microorgan-
 The smoky taste is a result of the sensory 
isms at different stages of development is 
properties of smoke constituents, mainly 
not equal. The phenols prolong the lag phase 
numerous phenols and carbonyl compounds, 
of bacterial growth proportionally to their 
as well as various products of the interactions 
concentration in the product. Therefore, 
with proteins and lipids. Some results of 
the amount of the smoke components depos-
experiments point to the crucial role of the 
ited on the meats during smoking has a sig-
fraction of smoke condensates containing 
nifi cant infl uence on the preservative effect. 
guaiacol and its four derivatives, eugenol, 
Generally, hot smoking decreases the number 
phenol, 3 cresols, 4 - ethylphenol, 3 xylenols, 
of viable microorganisms in the products by 
tyglic acid, and 4 carbonyl compounds.  
one to two log cycles, whereby the effect 
increases with the rise in processing time 
and temperature. Among the most effective 
 The Antimicrobial Activity of 
antimicrobial agents of wood smoke are: 
Smoke Components 
guaiacol and its methyl and propyl deriva-
 The shelf life of smoked meats depends on 
tives, creosol, pyrocatechol, methylpyrocate-
the time and temperature of heating during 
chol, 2,6 
- 
dimethoxyphenol, and pyrogallol 
the process, on decrease in water activity, 
and its methyl ether. Formaldehyde inhibits 
and on the antibacterial and antioxidant 
 Cl. botulinum  in concentrations of 40  μ g/cm 3 . 
activity of smoke components. Thus the pre-
Adding to raw minced beef 8% of liquid 
servative effect is related to the effectiveness 
smoke, containing in 1  cm 3   about  1.4 – 4.0    mg 
of the heat pasteurization, loss of water 
of phenols and 20 – 70  mg of carbonyl com-
238    Chapter 12
pounds, may reduce by two log cycles the 
similar concentrations. To the most active 
number of viable cells of  E. coli  O157 H7 
smoke phenols belong: pyrogallol, 3 - methyl-
after 3 days at 4 ° C. This result, however, was 
pyrocatechol,  4 - methylpyrocatechol,   pyro -
shown at a very high concentration of the 
catechol, butylhydroxytoluol, resorcinol, 
liquid smoke, 8%, while the recommended 
hydroquinone,  
α  - naphthol,  4 - methylguaia-
percentage is 1.5% (Estrada 
- 
Mu 
ñ 
oz et al. 
col,  4 - vinylguaiacol,  and  4 - trans - propenyl-
 
1998 
). Several strains of thermotolerant 
syringol. The antioxidant properties of the 
 Staphylococcus epidermis 
 do not survive 
phenolic fraction of wood smoke were 
commercial hot smoking on inoculated 
already recognized about 50 years ago (Kurko 
rainbow trout. In cold - smoked salmon, the 
 1963, 1966 ). Liquid smoke in a concentration 
growth of  Listeria monocytogenes  was found 
of 1.5% was shown to effectively retard the 
to be inhibited proportionally to the smoking 
lipid oxidation in precooked beef patties 
time; 12 hours of smoking reduced the 
during 90 days of storage at  − 15 ° C  (Estrada -
number of the population by three log cycles. 
 Mu ñ oz  et  al.   1998 ).  
However, well - adapted strains may persist in 
the smokehouse environment, so that  
L. 
 Possible Health Hazards Caused 
monocytogenes  can often be found in vac-
by Smoked Meats 
uum 
- 
packaged cold smoked salmon. The 
 
The health hazards associated with the 
total concentration of smoke components 
smoking of meat may be caused by carcino-
present in lightly smoked vacuum 
- 
packed 
genic components deposited from wood 
nonrefrigerated foods is not high enough to 
smoke: PAH, N - nitroso compounds, and pos-
effectively prevent the formation of  Cl. botu-
sibly also heterocyclic aromatic amines. 
linum   toxin. 
 
Most of the PAH contained in wood 
 Generally the vegetative forms of bacteria 
smoke have a molecular weight below 216 
are most sensitive to smoke. Molds are con-
Da, and they are regarded as noncarcino-
siderably resistant. A large population of 
genic. However, smoke also contains highly 
molds and yeasts may survive in frankfurters 
carcinogenic or mutagenic PAH (Table  12.1 ). 
smoked 30 minutes at an internal temperature 
Very mutagenic and carcinogenic is benzo (a)
67 ° C. Smoking has little effect on the yeast 
pyrene (BaP). It has a molecular weight of 
count in the early stages of manufacturing 
252 Da and has been chosen as the indicator 
of fermented sausages; however, in stored 
PAH, representing the other carcinogenic 
samples the population of yeast is lower 
hydrocarbons in wood smoke and smoked 
in smoked sausages than in unsmoked 
products. By applying the principle of toxic 
controls.  
equivalency factors (TEF), it is possible to 
estimate the total equivalent exposure (TEQ) 
 The Antioxidant Properties of 
to PAHs in various smoked meat products 
Smoke Components 
 Table 12.1. 
   Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 
 
The antioxidant effect of smoking was 
regarded as potentially genotoxic and carcino-
noticed previously by observing that the 
genic for man 
lipids in smoked meats and fi sh were resis-
  Benz  [a]anthracene  
  Dibenzo[al]pyrene  
tant to oxidation (Watts and Faulkner  1954 ). 
  Benzo[b]fl uoranthene  
  Dibenz[ah]anthracene  
Among the smoke components that have the 
  Benzo[j]fl uoranthene  
  Indeno[1,2,3 - cd]pyrene  
highest antioxidant activity are phenols; 
  Dibenzo[ae]pyrene  
  Benzo[k]fl uoranthene  
  Benzo[ghi]perylene  
  Dibenzo[ai]pyrene  
some of them are more effective than butyl-
  Dibenzo[ah]pyrene  
  Chrysene  
ated hydroxyanisole (E 320) and butylated 
  Benzo[a]pyrene  
  5 - Methylchrysene  
hydroxytoluene (E 321) when applied in 
  Cyclopenta[cd]pyrene  
    
Smoking    239
relative to BaP. The proposed TEF for BaP 
method of smoking, the quality of smoke, 
and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene is 1, for benzo(a)
and the protection of the edible parts by the 
anthracene, benzo(a)fl uoranthene,  indeno 
skin. The external parts of the fi sh  exposed 
(1,2,3 - c,d)pyrene,  and  benzo(k)fl uoranthene 
to the smoke, especially the skin of eel, may 
it is 0.1, for chrysene and fl uoranthene 0.01. 
contain up to fi ve times more BaP than the 
Among PAH isolated from smoked products 
fl esh. In the edible parts of fi sh smoked in a 
are mainly compounds of m.w. smaller than 
modern automatic kiln with external smoke 
216. In different smoked meat products, their 
generation, the contents of BaP are about 
total mass may be from about 30 to 250 times 
0.1    ng/g. 
larger, while that of the heavy PAH about 10 
 Some smoked foods may also be contami-
times larger than that of BaP. If the specifi c 
nated with nitropolycyclic aromatic hydro-
carcinogenicity of various heavy PAH con-
carbons. In smoked sausages, 1 - nitropyrene, 
tained in smoked foods is taken into consid-
2 - nitronaphtalene,  and  2 - nitrofl uorene  were 
eration, the total carcinogenicity of all PAH 
found in concentrations of about 4.2, 8.4, 
is about 10 times higher than would result 
and 19.6  ng/g, respectively, while in roasted 
from the content of BaP alone (Scientifi c 
coffee beans the concentrations were 2.4, 4.0, 
Committee on Food  2002 ). Although many 
and  30.1    ng/g. 
PAH are regarded as not carcinogenic, some 
 
Cured meats and bacon, as well as 
of them may function in living organisms as 
smoked cured meat products, contain 
synergists, increasing the carcinogenicity of 
several N 
- 
nitroso compounds, most of 
other  PAH.   
which are carcinogenic in laboratory 
 German regulations in force since 1973 
animals. The contents of N 
- 
nitrosoproline, 
require that the content of BaP in smoked 
N - nitrosohydroxyproline,  and  N - nitrosodime-
meat products not exceed 1 
 ng/g. In about 
thylamine in smoked cured mutton after 
75% of market samples of meat products in 
cooking reached up to 230, 500, and 2.2  ng/g, 
Germany, the contents of BaP were not found 
respectively (Dennis et al.  1984 ). The alde-
to be higher than the limiting value, but in 
hydes of smoke can react with cysteamine 
about 1% of investigated samples, even as 
and cysteine, yielding various thiazolidine 
much as 40 
 ng/g were present. The actual 
precursors, which can be easily nitrosated. 
European limit of BaP in smoked meats and 
Formaldehyde reacting with cysteamine and 
smoked meat products is 5  ng/g wet weight 
cysteine yields thiazolidine and thiazolidine -
(Commission Regulation (EC)   No 208/2005). 
 4 - carboxylic acid, respectively, which, upon 
Hot smoked sausages and smoked beef 
nitrosation, turn into N 
- 
nitrosothiazolidine 
spreads usually contain below 1 
 ng/g, but 
and  N - nitrosothiazolidine - 4 - carboxylic  acid. 
some black smoked products even have as 
In traditionally smoked fried bacon, the 
much as 55  ng/g. According to data reviewed 
content of N 
- 
nitrosothiazolidine may be 
by Simko (2002), the content of BaP in 10 
about 5 
 
ng/g (Ikins et al.  
1986 
). In the 
different kinds of smoked meat and meat 
presence of glycolaldehyde from smoke, 
products ranged from 0.03 to 1.2 
 ng/g and 
2 - (hydroxymethyl) - N - nitrosothiazolidine 
was 17.1  ng/g in dark smoked meat products. 
and 
2 - (hydroxymethyl) - N - nitrosothiazoli-
In 1  g of fl ame - grilled sausages, 18 to 42  ng 
dine - 4 - carboxylic  acid  (HMNTCA)  may  be 
BaP were found. This could be compared 
formed. In various cured smoked products, 
with the contents of BaP in barbecued pork 
including smoked ham, sausages, salami, 
and beef: 1.5 
– 
10.5 
 
ng/g, and in charcoal 
pepperoni, and smoked poultry products, the 
 broiled  steaks  5 – 8    ng/g.  Traditionally  smoked 
contents of HMNTCA ranges from about 10 
fi sh may contain from about 1 to about 
to 260  ng/g (Sen et al.  1993 ). Generally, these 
60  ng of BaP/g of product, depending on the 
compounds occur in higher concentrations in 
240    Chapter 12
meat products smoked in traditional smoking 
made of wood logs, and the burning logs are 
ovens than in meats processed in modern 
covered with a layer of damp sawdust or 
smokehouses. The total amount of various 
wood chips to keep the fl ame down and cause 
N - nitroso compounds in smoked fried bacon, 
smoldering of the woody material. Here the 
some of which are still unidentifi ed, has been 
control of the quantity and quality of the 
reported  to  be  430 – 6800    ng/g. 
smoke depends totally on the kind of sawdust, 
 Heterocyclic aromatic amines, known to 
the experience of the operator, and the 
be generated due to pyrolysis of amino acids 
weather conditions. Increasing or decreasing 
and proteins and in nonenzymatic browning, 
the volume of air entering into the fi replace 
may be found in very heavy smoked goods 
by widening or shutting the inlet openings 
in  amounts  lower  than  1    ng/g.  
can adjust the smoldering temperature only 
coarsely. The smoke produced in such condi-
tions may be high in PAHs. This principle is 
 The Equipment for Smoking 
applied also in industrially manufactured 
 Introduction 
generators, in which there are several boxes 
connected to one smoke duct. Here the uni-
 The implements used for smoking meat and 
formity of smoke output can be better assured 
fi sh have been gradually improved during 
by proper, simultaneous controlling of the air 
ages of development from very primitive 
inlets to the boxes. 
burrows or huts with a fi replace on the ground 
 In industrial smoking, generators are most 
to modern installations controlled electroni-
often used, in which the sawdust or wood 
cally. However, in some parts of the world, 
chips are automatically fed onto a plate or 
the most ancient procedures and equipment 
grate heated to a controlled temperature of 
may still be in use. In contemporary indus -
about 350 ° C. The air needed for smoldering 
trial smoking, high attention is paid to the 
is blown from below the plate. The tempera-
temperature of smoke generation, proper 
ture in the layer of sawdust depends on the 
circulation of the smoke and drying air 
temperature of the heated grate and on the 
in order to achieve the required degree 
volume of supplied air. When small mesh 
and uniformity of smoke deposition, water 
sawdust is used, the fl ow of air may be hin-
evaporation, and heating, as well as to control 
dered and the temperature tends to be below 
all process parameters affecting the quality 
that of the plate. Such smoke is rich in 
of the products. In accordance with the 
CO. Adding wood chips to the pile increases 
requirements of hygiene and environmental 
the temperature and makes the smoke richer 
protection, the industrial installations also 
in phenols. However, in the presence of too 
include the necessary gear for effi cient 
large chips, the development of smoke may 
cleaning and for neutralization of the spent 
be disturbed by the occurrence of fl ame.  
smoke. The main components of smoking 
equipment are the generators of smoke and 
the smokehouses.  
 Friction - Type Generators 
 The principle of action of different construc-
 Smoke Generators 
tions of these generators depends also on 
thermal degradation and partial oxidation of 
 Smoldering - Type Generators 
woody material. However, the temperature 
 
In primitive, usually small 
- 
scale or artisan 
needed to initiate the process results from 
processing, the smoke is produced in a fi re-
friction of a log pressed at about 1  kg/cm 2 
place directly below the meat, which is hung 
against a rotating drum or disk (Rasmussen 
above it on spits or laid on a mesh. A fi re is 
 1956 ). Access of air is possible due to perfo -
Smoking    241
rations in the rotor. The temperature in the 
chips of low mesh size is kept below 400 ° C 
friction zone may be controlled by adjusting 
to prevent self - ignition. The composition of 
the pressure applied to the log and the speed 
the smoke can be controlled by modifying 
of rotation of the rotor. It is usually 300 
–
the content of oxygen in the air mixture. Self -
 350 ° C. The smoke is blown into the smoke 
 ignition of the fl uidized sawdust bed may be 
duct by a fan that may be fi xed on the shaft 
prevented even at a temperature as high as 
of the rotor. Because of comparatively limited 
750 ° C if the concentration of oxygen in the 
access of air to the friction zone and low 
gas mixture is reduced to 6% (Balejko and 
temperature, the smoke contains fewer prod-
Miler  1988 ). The quality of the smoke pro-
ucts of thermal degradation and oxidation of 
duced in a fl uidized bed at such a high tem-
lignin than that from the earlier described 
perature is equal to that from a smoldering - type 
generators. The assets of the friction 
- type 
generator.   
machine are low consumption of wood 
and the fact that the smoke production can 
 Smokehouses 
be started and stopped instantaneously. 
However, because it makes a lot of noise 
 Introduction 
during operation and needs electrical power 
 Meats and meat products can be successfully 
for driving the rotor, it is not very often used 
smoked in very simple devices (e. g., in a 
in the industry.  
barrel inverted over a pile of smoldering 
sawdust, fi tted with supports for spits, rods, 
 Other Types of Generators 
or wire mesh, and outlets for the spent 
smoke). Here, as well as in smoking ovens, 
 
Thermal degradation of wood can also be 
but also in kilns or tunnels supplied with 
accomplished by overheated steam; this takes 
smoke from generators, the quality of the 
place in the steam smoke generators covered 
products is affected by the duration of the 
by numerous patents (Fessman  1971 ). The 
process, the properties of the smoke, and 
sawdust is fed by a worm feeder into a reactor 
the conditions of heat and mass transfer. The 
formed by a tilted pipe with perforated walls. 
same factors are also important in smoke-
Overheated steam at temperatures of usually 
houses equipped with atomizers of liquid 
about 200 ° C is blown through the perfora-
smoke preparations. Additionally, in smoking 
tions into the sawdust - fi lled reactor. At this 
and steaming chambers, the parameters of 
considerably lower temperature, lignin does 
the heating steam have to be considered, as 
not undergo thermal degradation, and the 
do the effects of the high 
- 
voltage electro-
smoke is rich in carboxylic acids and car-
static fi eld in electrostatic smoking units.  
bonyl compounds but relatively poor in 
phenols and polycyclic aromatic compounds. 
In some of these generators, additional 
 Smoking Ovens 
sections of the reactor serve to oxidize the 
volatile decomposition products by oxygen -
 
Smoking ovens, generally built as a cross 
 enriched  air. 
section of a rectangle, about 1  m wide, 1.2  m 
 
Wood smoke can also be produced by 
deep, and 2 
 m high, have stony fl oors  and 
blowing a stream of hot air or air/inert gas 
fi reproof brick walls. On the side walls, there 
mixture countercurrently across a bed of 
are two or three pairs of supporting rails at 
sawdust that is being fed at a controllable rate 
appropriate distances to allow for sliding the 
into a fl uidization chamber that has the form 
frames on which the meat products hang  
of a truncated cone (Nicol  1962 ). The tem-
from spits or rods. On the front of the oven 
perature of the fl uidized bed of sawdust or 
there are three doors: two small ones at the 
242    Chapter 12
bottom and top to handle the fi replace  and 
arranged so that their common back walls 
enable the access of air and to control the 
can be lifted. In such an arrangement, the 
airfl ow and humidity, respectively. The third, 
loading and pre - drying of the product takes 
a large door in the middle, is used for manual 
place in the front row of ovens. After lifting 
loading and unloading of the frames, as well 
the back wall , the meats are pushed into the 
as for observing the process. A duct to the 
back row for further heating, smoking, and 
chimney connects the coned ceiling. Its 
fi nally unloading. This principle may be 
coned shape assures that the water and smoke 
applied also in operating other types of 
condensate does not drop on the meats but 
smokehouses. 
drains down the walls. The smoke duct is 
 
Advanced types of smoking kilns, still 
equipped with a shutter to control the fl ow. 
with a fi replace in the bottom, may extend  
In order to produce smoked meats of fairly 
over two stories of a building. The drying, 
standard quality, the operator may have to 
heating, and smoking conditions in the lower 
rearrange the frames at various distances 
and higher sections of such ovens differ sig-
from the fi replace during smoking to coun-
nifi cantly, which is convenient for processing 
teract the effect of the differences of tem-
different assortments of meat products.  
perature, draft, and humidity on the cross 
section of the oven. Smoking in such condi-
 Smokehouses with External 
tions is a labor - intensive task if no mechani-
Smoke Generators 
zation of the handling of the loaded frames 
is available. The process may be improved if 
 Modern smokehouses (Fig.  12.2 ) make pos-
two smoking ovens, or batteries of ovens, are 
sible full application of the principles of food 
14
9
6
13
9 1211
5
7 10
8
1
2
3
4
 Figure 12.2.    A smokehouse with external smoke generator.   (1) Smoke generator, (2) sawdust container, (3) 
electric heater, (4) ashtray, (5) smoke duct, (6) inlet fan, (7) smoke - distributing channel, (8) jet, (9) throttle, (10) 
smoke inlet collector, (11) outlet fan, (12) afterburner, (13) smoke outlet passage, (14) heater.  (Courtesy of 
Jerzy Balejko.)  
Smoking    243
engineering regarding heat and mass transfer. 
products within tunnel smoke houses, which 
They are supplied with smoke of standard 
are designed to operate in a continuous 
quality from an external generator and are 
system. In such tunnels, the meats to be 
heated by steam, gas, or electricity. Sawdust 
smoked are carried through consecutive sec-
and chips of wood of various species of trees, 
tions, in which appropriate parameters of 
standardized water content, and mesh size are 
temperature, smoke density, humidity, and 
available commercially. The air and smoke 
fl ow rate are maintained. 
fl ow or circulation is forced mechanically at 
 
For electrostatic smoking, the smoke-
controlled velocity. The temperature, humid-
house is additionally equipped with a high -
ity, and density of the air/smoke, as well as 
 voltage section, where the smoke deposition 
the process time, are adjusted according to a 
takes place within a few minutes (Sikorski 
computer program to requirements depend-
 1962 ,  Tilgner  and  Sikorski   1962 ).  Because 
ing on the desired properties of the meat 
the length of treatment is so short, the density 
products. The smoke is often fi ltered or con-
of smoke has to be kept very constant in 
ditioned under a water spray to control its 
order to assure a uniform degree of smoking 
temperature and humidity, and to separate 
of the product. Electrostatic deposition may 
some tar fractions and soot. In smokehouses 
also be applied in smoking ovens in which 
working in a half - open system, the smoke is 
smoke preparations are used instead of 
circulated until its density drops below a 
smoke. The other phases of the process (i.e., 
critical level. At that point, it is discharged 
pre - drying and cooking) proceed as in con-
into the chimney, and new smoke from the 
ventional smoking.  
generator is fed into the kiln. In a closed 
system, the smoke circulates within the kiln 
 Additional Equipment 
during the whole cycle of smoking, and after-
ward , a stream of air forces out its residues. 
 
To reliably operate a smokehouse, several 
The closed system bears the risk of self - igni-
instruments are necessary for measuring and 
tion of the smoke, which may contain CO at 
controlling the temperature, relative humid-
a concentration that is too high.  
ity, and fl ow rate of the smoke and the tem-
 For smoking with smoke preparations or 
perature in the meat products. Similar 
fl avorings, the same smokehouses may be 
instruments are used for control of other pro-
used as in the conventional process. However, 
cesses in the food industry. The density of the 
additional equipment must be installed for 
smoke, a crucial parameter of smoking, can 
atomization or vaporization of the smoking 
be easily determined by photoelectric mea-
liquids. Atomization nozzles in the smoke-
surement of the intensity of a light beam 
house create a cloud of smoke droplets in 
transmitted through a layer of smoke. 
the range of 100  μ m, while the smoke fl avor-
 The spent smoke and other exhaust gases, 
ing sprayed onto a heated plate turns into 
after leaving the smokehouse, should be 
vapors. For processing cooked sausages, hot -
cleaned before entering the atmosphere. 
 
water shower or steam injection systems 
Depending on the contents of the polluting 
must be fi tted, so that smoking and cooking 
components, different equipment may be 
can be carried out concurrently in the same 
used. Some installations comprise three sec-
kiln. 
tions: an electro fi lter, a fi brous  fi lter,  and 
 
In modern smokehouses, as well as in 
activated charcoal. Other systems use after-
advanced types of smoking ovens, the mate-
burners to oxidize the components of the 
rial to be smoked is usually loaded into the 
spent smoke at 800 – 1500 ° C. In the presence 
smoking chamber on trolleys. Trolleys or 
of catalyzers, the temperature may be reduced 
conveyors are used also to transport the meat 
to  600 ° C. 
244    Chapter 12
 
Many smokehouses are equipped with 
and less dense smoke. After smoking, the 
installations for automatic cleaning that are 
salami is ripened for two to three months, as 
available as standard units. Alkaline deter-
described in chapter  22 . 
gents may be used for the effi cient removal 
 
Warm smoking is carried out at 23 
° 
 to 
of  smoke  deposits  and  tar.    
45 
° 
C and relative humidity of 70% 
– 
80% 
for  4 – 48  hours.  The  pre - drying  and  smoke 
penetration is restricted mainly to the outer 
 Typical Procedures for 
layers of the product. It is usually followed 
Smoking Meats 
by cooking or baking. In smoking frankfurt -
 Meat may be smoked in the raw state or after 
ers, the fi rst phase is a tempering period at 
previous salting, marinating, cooking, or 
32 
– 
38 
° 
C, aimed at removing the surface 
other treatment, which may also be followed 
moisture to ensure uniform coloring. Smoking 
by other processing. However, in industrial 
proper, lasting usually about 1 
– 
1.5 
 
hrs in 
practice, meat and meat products are usually 
dense smoke of controlled humidity, brings 
smoked after salt curing, as described in 
the internal temperature of the sausages to 
chapter   6 .  The  pre - treatment  of  the  raw  mate-
60 
– 
68 
° 
C and imparts a smoky color and 
rial and the conditions of smoking, mainly 
fl avor. This is followed by cooking in a hot -
the humidity and fat content of the surface 
 
water spray or steam and by chilling. In 
layer of the sausage, the temperature, humid-
smoking cooked sausages, too high tempera-
ity, and density of the smoke, and the dura-
ture may lead to excessive fat and weight loss 
tion of the process, affect both the  and thus to creased surfaces of the sausages 
characteristic sensory properties and the shelf 
and nonuniformity of color. Smoking at a 
life of the products. 
temperature not exceeding 40 ° C is used also 
 Many smoking procedures are used in the 
for preparation of salted, spiced, dried pork 
industry and in artisan meat processing. They 
back fat. 
lead to very different sensory properties and 
 
In hot smoking, the fi rst stage (lasting 
shelf lives of various products. In these pro-
about 30 minutes, without smoke, at 40 
–
cedures, the impact of drying, heating, and 
 50 ° C) results in pre - drying of the surface and 
treating with smoke on the quality of the 
is followed by several stages of smoking in 
products may be very different. 
dense, hot smoke (at temperatures reaching 
 
Cold smoking is used in manufacturing 
85 ° C) and further surface drying. In manu-
raw, fermented sausages, made from cured 
facturing jagdwurst, the links are kept 2 
meats.  The  smoke,  at  12 – 25 ° C  and  controlled 
hours for settling at about 30 
° 
C, surface 
humidity, is applied for between several 
 dried at 40 – 60 ° C, smoked about 80 minutes 
hours to about 16 days, depending on the 
at  45 – 80 ° C,  dry - heated  at  85 ° C  during  25 
assortment. The loss of water due to drying 
minutes to reach internal temperature 68 
–
and the impregnation with smoke compo-
 72 ° C, smoked again at 30 ° C during 12 hours 
nents should be equal on the whole cross 
to a dark brown surface color, and dried 
section of the product. The surface of the 
at 14 
– 
18 
° 
C during 5 
– 
7 days to a water 
freshly cut sausage should be light brown to 
content of 55% – 57% in the product. In man-
dark brown, depending on the duration of the 
ufacturing other assortments, the thermal 
process. In smoking salami, the links are fi rst 
changes in the meat products are caused by 
surface dried one day at 12 ° C in low - density 
dry heating at about 90 ° C, steam cooking in 
smoke. This is followed by fi ve days of 
the smokehouse, or cooking in water. The 
smoking in dense smoke at 15 – 22 ° C, and by 
internal temperature of the product should be 
the last phase of two days in somewhat colder 
68 – 72 ° C.  
Smoking    245
    Nicol ,   D.  L.     1962 .   The  fl uidized sawdust smoke pro-
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Curing Process , II International Session, edited by   D. 
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Technology .  
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. 
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February  
2005 
 amending Regulation (EC) No. 
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Offi 
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2002 
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Opinion of the 
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SCF/CS/CNTM/PAH/29 Final. Brussels: European 
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Fd Chem. Toxic.    22 ( 4 ):
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 305  –  306 .  
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1998 
.  
Liquid smoke effects on  
Escherichia coli 
bestimmende Bestandteile von Fleischerzeugnissen. 
O157:H7, and its antioxidant properties in beef prod-
III.  Proteinverdaulichkeit  und  Aminos ä urengehalt  bei 
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Dosenbr ü hwurst  und  Rohwurst .   Fleischwirtschaft 
    Fessman ,   G.     1971 .   Verfahren  zur  Herstellung  eines 
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Patentschrift No. 1238317.  
Rauchniederschlagung 
beim 
R ä uchern . 
 Nahrung 
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formation in fried bacon processed with liquid smoke 
hydrocarbons in smoked meat products and smoke 
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fl avoring food additives .  Journal of Chromatography 
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R ä ucherrauchniederschlagung. 
 Tehnologia 
Mesa  
from two species of wood .  Acta Alimentaria Polonica 
(special edition): 83  –  84 .  
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Foundations of the Smoking Process .   Warsaw : 
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Wydawnictwa Przemys 
ł 
u Lekkiego i Spo 
z ywczego 
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(in  Polish ).  
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.  
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wood smoke in the coloring of the surface of food 
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.  
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.
and Food Chemistry    18 ( 6 ): 1056  –  1060 .  
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Chapter 13
 Meat Packaging  
 Maurice G.   O ’ Sullivan   and   Joseph P.   Kerry  
 
 Introduction 
that so much attention has focused on devel-
opments within the area of packaging tech-
 
The packaging of muscle 
- 
based foods is 
nologies, especially in the last twenty to 
necessary to ensure that such products reach 
thirty years. In the case of beef, two impor-
the consumer in a condition that satisfi es his 
tant visual clues that determine perceived 
or her demands on a number of levels, 
quality are color and packaging (Issanchou 
namely: nutrition, quality, safety, and conve-
 1996 ). 
nience, as well as the ability to deliver a 
 There are four categories of preservative 
product shelf life that will endure the stresses 
packaging that can be used with raw muscle 
of handling, transportation, storage, sale, and 
foods. These are vacuum packs (VP), high 
consumer contact. However, in order for 
oxygen modifi ed atmosphere packs (high O 2 
such products to be truly commercially suc-
MAP), low oxygen modifi ed  atmosphere 
cessful, consumer desires and demands must 
packs (low O 2  MAP), and controlled atmo -
be addressed and met with respect to the 
sphere packs (CAP) ( Gill and Gill  
2005 
). 
sensory properties of such products, before 
Over the past number of years, much research 
other quality dimensions become relevant 
has focused on the infl uence of modifi ed 
(Chambers and Bowers  
1993 
). The three 
atmosphere packaging (MAP) on meat 
sensory properties by which consumers most 
quality attributes and the purchasing prefer-
readily judge meat quality are: appearance, 
ences of consumers (Carpenter et al.  2001 ; 
texture, and fl avor (Liu et al.  1995 ). Each 
Jayasingh et al.  
2002 
). Discoloration in 
food product category presents its own 
retail meats during display conditions may 
unique challenges in this regard, and meat is 
occur as a combined function of muscle 
no different. Unfortunately, fresh meat color 
pigment oxidation (oxymyoglobin to met-
is short - lived and surface discoloration that 
myoglobin) and lipid oxidation in membrane 
occurs during chilled and frozen storage is 
phospholipids (Sherbeck et al.  1995 ). MAP 
considered a sign of unwholesomeness and 
is one of the principle methods of maintain-
product deterioration (Faustman and Cassens 
ing and prolonging meat color sensory 
 1990 ). The bright, cherry - red color of fresh 
quality. 
beef is used by consumers as an indicator 
 High  O 2  concentrations promote the oxy-
of meat quality (Cassens et al.  1988 ; Kennedy 
myoglobin (OxyMb) cherry red form of 
et al.  2004 ). In red meats, consumers relate 
myoglobin (O 
’ 
Grady et al.  
2000 
) but may 
the bright red color to freshness, while dis-
impact negatively on the oxidative stability 
criminating against meat that has turned 
of muscle lipids and lead to the development 
brown in color (Hood and Riordan  
1973 
; 
of undesirable fl avors (Rhee and Ziprin  1987 ; 
Morrissey et al.  
1994 
). It is because of 
Estevez and Cava  
2004 
). The breakdown 
such sensory quality changes in fresh meat 
products of lipid oxidation have been associ-
247
248    Chapter 13
ated with the development of off - fl avors and 
 Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 
off - odors and loss of color in meat (Faustman 
of Meat Products 
and Cassens  1989 ). 
 A variety of packaging systems and tech-
 
MAP is defi ned as  
“ 
a form of packaging 
nologies are currently available for muscle 
involving the removal of air from the pack 
foods. Fresh red meats may simply be placed 
and its replacement with a single gas or 
on trays and over - wrapped with an oxygen -
mixture of gases ”  (Parry  1993 ). MA packs 
 permeable  fi lm, or placed within a gaseous -
usually contain mixtures of two or three 
 modifi ed atmosphere. As the meat industry 
gases: O 2  (to enhance color stability), CO 2   (to 
moves toward central processing that  inhibit microbiological growth), and N 2   (to 
employs MAP and vacuum packaging, they 
maintain pack shape) (Sorheim et al. 1999; 
may need to overcome consumer preference 
Jakobsen and Bertelsen  
2000 
; Kerry et al. 
for fresh beef that is bright red in color and 
 2006 ). An example of MA packed meat is 
packaged with the traditional PVC over - wrap 
presented in Figure  13.1 . The capacity for 
(Carpenter et al.  2001 ). 
such gases to promote the overall quality of 
 Finally, the changing faces of ecologically 
fresh red meat is well established (Gill  1996 ). 
friendly packaging require the addressing of 
Beef steaks are commonly displayed under 
multiple aspects of packaging, including 
high oxygen concentrations in MAP in order 
recyclability, simple packaging, reusable, 
to promote color stability (Zakrys et al. 
refi llable, renewable materials, less materi -
 
2008 
). The color of lamb may also be 
als, less or no plastics, and bulk rather than 
extended by storage under MAP conditions 
individual packaging (Doyle  
2008 
). Also, 
(Kerry  et  al.   2000 ).   
the noncontact preservative effect of active 
 MAP has now been available to producers 
packaging offers the opportunity to produc-
for many years. As far back as 1933, Killefer 
ers of prolonging shelf life further, while 
 (1930) , using 100% carbon dioxide (CO 2 )  at 
maintaining the clean label status of meat 
4 – 7 ° C, found that pork and lamb remained 
products.  
fresh for twice as long as equivalent products 
 Figure 13.1.    Modifi ed atmosphere packed meats, beef burgers, and beef steak. Gas mixtures 80% oxygen 
and 20% CO 2 .  
Meat Packaging    249
stored in air and held at similar temperatures. 
order to maintain bloom, with at least 20% 
Also, the shelf 
- 
life extension of bacon by 
CO 2  to prevent selective microbial growth 
packaging in CO 2  - enriched  atmospheres  was 
(Eilert  
2005 
). Whether these gases were 
investigated by Callow in 1932 (Callow 
placed in the primary package or in a master 
 1932 ). Additionally, in the 1930s a carbon 
bag surrounding the primary package, the 
dioxide - enriched environment was employed 
basic technology has been unchanged for a 
to transport refrigerated beef carcasses from 
number of years. This technology has been 
Australia and New Zealand (Floros and 
successful for a number of larger retailers, as 
Matsos  2005 ). The retail use of MAP did not 
the shelf life provided by this package has 
occur until the 1950s, in the form of vacuum 
been suffi cient for usage in a controlled dis-
packaging (Floros and Matsos  
2005 
). In 
tribution system (Eilert  2005 ). High O 2   MA 
1981, Marks  
& 
 Spencer introduced to the 
packs contain atmospheres of O 2  and CO 2 , 
United  Kingdom  gas - fl ushed fresh meat in 
and often N 2 . Mixtures of O 2 /CO 2  have been 
plastic trays (Inns  1987 ). It is now used ubiq-
used commercially for a considerable time 
uitously across the meat industry for many 
(Brody  1970 ). A patent in 1970 specifi ed  a 
different meat products. As previously stated, 
range of O 2  and CO 2  concentrations suitable 
MA packs usually contain mixtures of two or 
for MAP beef (Georgala and Davidson  1970 ). 
three gases. 
Results demonstrated that at least 60% O 2   is 
 The use of high O 2  concentrations in MA 
required to achieve a color shelf life of 9 
packs promotes oxymyoglobin (OxyMb) for-
days, and the patent claims that a mixture of 
mation, the cherry red form of myoglobin 
80% O 2  plus 20% CO 2  keeps meat red for up 
(O ’ Grady et al.  2000 ). Packaging beef in MA 
to 15 days at 4 ° C (Georgala and Davidson 
packs and storing at low temperatures extends 
 1970 ). Typically, fresh red meats are stored 
the product shelf life considerably (Young 
in MAP containing 80% O 
2 :20% 
CO 2 
et al.  
1983 
). Beef and lamb are both red 
(Georgala and Davidson  1970 ), while cooked 
meats and share similar properties, but con-
meat equivalents are stored in 70% N 2 :30% 
siderable differences in shelf lives are 
CO 2  (Smiddy et al.  2002 ). 
apparent between them due to their relative 
 Beefsteaks are commonly displayed under 
susceptibility to chemical and microbial 
high oxygen concentrations in MAP in order 
spoilage. In contrast to beef cuts, much of the 
to promote color stability (Zakrys et al. 
surface of lamb is adipose tissue, which has 
 2008 ). As previously stated, the major func-
a pH close to neutrality and has no signifi cant 
tion of O 2  is to maintain the muscle pigment 
respiratory activity (Robertson  
2006 
). The 
myoglobin in its oxygenated (oxymyoglobin) 
pH of beef is lower than that of lamb, thus 
form (Kerry et al.  2006 ), but high oxygen 
making it less susceptible to microbial spoil-
levels within MAP also promote oxidation of 
age (Gill  1989 ; Kerry et al.  2000 ). In order 
muscle lipids over time (O 
’ 
Grady et al. 
to optimize shelf life, sensory quality, and 
 1998 ).  These  high  O 2  levels may also impact 
microbiological safety using MAP, the pack-
negatively on the oxidative stability of 
aging system applied must be product spe-
muscle lipids and lead to the development of 
cifi c (Church and Parsons  1995 ).  
undesirable fl avors (Rhee and Ziprin  1987 ; 
Estevez and Cava  2004 ). This distinctive off -
 fl avor develops rapidly in meat that has been 
precooked, chilled - stored, and reheated. The 
 High  O  2   MAP  Meat Packs 
term  warmed - over - fl avor (WOF) has been 
 The vast majority of meat products have been 
adopted to identify this fl avor  deterioration 
and continue to be offered in high oxygen 
(Renerre and Labadie  
1993 
). Membrane 
pack formats (approximately 80% O 
2 ) 
in 
phospholipids are particularly susceptible to 
250    Chapter 13
oxidation processes, thereby causing the 
the correct blend of gases that maximizes 
rapid development of meat rancidity (Renerre 
initial color, color stability, and shelf life, 
 1990 ). The oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty 
while also minimizing microbial growth, 
acids not only causes the rapid development 
lipid oxidation, and gaseous headspace 
of meat rancidity, but also affects the color, 
(Mancini and Hunt  
2005 
). Jakobsen and 
the nutritional quality, and the texture of beef 
Bertelsen  (2000)  reported that while O 2   levels 
(Kanner   1994 ). 
higher than 20% were necessary to promote 
 High  O 2 - MAP increases lipid oxidation in 
meat color, package O 2  contents higher than 
meat: beef (Jakobsen and Bertelsen  
2000 
; 
55% did not result in additional color stabi-
Zakrys et al.  2008 ; Zakrys et al.  2009 ), pork 
lizing benefi ts. 
(Lund et al.  2007 ), and lamb (Kerry et al. 
 High  O 2  concentrations can cause protein 
 2000 ).  High - oxygen  atmospheres  (80%  O 2 ) 
oxidation, which has been linked to increased 
also promote pigment oxygenation, and 
toughness in MAP meat, particularly beef. 
therefore, prolong the time before metmyo-
Thus, protein oxidation may decrease eating 
globin is visible on the muscle surface. The 
quality by reducing tenderness and juiciness, 
drawback to high O 2  MAP is that although it 
and enhancing fl avor deterioration and dis-
maintains redness during storage, rancidity 
coloration (Xiong  2000 ). Zakrys et al.  (2008)  
often develops in the meat while color is still 
showed that high O 2  concentrations in MAP -
desirable (Jayasingh et al.  
2002 
). Because 
 
stored beefsteaks were shown to have 
consumers use meat color as an indicator 
increased toughness scores after cooking, as 
of freshness and wholesomeness, recent 
determined by 134 consumers (Fig.  
13.2 
; 
advances in MAP have focused on fi nding 
Zakrys  et  al.   2008 ).   
1.0
0.8
0.6
b′ value
Day 12
O2
0.4
Day 0
O270
O260
0.2
a′ value
Carbonyls cont.
Oxidized flavor
Liking of flavor
TBARS
Toughness
0.0
O
NHI conc.
280
HI conc.
WBSF
Days
L′ value
O
Juiciness
250
–0.2
overall acceptability
Principal Component 3
OxMb conc.
–0.4
Day 4
O240
–0.6
Day 8
–0.8
–1.0
–1.0
–0.8
–0.6
–0.4
–0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Principal Component 1
 Figure 13.2.   An overview of the variation found in the mean data from the ANOVA - partial least squares 
regression (APLSR) correlation loadings plot for each of the 5 MAP treatment groups: 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 
and 80% oxygen, with all packs containing 20% CO 2  and the make - up gas N 2 . Shown are the loadings of the 
X and Y variables for the fi rst 3 PCs for raw data.  •    =   days and MAP treatments,  ᭡   =   sensory descriptor and 
instrumental variables. The concentric circles represent 100% and 50% explained variance, respectively. 
(Adapted from Zakrys et al.  2009 .)  
Meat Packaging    251
 Carpenter et al.  (2001)  showed that con-
concluded that the use of 0.4% CO during 
sumer preference for beef color was suffi -
storage in MAP improved beef color without 
cient to infl uence their likelihood to purchase, 
masking spoilage. Upon removal of product 
but was not enough to bias taste scores. It is 
from CO packaging, meat color (likely to be 
likely that once a decision to purchase beef 
a combination of COMb and OMb) deterio-
is made in the market, whether the beef is 
rated during display in a manner not different 
presented in the form of cherry red fresh 
from product exposed only to air. Thus, the 
 bloomed beef, the brown of discounted beef, 
inclusion of 0.4% CO in conjunction with 
or the purple of vacuum - packaged beef, con-
O 2  will not infl uence color stability, metmyo-
sumer eating satisfaction at home will depend 
globin - reducing activity, or O 2   consumption. 
only on the beef quality attributes of tender-
This is likely the result of greater formation 
ness, juiciness, and fl avor (Carpenter et al. 
of oxymyoglobin (oxyMb) in atmospheres 
 2001 ).  
containing  20 – 80%  O 2 , which dominates or 
limits the ability of carboxymyoglobin 
(COMb) to form (Seyfert et al.  2007 ). COMb 
 Low  O  2   MAP  Meat Packs 
is more resistant to oxidation than oxymyo-
 Low  O 2  packaging systems have been readily 
globin, owing to the stronger binding of CO 
available for usage in the United States, but 
to the iron - porphyrin site on the myoglobin 
are not as widely implemented as their high 
molecule (Wolfe  
1980 
). However, one of 
O 2  counterparts (Eilert  2005 ). Low O 2   MAP 
the main consumer fears relating to the use 
are generally packed with CO 
2  
(usually 
of CO is the possible loss of quality due to 
enough to dissolve into the product) and also 
a break in the cold chain, causing deteriora-
N 2 
, while residual O 
2 
 may be present or 
tion in spite of its attractive appearance 
included during the packing process. The 
(Wilkinson et al.  2006 ). Concern has been 
CO 2 
 acts as the antimicrobial and N 
2  
as 
expressed in the United States in the past that 
the pack shape stabilizer (S 
ø 
rheim et al. 
such a system would mask spoilage that 
 1997 ). For Low O 2  MAP in the United States, 
could occur in fresh meat products (Eilert 
carbon monoxide (CO) may also be used as 
 2005 ). The FDA noted that while color did 
a gas for meat color enhancement. Within the 
not degrade in a package containing CO, 
EU, only Norway adopted the use of CO 
offensive odors could still form normally in 
(0.3 
– 
0.5%) in primary packs in the mid 
the product in the presence of CO (FDA 
1980s; however, this practice has since 
 2004 ). Although there are distinct advantages 
ceased, following a decision by the EU 
for the storage and display life of meat with 
Parliament committee in 2004 not to allow 
CO in VP or low O 2  MAP, consumers have 
the use of CO in meat packaging applications 
a negative image of CO because of its haz-
(S ø rheim   2006 ). 
ardous nature and the concern that products 
 Industrially, CO has been added to pack-
may appear fresher than they actually are 
ages to eliminate the disadvantages of com-
(Cornforth and Hunt  2008 ). The declaration 
mercial  ultra - low  O 2  MAP, because CO has 
of CO for meat as generally recognized as 
a high affi nity for myoglobin and forms a 
safe (GRAS) in the United States has a legal 
bright cherry red color on the surface of beef 
basis (Boeckman  2006 ). The use of CO in the 
(S 
ø 
rheim et al.  
1999 
; Luno et al.  
2000 
; 
primary package of fresh meat in the United 
Jayasingh et al.  2001 ; Hunt et al.  2004 ). CO 
States is a major breakthrough. This will 
is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is 
allow for the wider distribution of case - ready 
produced mainly through incomplete com-
products and adequate shelf life needed to 
bustion of carbon 
- containing 
materials 
achieve distribution of these products (Eilert 
(S 
ø 
rheim et al.  
1997 
). Hunt et al.  
(2004) 
 
 2005 ).  
252    Chapter 13
 Controlled Atmosphere Packaging 
(Dixon and Kell  
1989 
). The absorption 
of Meats 
capacity is related to biological factors (i.e., 
pH, water, and fat content) (Gill  
1988 
; 
 
The storage life of chilled meat can be 
Jakobsen and Bertelsen  
2002 
), but also to 
extended by packaging the product under 
a large extent to packaging and storage con-
controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) with 
ditions, specifi cally  CO 2   partial  pressure, 
N 2  or CO 2  (Gill and Molin  1991 ). The absence 
headspace to meat volume ratio, and storage 
of O 
2 
 in an O 
2 
- 
free MAP or CAP system 
temperature (Jakobsen and Bertelsen  2002 ; 
results in a signifi cant shelf - life extension, as 
Zhao et al.  1995 ). O ’ Sullivan et al.  (2010)  
these packaging formats offer hostile envi -
used sensory panelists to assess the prefer-
ronments to obligate aerobic spoilage micro-
ence of steaks packed under atmospheres 
organisms. CAP packaging has been used 
containing 50% O 2  (50 CO 2 ), 70% O 2   (30 
commercially for the shipment of chilled 
CO 2 ), 80% O 2  (20 CO 2 ), or 100% CO 2 .  The 
lamb to distant markets (Gill  1990 ). 
principal aim of this study was to explore 
 However, these packaging systems initi-
off - fl avors developed by CO 2  in commercial 
ate the development of metmyoglobin in the 
MA packs as well as 100% CO 2 .  Samples 
meat, which is unattractive to the consumer 
were tested by assessors after immediate 
(Hunt et al.  1999 ). The meat will bloom to 
cooking, upon removal of the respective 
an attractive bright red color shortly (20 
–
packaging, and a second identical sample set 
 30  min) after opening the pack and exposing 
was served with samples left for 30 minutes 
the meat to air. Another negative attribute  
in ambient air to let any CO 2  dissipate prior 
associated with these packaging formats is 
to cooking. From sensory analysis, panelists 
that the high usage of CO 2  may cause off -
had a preference for steaks packed under 
 fl avor or CO 2  taint in the meat, which can be 
atmospheres containing 50% O 2 . The 50% O 2 
detected upon consumption (Nattress and 
packed treatments displayed a signifi cant 
Jeremiah   2000 ).  CO 2 
 is highly soluble in 
( P  ≤   0.05) and negative correlation with CO 2 
water, most of which is contained in the 
fl avor, and this was even more pronounced 
muscle, and also in fat tissue. This solubility 
for samples where the CO 2  was allowed to 
is increased with decreasing temperature. 
dissipate (Dis,  
P   ≤     0.001).  There  also 
When an atmosphere rich in CO 2  is used, the 
appeared to be a directional correlation of the 
high solubility of the gas in meat tissues must 
100% CO 2  samples to CO 2  fl avor, although 
be taken into account (Gill  2003 ). In an atmo-
these results were not signifi cant (Fig.  13.3 ). 
sphere of 100% CO 
2 
, meat will absorb 
All other treatments proved to be nonsignifi -
approximately its own volume in gas. Thus, 
cant. One explanation for this may be the 
the initial gas volume must exceed the 
leanness of the meat used in this study, which 
required fi nal volume by the volume of the 
had a very low fat content. In addition, the 
enclosed meat (Gill  2003 ). When high CO 2 
meat purchased was very stable in terms of 
levels are applied in a package headspace, the 
composition, with no signifi cant variation in 
concentration of CO 
2 
 will decline due to 
protein, fat, and moisture content. These cuts 
absorption of CO 2  in the meat. CO 2   dissolves 
are typical of those found in Irish 
in meat until saturation or equilibrium is 
supermarkets.   
reached. CO 2  is also suspected of affecting 
 In general, CAP is used for bulk product 
the chemical quality of the meat (Jakobsen 
or items of irregular shape, such as whole 
and Bertelsen  2002 ). A lowering of meat pH 
lamb carcasses, or as master packs for retail -
is a result of CO 2  absorption into the meat 
 ready product (Gill  2003 ). CAP is not suit-
and is a consequence of carbonic acid being 
able for individual trays of retail 
- ready 
dissociated to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions 
product because of the undesirable color of 
Meat Packaging    253
 Figure 13.3.   An overview of the variation found in the mean data from the ANOVA - Partial Least Squares 
Regression (APLSR) correlation loadings plot for each of the 4 MAP treatment groups. Shown are the loadings 
of the X and Y variables for the fi rst 2 PCs for  ᭡   =    days and the individual MAP treatments,  •    =    sensory 
descriptor and instrumental variables.  Im (Immediate)    =   meat samples cooked immediately after opening of the 
MA packaging and presented to panelists.  Dis (Dissipate)   =   meat samples left 30  min in ambient air to let any 
CO 2  dissipate, then cooked and presented to panelists. The concentric circles represent 100% and 50% 
explained variance, respectively.  (Adapted from O ’ Sullivan et al. 2010.)  
anoxic meat, and because packaging materi-
 Vacuum Packaging of Meat 
als that are impermeable to gases are mostly 
opaque (Gill  2003 ). The inclusion of O 2   in 
 Vacuum packaging (VP) was one of the ear-
CAP systems at low levels can have a delete-
liest forms of MAP methods developed com-
rious effect on meat color. The inclusion of 
mercially and still is extensively used for 
just 100ppm oxygen can cause this discolor-
products such as primal cuts of fresh red meat 
ation, but this is usually transient, since the 
and cured meats (Parry  1993 ). An example 
metmyoglobin is reduced to myoglobin, 
of vacuum packed meat is presented in Figure 
usually within four days, as anoxic condi-
 13.4 .  The  fi rst signifi cant commercial appli-
tions are established and maintained (Gill 
cation was for vacuum packaging of whole 
and Jones  
1994 
). However, O 
2   scavengers 
turkeys using rubber stretch bags (Purdue 
may be used in CAP systems to prevent the 
 1997 ). VP extends the storage life of chilled 
formation of metmyoglobin, if very low 
meats by maintaining an O 2   defi cient  envi-
levels of O 
2 
 are accidentally incorporated 
ronment within the pack (Bell et al.  1995 ). 
during pack fi lling. Buys  (2004)  found that 
Vacuum packs are comprised of evacuated 
the inclusion of an oxygen scavenger ensured 
pouches or vacuum skin packs, in which a 
that retailed bulk - packaged pork chops held 
fi lm of low gas permeability is closely applied 
in approximately 100% CO 2  were still accept-
to the surface of the product. Preservative 
able to a consumer panel after 14 days of 
effects are achieved by the development of 
storage.  
an anaerobic environment within the pack 
254    Chapter 13
 Figure 13.4.    Vacuum - packed meat products, chorizo and salami.  
(Gill and Gill  2005 ). The objective is that any 
The consumer has been shown to reject those 
residual O 
2 
 in the remaining atmosphere, 
myoglobin forms that are not acceptable 
including O 2  dissolved in the product, will be 
meat colors from their perspective (Parry 
removed by enzymatic reactions within the 
 
1993 
;  Allen et al.  
1996 
). Consumers have 
muscle tissue, or through other chemical 
demonstrated a bias against the purchase of 
reactions with tissue components (Gill and 
vacuum packaged beef, which displays the 
Gill  2005 ). Respiration of the meat in vacuum 
purple color of deoxymyoglobin (Meischen 
packs will also quickly consume the vast 
et al.  1987 ). Also, prolonged storage of meat 
majority of residual O 
2 
, replacing it with 
in vacuum packs results in the accumulation 
CO 2 , which eventually increases to 10 – 20% 
of drip, which is also unappealing to consum -
within the package (Taylor  1985 ; Parry  1993 ; 
ers (Jeremiah et al.  1992 ; Parry  1993 ; Payne 
Gill  
1996 
). However, the amount of O 
2 
et al.  1997 ). 
remaining in the pack at the time of closure 
 
VP continues to be used in numerous 
must be very small if the product is to be 
ways for effi cient meatpacking and is still the 
effectively preserved, as the capacity of the 
most cost 
- 
effective packaging strategy 
muscle tissue for removing O 2  is limited (Gill 
employed for the packing of meat. A recent 
and Gill  2005 ). The oxygen level is generally 
innovation in VP has been the evolution 
reduced to less than 1% under good vacuum 
of shrinkable fi lms in use with horizontal 
conditions. Due to the barrier properties of 
form - fi ll - seal machinery (Salvage and Lipsky 
the fi lm used, entry of oxygen from the 
 2004 ).  
outside is restricted (Parry  1993 ; Robertson 
 2006 ).   
 Vacuum Skin Packaging of Meat 
 Vacuum - packaged  meat  is  unsuitable  for 
the retail market because depletion of O 
2 , 
 Drip formation in vacuum packed meat, as 
coupled with low O 
2 
 permeability of the 
discussed above, can partly be overcome by 
packaging fi lm, causes a change in meat 
vacuum skin packaging (VSP), using a fi lm 
color from red to purple, due to the conver-
that fi ts very tightly to the meat surface, 
sion of oxymyoglobin to deoxymyoglobin. 
leaving little space for the accumulation of 
Meat Packaging    255
any fl uid exudate (Hood and Mead  
1993 
). 
gives rise to active packaging (Camo et al. 
This style of package uses a polystyrene or 
 
2008 
). An active package was defi ned  by 
polypropylene tray, coupled with the use of 
Rooney  (1995)  as a material that  “ performs 
a barrier fi lm that can form around the product 
a role other than an inert barrier to the outside 
to reduce any liquid purge emanating from 
environment. 
” 
 They can actively control 
it. An additional web of fi lm or a header 
microbial contamination of foods during 
can also be added for pre - pricing and pre -
storage and distribution. The fundamental 
 labeling. Depending on one ’ s perspective, an 
concept behind this technology is the incor-
advantage or disadvantage of this package is 
poration of an antimicrobial agent into the 
that it gives the product a very unique appear-
packaging material by either spraying, 
ance (Belcher  2006 ). VSP involves produc-
coating, physical mixing, or chemical binding 
tion of a skin package in which the product 
(Berry  
2000 
). Food manufacturers may be 
is the forming mold. It was fi rst introduced 
able to maintain the minimum inhibitory con-
using an ionomer fi lm, which softens on 
centration of an antimicrobial to prevent 
heating to such an extent that it can be 
growth of pathogenic and spoilage microor-
draped over sharp objects without puncturing 
ganisms by using controlled - release packag-
(Robertson  2006 ). The product shelf life can 
ing (Koontz  
2006 
). The major potential 
be 15 – 22 days, depending on the meat cut 
product applications for antimicrobial fi lms 
used. Since the product is displayed in the 
include meat, fi sh, poultry, bread, cheese, 
myoglobin state, there is no loss of color in 
fruits, vegetables, and beverages (L 
ó pez -
the display case and oxidation issues are 
 Rubio et al.  2004 ). 
minimized using this packaging format  
 
Antimicrobial (AM) packaging research 
(Belcher   2006 ). 
generally started with the development of 
 In summary, VSP eliminates the wrinkled 
antimicrobial packaging materials that 
appearance of traditional vacuum - packaged 
contain antimicrobial chemicals in their mac-
meat products, thus improving the appear-
romolecular structures (Han  2005 ). Chemical 
ance of products, which will have a positive 
preservatives can be employed in antimicro-
effect on consumer appeal.  
bial - releasing  fi lm systems, including organic 
acids and their salts (sorbates, benzoates, 
and propionates), parabens, sulfi tes, nitrites, 
 Active Packaging 
chlorides, phosphates, epoxides, alcohols, 
 Antimicrobial packaging is a promising and 
ozone, hydrogen peroxide, diethyl pyrocar-
rapidly emerging technology in which anti-
bonate, antibiotics, and bacteriocins (Ozdemir 
microbial agents are incorporated into or 
and Floros  2004 ). Antimicrobial fi lms can be 
coated onto food packaging materials to 
classifi ed into two types: (1) those that 
prolong the shelf life of the packed food, 
contain an antimicrobial agent that migrates 
usually by extending the lag phase and reduc-
to the surface of the food, and (2) those that 
ing the growth rate of microorganisms 
are effective against the surface growth of 
(Floros et al.  
1997 
; Han  
2000 
; Suppakul 
microorganisms without migration (Suppakul 
et al.  2003 ). The aim of active packaging is 
et al.  
2003 
). Also, antimicrobial coatings 
to increase the display life of the contained 
may be developed by incorporating nisin, 
products, while maintaining their quality, 
lactoferrin, sodium diacetate, sorbic acid, and 
safety, and sensory properties, without direct 
potassium sorbate into a coating material 
addition of active agents to the product 
(Limjaroen et al.  
2003 
). Antimycotics and 
(Camo et al.  2008 ). Inclusion of the active 
antimicrobials have been added to food pack-
agents, be they antioxidants, antimicrobials, 
aging fi lms to delay outgrowth of mold. 
or any other, within the packaging material 
Potassium sorbate release from low - density 
256    Chapter 13
polyethylene (LDPE) and high - density poly-
dation in beef, leading to the enhanced 
ethylene (HDPE) fi lms has been studied in 
display life of the meat. Additionally, Camo 
food systems. In such systems, release rates 
et al.  (2008)  investigated and compared the 
and migration amounts must be closely mon-
effect of two natural antioxidant sources 
itored for the system to effectively preserve 
(rosemary and oregano extracts) incorpo-
the contents of the package (Han  
2000 
). 
rated into an active package fi lled with a 
Looking to the consumers 
’ 
 demand for 
modifi ed atmosphere on the display life of 
chemical preservative - free foods, food man-
lamb steaks. These workers found that a rose-
ufacturers are now using naturally occurring 
mary extract, a rosemary active fi lm, or an 
antimicrobials to sterilize and/or extend 
oregano active fi lm resulted in enhanced oxi-
the shelf life of foods (Han  2005 ). Present 
dative stability of lamb steaks. Also, active 
plans envisage the possible use of naturally 
fi lms with oregano were signifi cantly  more 
derived AM agents in packaging systems for 
effi cient than those with rosemary, exerting 
a variety of processed meats, cheeses, and 
an effect similar to that of the direct addition 
other foods, especially those with relatively 
of the rosemary extract and extended fresh 
smooth product surfaces that come in contact 
odor and color from 8 to 13 days compared 
with the inner surface of the package. This 
to the control. 
solution is becoming increasingly important, 
 
Active packaging has the advantage of 
as it represents a perceived lower risk to the 
maintaining the preservative effects of 
consumer  (Nicholson   1998 ).  Various  bacte-
various compounds (antimicrobial, antifun-
riocins, such as nicin, pediocin, lacticin, pro-
gal, or antioxidant), but without being in 
pionicin, etc., can be incorporated into foods 
direct contact with the food product. This is 
and/or food packaging systems to inhibit 
an important development, considering the 
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microor-
consumer drive toward clean labeling of food 
ganisms  (Daeschul   1989 ).  The  extracted 
products and the desire to limit the use of 
bacteriocins, which are generally small 
food additives.  
molecular weight peptides, can be utilized in 
various ways; however, it is very important 
 Summary and Future Trends in 
to characterize their resistance to thermal 
Meat Packaging 
treatment and pH (Han  2005 ). The storage 
temperature may also affect the activity of 
 In recent years, much attention has focused 
AM packages. Several researchers have 
on the shift from consumers buying meat at 
found that the protective action of AM fi lms 
the family butcher shop to purchasing it at 
deteriorated at higher temperatures, due to 
the local supermarket. More and more tradi-
high diffusion rates in the polymer (Vojdani 
tional butcher shops have closed because 
and Torres  1989 ). The diffusion rate of the 
they cannot compete on price , offer the same 
AM agent and its concentration in the fi lm 
supermarket one 
- 
stop shop opportunity, or 
must be suffi 
cient to remain effective 
provide the extended shelf life of MAP meats 
throughout the shelf life of the product 
to the consumer that are available on refriger-
(Cooksey   2000 ). 
ated supermarket shelves. This is the situa-
 Antioxidant packaging is a recent devel-
tion in most developed countries, particularly 
opment in active packaging technologies that 
within the EU, where sales of fresh meat 
has had some success. Ner 
í 
n et al.  
(2006) 
 
have increased in supermarkets at the expense 
described the promising results of a new anti-
of the specialized butcher ’ s store (Mannion 
oxidant active packaging system; a plastic 
 
1995 
). However, recently, consumers have 
fi lm with an embodied rosemary extract was 
become very much more discerning with 
able to inhibit both myoglobin and lipid oxi-
respect to the origins of the food they 
Meat Packaging    257
consume. Poor labeling by the supermarkets 
beef  that  is  bright  red  in  color  and  pack -
has resulted in a swing back toward the 
aged with the traditional PVC overwrap. 
local butcher, where meat traceability is 
Nevertheless, it is encouraging that the initial 
transparent and promoted as a selling point; 
perceptions of quality will likely not bias 
in addition, green issues relating to product 
eating satisfaction once a decision to pur-
movement to markets (air miles) and support 
chase is made and the meat is taken home, 
for local product producers has encouraged 
thereby hastening the acceptance of the 
this same trend. The impact of such develop-
newer packaging technologies (Carpenter 
ing trends on the pre - pack sales of meat at 
et al.  
2001 
). Additionally, meat processing 
the supermarket level remains to be seen. 
and packaging technologies that are accepted 
 Mize and Kelly  (2004)  reported the trends 
by the market and adopted by the industry 
in fresh meat packaging at retail level in the 
will have to become more effi cient,  consis-
United States. They found that in 2002, 69% 
tent , and leaner in activity if future global 
of the linear footage of the self - service  meat 
challenges are to be met. Low - oxygen  pack-
case was occupied by fresh meat and poultry. 
aging technologies will continue to evolve as 
This fi gure declined to 63% in 2004, refl ect-
long as they can successfully and economi-
ing a growing conversion of meat items to 
cally enable the wider distribution of cen-
products with greater consumer convenience, 
trally packaged fresh meat (Eilert  2005 ). 
such as fully cooked entrees and marinated 
 It is critical that we understand the factors 
meats, as well as hams and sausages. They 
that will have the largest infl uence on the 
also reported an increase in packages that 
evolution of meat packaging. The demand 
were case ready, from 49% in 2002 to 60% 
for convenience foods will continue to be 
in 2004. 
fueled by the aging of our population, the 
 
As stated earlier, high O 
2 
 MAP is now 
diminished cooking skills of the typical con-
used ubiquitously across the meat industry 
sumer, and the reduced time available for 
for many different meat products.  home preparation of meals. The ability of 
Alternatively, low O 
2 
 packaging systems 
materials to offer fl exibility in primary pro-
have been readily available in the United 
cessing as well as reheating at home will be 
States, but not as widely implemented as the 
critical  (Eilert   2005 ). 
high O 
2 
 counterparts. Vacuum packaging 
 
The volatility of oil prices has a direct 
continues to be, in many cases, the most cost -
effect on the cost of traditional petrochemi-
 
effective packaging strategy. A relatively 
cal 
- 
based packaging materials. Also, the 
recent innovation in vacuum packaging has 
environmental considerations of disposing of 
been the evolution of shrinkable fi lms in use 
traditional packaging after use have become 
with  horizontal  form - fi ll - seal  machinery 
center stage in recent years with respect to 
(Salvage and Lipsky  2004 ). This packaging 
green solutions to modern living. The 
format uses a polystyrene or polypropylene 
increased costs of petroleum will continue to 
tray and uses a barrier fi lm that can form 
drive the demands for bio - based packaging 
around the product to reduce any amount of 
materials. Consumer demand for more envi-
purge coming out of the product. An addi-
ronmentally friendly packaging and more 
tional web of fi lm or a header can also be 
natural products will also create increased 
added 
for 
pre - pricing 
and 
pre - labeling 
demand for packaging from biodegradable 
(Belcher   2006 ). 
and renewable resources (Cutter  2006 ). Even 
 As the meat industry moves toward central 
though food manufacturers cannot eliminate 
processing that employs MAP and Vacuum -
packaging, they can redesign packages to 
 Skin Packaging (VSP), processors may need 
reduce the amount of material used or to 
to overcome consumer preference for fresh 
incorporate newly developed materials such 
258    Chapter 13
as biodegradable plastic in their products 
’ 
 “ NatureTray ”   product  aimed  at  fresh  meat. 
packaging. This is particularly important in 
Both these companies use a foam form that 
the European Union, where many countries 
is derived from 100% annually renewable 
are considering tougher legislation to encour-
resources. In the future, we can hope to see 
age the use of less packaging material (Dodds 
even more applications for renewable pack-
 2007 ).  Biopolymer  fi lms may serve as poten-
aging materials in the packaging of meat 
tial replacements for synthetic fi lms in food 
products. These products will address the 
packaging applications to address strong 
various technical challenges of MAP and 
marketing trends toward more environmen-
vacuum packaging and overcome the gas 
tally friendly materials, but hydrophilicity is 
permeability issues required to make such 
a central limitation to replacement and full-
packaging effective.  
scale commercial utilization of biodegrad-
able fi lms (Han et al.  
2005 
). However, a 
variety of bio 
- 
based materials have been 
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 J. P.   Kerry .  2002 .  Use of oxygen sensors for the non-
and    J.  P.    Kerry  .   2008 .   Effects  of  oxygen  concentration 
destructive measurement of the oxygen content in 
on the sensory evaluation and quality indicators of 
modifi ed atmosphere and vacuum packs of cooked 
beef muscle packed under modifi ed atmosphere .  Meat 
chicken patties: Impact of oxygen content on lipid 
Science    79 : 648  –  655 .  
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Meat Science 
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Chapter 14
 Novel Technologies for Microbial 
Spoilage Prevention  
 Oleksandr   Tokarskyy   and   Douglas L.   Marshall  
 Introduction 
bacteriocins, chitosan, essential oils, and 
enzymes), chemical interventions (organic 
 
Storage of chilled meats in air leads to 
acid salts, acidifi ed sodium chlorite, phos-
rapid spoilage by psychrotrophic bacteria, 
phates, ozone, and electrolyzed water), and 
predominantly  
Pseudomonas  
 spp. and  physical interventions (ionizing irradiation, 
 Brochothrix thermosphacta 
. As shown in 
high pressure, hydrodynamic shockwave, 
Chapter  13 , traditional packaging systems for 
pulsed electric fi elds, high intensity light, and 
meat products have been very successful in 
cold plasma). Brief commentary on novel 
slowing the rate of microbial spoilage and 
thermal processing interventions (high fre-
extending the shelf life of meats. These 
quency and ohmic heating) and novel carcass 
systems are designed to manipulate the gas 
decontamination methods is also provided. 
environment surrounding the product. Such 
Many of the interventions remain at the theo-
systems  include  oxygen - permeable  overwrap 
retical stage and will require extensive vali-
for short 
- 
term retail display to maintain 
dation and economic analysis before practical 
the bloom color of red meats. For long 
- 
introduction to industry. Others, however, 
term storage, vacuum packaging (complete 
have found widespread use and will likely 
removal of headspace gases) or modifi ed 
remain a mainstay in industry.  
atmosphere packaging (MAP)/controlled 
atmosphere packaging (CAP) is employed. 
 Packaging Systems 
The success of these packaging systems is 
such that the majority of red meat produced 
 
As introduced in Chapter  
13 
, several new 
in the United States is vacuum or MAP pack-
packaging systems have been developed that 
aged (Siragusa et al.  1999 ). 
hold promise to extend the shelf life of meats. 
 In the present chapter we review a number 
Traditional MAP/CAP usually involves 
of recent non - thermal technological develop-
removal of headspace air, followed by rein -
ments for the control of meat spoilage micro-
troduction of gases that have a different 
organisms and extension of shelf life. The 
composition than air (Kerry et al.  
2006 
). 
types of microbes found on meats and condi-
Incorporation of elevated CO 
2 
 levels into 
tions that lead to spoilage can be found in 
packaging inhibits pseudomonads in chilled 
recent reviews (Marshall and Bal 
’ 
a  
2001 
; 
meats (Marshall et al.  1991, 1992 ; Zhao et al. 
Nychas et al.  2007 ). We present here new 
 1992 ). Complete oxygen removal by vacuum 
information related to revolutionary packag-
packaging or 100% CO 
2 /N 2  
substitution 
ing innovations such as gas scavenging and 
inhibits spoilage bacteria while favoring 
antimicrobial impregnation systems. Also 
growth of lactic acid producing bacteria, 
discussed are recent developments in natural 
resulting in extended shelf life of the product 
product biological interventions (phage,  (Nychas et al.  
2007 
). The need for low 
263
264    Chapter 14
(  2.5    log 10   reduction 
31 ° C  
 Cooked  ham  
 > 6    log 10   reduction 
after 60 days at 
4 ° C  
  Minced  chicken  
  Aerobic  plate 
  1    log 10   reduction  
  500    MPa,  15    min, 
  Linton  et  al.   2004   
count  
40 ° C  
 Hydrodynamic Shockwave 
 treated pork muscle and control. Thus, aside 
Treatment 
from the obvious increase in tenderness, 
HDS treatment as a tool to decrease micro-
 Hydrodynamic shockwaves (HDS) are gen-
bial loads and prolong the shelf life of meat 
erated either electrically (capacitor discharge 
products remains undetermined, and addi-
system) or by using explosives in water. 
tional research is needed to support this 
Besides tenderizing meat products by dis-
concept.  
rupting the myofi brillar structure (Schilling 
et al.  2003 ), HDS might infl uence  bacterial 
counts as well, resulting in extended product 
 Antimicrobials 
shelf life (Raloff  
1998 
). Explosively pro-
 Bacteriocins 
duced HDS are not commercially feasible 
because it is a batch - type process, has spe-
 
Bacteriocins are cationic and hydrophobic 
cifi c packaging requirements, and has poten-
peptides produced by lactic acid bacteria, 
tial worker safety concerns. In contrast, 
with antibacterial activity against related 
electrically generated HDS has been com-
Gram 
- 
positive bacteria (Chen and Hoover 
mercialized by Hydrodyne, Inc. (Claus et al. 
 
2003 
). In addition to bacteriocins, lactic 
 2001 ). 
acid bacteria produce other antimicrobials, 
 Mixed results are found in the literature 
such as lactic acid, acetic acid, diacetyl, 
on the effectiveness of HDS to inactivate 
ethanol, and carbon dioxide among others 
microbes  on  meats.  Williams - Campbell  and 
(Davidson  and  Hoover   1993 ).  Bacteriocins, 
Solomon  
(2002) 
 showed that explosively 
usually named after the bacterium that pro-
generated shockwaves caused immediate 
duces it, can be classifi ed into four major 
reduction of aerobic plate counts by 1.5 to 
classes, with class I and class II being the 
2.0    log 10 CFU/g in fresh beef. After 14 days 
most investigated (Hugas  
1998 
). A brief 
of storage, treated beef counts were 4.5  logs 
summary of bacteriocins is presented in 
less than control samples. Schilling et al. 
Table   14.4 .   
 (2003)   showed  that  blade - tenderized  beef 
 Of a variety of bacteriocins discovered, 
treated with HDS had lower standard plate 
only nisin (commercially available as 
counts (0.5  log difference) compared to con-
Nisaplin  ®  ) is on the Generally Recognized as 
trols after 14 days of storage. On the other 
Safe (GRAS) list as a direct food additive 
hand, Moeller et al.  (1999)  found no signifi -
approved by the U.S. FDA (Siragusa et al. 
cant difference in aerobic plate counts and 
 1999 ).  This  heat - stable,  easily  digestible 
coliform counts between explosive HDS 
bacteriocin is especially effective for control 
270    Chapter 14
 Table 14.4.    Summary of bacteriocins and their producing bacteria 
   Bacteriocin  
   Producer  
   Bacteriocin  
   Producer  
  Nisin,  lacticin  
 Lactococcus lactis 
  Sakacin  
 Lactobacillus sakei 
  Lactocin  
 Lactobacillus sakei 
  Curvacin  
 Lactobacillus curvatus 
  Pediocin  
 Pediococcus acidilactici 
  Curvacitin  
 Leuconostoc curvatus 
  Enterocin  
 Enterococcus faecium 
  Bavaricin  
 Lactobacillus bavaricus 
  Brevicin  
 Lactobacillus brevis 
  Leucocin  
 Leuconostoc gelidum 
  Divergicin  
 Carnobacterium divergens 
  Carnobacteriocin/Piscicolin  
 Carnobacterium piscicola 
 Adapted from Hugas  1998  
of the foodborne pathogen  L. monocytogenes 
acidilactici . Another approach for biopreser-
(Scannell et al.  1997 ; Murray and Richards 
vation might be use of lactic acid - producing 
 1998 ; Pawar et al.  2000 ). In addition, nisin is 
bacteria that also produce bacteriocins as 
currently used in the United States as an anti-
direct protective cultures on meats (Hugas 
botulinum agent for pasteurized cheese prod-
 1998 ) due to the fact that lactic acid bacteria 
ucts and pasteurized liquid eggs. 
do not induce signifi cant spoilage until large 
 A drawback of bacteriocin usage is that 
population numbers are reached (Nychas et 
effectiveness is only against closely related 
al.  
2007 
). Bloukas et al.  
(1997) 
 extended 
bacteria, which usually excludes Gram 
shelf life of vacuum 
- packaged  frankfurters 
 
negative bacteria. For example, nisin was 
stored at 4 
° 
C by one week using com-
effective against  L. monocytogenes  on cooked 
mercially available protective culture of 
pork under MAP, but not against  Pseudomonas 
 Lactobacillus alimentarius . 
fragi  (Fang and Lin  1994 ). In order to sensi -
  Government approval is needed in order 
tize Gram 
- 
negatives to nisin, chelators or 
to take advantage of the variety of bacterio-
bacterial membrane disruptors, such as 
cins present in nature. To date, nisin is the 
EDTA, Tween - 80, or high hydrostatic pres-
only approved bacteriocin. Nisin can be used 
sure (HHP), might be required (Natrajan and 
to control Gram - positive bacteria, such as the 
Sheldon  2000b ; Galvez et al.  2007 ). 
pathogen  L. monocytogenes  and the spoiler 
 Application of nisin in meat products is 
 B. thermosphacta . Although methods of sen-
somewhat challenging due to its binding 
sitizing Gram - negatives are well known, the 
ability to meat components, low solubility 
major drawback of nisin is its loss of activity 
(hydrophobic nature), and loss of effi cacy at 
in meat products, such that large concentra-
pH     >   5 (Scannell et al.  1997 ; Murray and 
tions are needed. This increases application 
Richards  
1998 
). For example, Rose et al. 
costs.  
 
(1999) 
 showed that glutathione, which is 
present in raw ground beef, can inactivate 
 Lactic Acid, Sodium Lactate, 
nisin. Scott and Taylor  
(1981) 
 showed the 
Diacetate, and Acetate 
need for greater nisin concentration to inac-
tivate  
Clostridium botulinum 
 in cooked 
 The U.S. government allows the use of lactic 
meat compared to microbiological medium. 
acid, sodium lactate (4.8%), sodium diacetate 
Finally, Chung et al.  (1989)  showed a 70% 
(0.25%), and sodium acetate (0.25%) on 
loss in nisin activity in raw meat during 
meat products as extensive research has 
storage at 5 ° C for 4 days. 
shown their safety for human consumption 
 
Hugas  
(1998) 
 mentioned that pediocin 
(FDA  
2000 
). Whether produced by lactic 
might be more effective than nisin in meat 
acid bacteria or chemically derived, the listed 
applications, since it is derived from the 
compounds are antagonists to food 
- 
borne 
meat - fermentation  bacterium   Pediococcus 
pathogens and to general spoilage microfl ora 
Novel Technologies for Microbial Spoilage Prevention     271
due to nonspecifi c mechanisms of action 
instead of their salts is lowered pH and the 
(Kim et al.  1995a, b ; Marshall and Kim  1996 ; 
pale/watery appearance of fresh meats 
Bal ’ a and Marshall  1998 ; Kim and Marshall 
(Kotula and Thelappurate  
1994 
; Lin and 
 
2000 
). Numerous publications have docu-
Chuang  2001 ). A summary of organic acid 
mented the effectiveness of these compounds 
applications (with an emphasis on lactate) for 
against  L. monocytogenes ,   E. coli   O157:H7, 
meat product shelf life extension is presented 
 Clostridium perfringens 
, and  
Salmonella 
in  Table   14.5 .   
spp. (Glass et al.  
2002 
; Porto et al.  
2002 
; 
 A suggested alternative to lactic acid, low 
Juneja  2006 ; Michaelsen et al.  2006 ; Paulson 
molecular weight polylactic acid, was capable 
et al.  2007 ). Lactate effi cacy can be improved 
of releasing free lactic acid for extended 
by combining with diacetate (Jensen et al. 
periods of time, which helped maintain and 
 
2003 
; Serdengecti et al.  
2006 
). The main 
resist pH change better than free lactic acid 
drawback of using straight organic acids 
(Mustapha et al.  2002 ). Their results showed 
 Table 14.5.    Lactic acid - derived antimicrobials 
   Product  
   Antimicrobial  
   Result  
   Reference  
  Sliced  poultry 
  2%  Na  lactate  
  3 ×  to 4 ×   shelf - life 
  Cegielska - Radziejewska 
sausage  
extension, 5 to 7 ° C, air 
and  Pikul   2004   
 7 ×   shelf - life  extension,  5 
to  7 ° C,  N 2 
  Pork  chops  
  Na  acetate 
  Na  lactate/diacetate 
  Jensen  et  al.   2003   
 Na  lactate 
treatment had lowest 
 Na  lactate/diacetate  
APC and least 
discoloration after 
96 - h  display  
  Low - fat  Chinese -
  3%  Na  lactate  
  Lower  microbial  counts 
  Lin  and  Lin   2002   
 style  sausage  
after 12 weeks storage 
at  4 ° C  
  Retail  beef  cuts  
  1.2%  acetic  acid, 
 Paler meat, but small 
  Kotula  and  Thelappurate 
120    s 
sensory difference; 
 1994   
 1.2% lactic acid, 
 1  to  2    log 10     CFU/g 
120    s  
reductions in 
 Escherichia coli   and 
APC count within 9  d 
storage  
  Pork  loin  chop  
  2%  Acetic  acid 
  Pale  soft  exudate 
  Lin  and  Chuang   2001   
 
appearance,  > 9  day 
shelf - life.  
    
  10%  Na  lactate  dip  
  Extended  shelf - life  by  3 
 
days compared to 
control (9 vs. 6)  
  Vacuum  packaged 
  1%  Na  lactate 
 1 to 2 weeks shelf - life 
  Brewer  et  al.   1993   
fresh pork sausage  
 
extension  
    
  2%  Na  lactate  
  2  week  shelf - life  extension  
    
  Vacuum  packaged 
 4% Na lactate  
 Lower APC after 7 days at 
  Maca  et  al.   1999   
cooked beef loins  
10 ° C  
  Vacuum  packaged 
  3%  Na  lactate  
  Lower  APC  after  10 
  Brewer  et  al.   1992   
beef bologna  
weeks  storage  at  4 ° C  
  Vacuum  packaged 
  2%  Na  lactate  
  2  to  3  week  shelf - life 
  Bloukas  et  al.   1997   
frankfurters  
extension  at  4 ° C  
   APC    =    aerobic  plate  count   
272    Chapter 14
that 2% polylactic acid behaved the same as 
3    log 10 CFU/g for 18 days at 4 ° C compared 
2% lactic acid against  E. coli  O157:H7 in raw 
with an untreated control. Juneja et al.  (2006)  
vacuum - packaged  beef  stored  at  4 ° C.  
found that addition of 3% chitosan to ground 
beef and ground turkey prevented growth of 
inoculated  C. perfringens  after cooking and 
 Chitosan 
inadequate cooling. Their results showed a 4 
 Chitin is the second - most abundant natural 
to  5    log 10     CFU/g  reduction  in   C. perfringens 
biopolymer after cellulose and is a starting 
spore germination and outgrowth over 
material for chitosan (deacetylated derivative 
12 - , 15 - , and 18 - hour cooling cycles and a 
of chitin) manufacturing. Since biodegrada-
2    log 10     CFU/g  reduction  during  a  21 - hour 
tion of chitin is slow, its accumulation during 
cooling cycle. Three treatments of fully 
crustacean processing (mainly shrimp and 
cooked grilled pork (air packaged, vacuum 
crab shell wastes) is a disposal challenge . 
packaged, or treated with chitosan and 
The production of value 
- 
added chitin by 
vacuum packaged) were investigated for the 
 products, such as chitosan, could provide a 
duration of shelf life (Yingyuad et al.  2006 ). 
solution to crustacean processing waste accu-
The authors found signifi cant shelf life exten-
mulation (Shahidi et al.  1999 ). Chitosan is 
sion of 2 
° 
C stored product, with standard 
reported to have antimicrobial properties. 
plate counts of 6.8, 3.8, and 1.6  log 10     CFU/g 
Factors that improve antimicrobial activity 
for air, vacuum, and vacuum 
- 
2% chitosan 
are a low degree of acetylation and a low pH, 
stored samples on day 14, respectively.  
both of which increase solubility (Shahidi et 
al.  1999 ). Due to the highly reactive nature 
 Essential Oils 
of polycationic chitosan, which readily inter-
acts with proteins, fats, and other anionic 
 Plant - derived 
essential 
oil 
components 
compounds, chitosan antimicrobial activity is 
may be active against bacteria but are diffi -
less in foods than  
in vitro 
 (Rhoades and 
cult to apply in foods due to signifi cant 
Roller  
2000 
). Chitosan has achieved self 
changes in sensory quality (Davidson  2001 ). 
 affi rmed GRAS status (FDA - CFSAN  2004 ), 
Seydim and Sarikus  
(2006) 
 compared the 
removing regulatory restrictions on its use in 
antimicrobial activity of oregano, rosemary, 
some foods. 
and garlic essential oils in whey protein 
 
Studies by Darmadji and Izumimoto 
isolate fi lms (1.0 to 4.0% 
 
wt/vol) against 
 (1994)  showed that 1% chitosan addition to 
 E. coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus, 
minced beef stored at 4 ° C for 10 days inhib-
Salmonella   Enteritidis , L. monocytogenes , 
ited growth of spoilage bacteria, reduced 
and  Lactobacillus plantarum  on agar plates. 
lipid oxidation and putrefaction, and resulted 
Film with 2% oregano essential oil was the 
in better sensory quality. Specifi cally,  an 
most effective compared to fi lms with garlic 
initial reduction of total bacterial count by 
(effective at 3% and 4%) or rosemary extracts 
0.5    log 10 CFU/g was observed, with average 
(no effect). Oussalah et al.  (2004, 2006)  also 
count reductions after 10 days storage at 4 ° C 
showed that alginate - based or protein - based 
of 1.0, 2.6, 1.0, 1.4,  > 2.0, and  > 2.0    log 10     CFU/g 
edible fi lms containing oregano essential oil 
for total bacterial, pseudomonad, staphylo-
were more effective than cinnamon or 
cocci, coliform, Gram - negative bacteria, and 
pimento in the extension of shelf life of 
micrococci counts, respectively. Sagoo et al. 
whole beef muscle. They found that applica-
 (2002)  showed that the addition of 0.3 and 
tion of oregano oil edible fi lm caused 0.9 and 
0.6% chitosan to an unseasoned minced - pork 
1.1    log 10     CFU/g  reductions  in   Pseudomonas 
mixture reduced total viable counts, yeasts 
and  E. coli O157  counts, respectively after 7 
and molds, and lactic acid bacteria by up to 
days of storage at 4 ° C (Oussalah et al.  2004 ). 
Novel Technologies for Microbial Spoilage Prevention     273
Likewise, Skandamis and Nychas  
(2002) 
 
1.0    log 10 
CFU/g difference on day 13 of 
found that oregano essential oil extract 
storage  at  3 ° C. 
extended shelf life of refrigerated MAP 
 We believe essential oils and plant extracts 
 stored fresh meat. 
probably have limited application for shelf 
 Allyl isothiocyanate is one of many vola-
life extension of fresh meats due to fl avor 
tile natural antimicrobials found in cruci-
changes associated with the quantities needed 
ferous plants, such as horseradish, black 
to achieve meaningful results. On the other 
mustard, cabbage, and turnip. Nadarajah et 
hand, in applications where fl avoring  is 
al.  (2005a)  prepared paper disks containing 
expected, such as with seasoned or marinated 
1  ml of 65% allyl isothiocyanate mixed with 
products, use of essential oils may be benefi -
corn oil. They then applied the paper disks to 
cial to extend shelf life.  
ground beef patties that were then vacuum 
packaged and stored for 15 days at 4 
° 
C. 
 Enzymes 
Results showed a delay in natural microfl ora 
growth and signifi cant population reduction 
 
Lysozyme is a naturally occurring (human 
in inoculated  E. coli O157:H7 .  They  argued 
saliva,  egg  white),  14.6    kDa,  single - peptide 
that the antimicrobial might have use as a 
protein that has antimicrobial activity due to 
vapor. When 5% to 20% mustard fl our was 
its enzymatic ability to hydrolyze  β (1 – 4)  gly-
used as a natural source of allyl isothiocya-
cosidic linkages in bacterial cell walls 
nate in ground beef, inoculated  
E. coli 
(Proctor and Cunningham  1988 ). It is more 
O157:H7  population declined but no effect 
active against Gram 
- 
positive bacteria, and 
on spoilage microfl ora was noted (Nadarajah 
activity against Gram 
- 
negatives can be 
et al.  
2005b 
). Sensory evaluation results 
increased by use of membrane disrupting 
showed that panelists could detect mustard 
agents (detergents and chelators), such as 
treatment, but considered mustard 
- 
treated 
EDTA (Padgett et al.  
1998 
). Because of 
meat to be acceptable. 
this narrow activity range, most studies 
 The  infl uence of various herb decoctions 
use lysozyme in combination with other 
to control the major poultry spoiler  Yarrowia 
antimicrobials. 
lipolytica  was investigated by Ismail et al. 
 Gill and Holley  (2000)  showed that com-
 
(2001) 
. Basil, marjoram, oregano, or rose-
bined lysozyme, nisin, and EDTA treatment 
mary decoction 
- 
saturated cellulose disks 
of ham and bologna sausages reduced popu-
showed no inhibition zones on lawn 
-  lations of  B. thermosphacta  to nondetectable 
inoculated  Y. lipolytica  agar plates, compared 
levels for up to 4 weeks, while during storage 
with sage and thyme decoctions. These 
at 8 
° 
C, growth of  
Lactobacillus curvatus, 
latter decoctions were capable of initial 
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, 
 and  
Listeria 
0.45    log 10     CFU/g   Y. lipolytica 
 reduction on 
monocytogenes  was slowed for up to 3, 2, 
chicken wings, although the effect was 
and 2 weeks, respectively. Cannarsi et al. 
diminished after 3 days of storage. No effect 
 
(2008) 
 showed that the combination of 
on aerobic plate count was observed. 
0.5% lysozyme and 2% EDTA extended the 
 
Ha et al.  
(2001) 
 incorporated 0.5 to 
shelf life of chilled buffalo meat, with 
1.0% grapefruit seed extract in multilayered 
an antimicrobial affect on all microfl ora 
polyethylene fi 
lms and investigated its  present, including  B. thermosphacta .  Nattress 
activity against spoilage microfl ora  of 
and Baker  (2003)  combined nisin and lyso-
wrapped ground beef. The authors observed 
zyme as an antimicrobial treatment on pork 
that total plate count was lower in grapefruit 
loins, with successful inhibition of lactic 
seed extract wrapped beef compared to 
acid bacteria and preferential growth of 
wrapped beef throughout the study, with a 
Enterobacteriacea. However, the authors 
274    Chapter 14
noticed that aerobically displayed nisin 
- 
They found that peroxyacetic acid and acidi-
lysozyme treated meat spoiled sooner than 
fi ed sodium chlorite were less effective than 
untreated meat. They attributed this to inhibi-
4% lactic acid against aerobes and coliforms. 
tion of lactic acid bacteria and a resultant 
They also found that activity was infl uenced 
shift to putrefactive bacterial spoilers. In 
by plant location. Acidifi ed sodium chlorite 
summary, a combined lysozyme/nisin/EDTA 
is approved by the USDA for poultry and 
mixture may be a promising tool for exten-
red meat applications at 500 to 1200 
 ppm 
sion of the shelf life of anaerobically pack-
(21CFR173.325). 
aged meats by inhibiting lactic acid bacteria, 
 Phosphates are known to inhibit spoilage 
which is the predominant bacterial spoilage 
microorganisms (Marshall and Jindal  1997 ; 
group capable of growth in such conditions.  
Kim and Marshall  
1999 
). Castillo et al. 
 (2005)  showed that a 7.6% trisodium phos-
phate dip reduced initial aerobic mesophilic 
 Other Antimicrobials 
count of chicken wings by 1.5  log 10     CFU/g, 
 
There are a few other novel antimicrobial 
resulting in a shelf life extension of 2 to 3 
agents that have been reported to eliminate 
days during storage at 4 ° C. Numerous other 
food 
- 
borne pathogens and prevent meat 
investigations showed mixed results for tri-
spoilage. Examples include acidifi ed sodium 
sodium phosphate effectiveness, both against 
chlorite, trisodium phosphate, ozonated  meat spoilers and pathogens (Ismail et al. 
water, and electrolyzed water. Acidifi ed 
 
2001 
; Lin and Lin  
2002 
; Pohlman et al. 
sodium chlorite solution is a mixture of 
 2002 ;  Fabrizio  and  Cutter   2005 ;   Ö zdemir 
sodium chlorite and a GRAS food 
- 
grade 
et al.  
2006 
; del Rio et al.  
2007 
). Because 
organic acid. A chemical reaction between 
trisodium phosphate requires high concen-
the two produces chlorous acid, which is the 
trations for effectiveness, the resultant cost 
main active agent. Numerous studies have 
and soapy meat surface and fl avor may limit 
shown acidifi ed sodium chlorite activity 
its use. 
against  L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, Bacillus 
 Ozone is a highly oxidative gas that easily 
cereus, Salmonella 
 Enteritidis,  
E. coli ,   C. 
decomposes (especially under UV light) to 
jejuni , and  Yersinia enterocolitica   (Castillo 
produce oxygen. Ozone is on the FDA GRAS 
et al.  
1999 
; Beverly et al.  
2006 
;  
Ö 
zdemir 
list and its current use in meat processing is 
et al.  2006 ; del Rio et al.  2007 ). Bosilevac 
limited to water and surface sanitizer (oxida-
et al.  
(2004b) 
 evaluated the infl uence  of 
tive power) and degreaser roles. According 
300    ppm  acidifi ed sodium chlorite spray in 
to Lazar  
(2006a) 
, the ability of ozonated 
50/50 and 90/10 lean beef trimmings and 
water to both continuously clean and sanitize 
ground beef made from those trimmings on 
eliminates the need for a sanitation shift 
aerobic plate count. They found that acidifi ed 
break during production, making meat pro-
sodium chlorite was most effective on 
cessing plants productive 24/7. Several 
50/50 lean trimmings, reducing counts by 
researchers investigated the possibility of 
1.1    log 10 CFU/g. Counts in ground beef chubs 
using ozonated water to decontaminate meat 
were reduced by 1.0 to 1.5  log 10     CFU/g  until 
(Kim et al.  
1999 
; Castillo et al.  
2003 
; 
day 20 at 2 ° C, while maintaining acceptable 
Kalchayanand et al.  
2008 
), although most 
sensory ground beef quality. Gill and Badoni 
agree that a major drawback is its ineffective-
 (2004)  compared 0.02% peroxyacetic acid, 
ness in the presence of organic matter (Moore 
0.16% acidifi ed sodium chlorite, 2% lactic 
et al.  2000 ). The inactivity of ozone in the 
acid, and 4% lactic acid on the natural fl ora 
presence of organics and its short half - life 
of beef brisket from two slaughtering plants. 
makes meat decontamination diffi cult. These 
Novel Technologies for Microbial Spoilage Prevention     275
drawbacks coupled with worker safety issues 
 Table 14.6. 
   Types of active antimicrobial 
related to ozone inhalation hazards limit 
packaging 
widespread adoption of ozone technology. 
      •       Addition  of  sachets/pads  containing  volatile 
 Electrolyzed water is produced by passing 
antimicrobial agents (contact with product 
through headspace)  
12% NaCl solution across a bipolar mem-
   •       Incorporation  of  volatile/non - volatile  compounds 
brane with an electrode on each side, result-
directly into packaging  
ing in an acidic solution called electrolyzed 
   •       Coating  or  absorbing  antimicrobials  onto  polymer 
surfaces  
oxidizing water and an alkaline solution 
   •       Chemical  bonds  (ion  or  covalent  linkages) 
(Fabrizio and Cutter  
2004 
). Electrolyzed 
between antimicrobials and packaging material  
oxidizing water has a low pH (2.3 to 2.7), 
   •       Using  polymers  that  are  inherently  antimicrobial  
   •       Edible  packaging  containing  antimicrobials     
high oxidation 
- 
reduction potential (ORP, 
 > 1000  mV), and free chlorine (25 to 80  ppm) 
 From Appendini and Hotchkiss  (2002)  
(Huang et al.  2008 ). Thus, electrolyzed oxi-
dizing water antimicrobial effect is due to the 
combined action of low pH, high ORP, and 
free chlorine. Fabrizio and Cutter  
(2005) 
 
could be protective for antimicrobials, allow-
investigated the infl uence of electrolyzed 
ing them to slowly migrate to the product 
oxidizing water (pH 2.3 to 2.7, 1150 
 mV 
surface over extended periods of time without 
ORP,  ∼ 50  ppm free chlorine) on  L. monocy-
deactivating them. Siragusa and Dickson 
togenes 
 inoculated on beef frankfurters 
 (1992)  investigated the possibility of organic 
stored for 7 days at 4 ° C. Electrolyzed oxidiz-
acid use in bioactive edible packaging in the 
ing water caused only a slight reduction 
form of calcium alginate gels. On lean beef 
(  6   log 10    CFU/cm 2  by day 
 Active Antimicrobial Packaging 
7), while treatment with nisin 
- 
alginate did 
 Antimicrobial packaging can involve utiliza-
suppress  growth  (2.4    log 10     CFU/cm 2  by day 
tion of several concepts (Table  
14.6 
). 
7). Bacteriocin titers from both tissues 
Quintavalla and Vicini  
(2002) 
 noticed that 
were greater in nisin - alginate vs. nisin - only 
microbial contamination of intact fresh 
samples after day 7 of incubation. Active 
muscle occurs mostly at the surface and anti-
packaging in the form of edible fi lms  is 
microbials applied directly on the surface 
advantageous because it retains antimicrobial 
could be easily inactivated by meat compo-
activity and steadily delivers the antimicro-
nents. Therefore, antimicrobial packaging 
bial to the contaminated meat surface.  
276    Chapter 14
 Table 14.7.    Commercial active antimicrobial packaging 
   Technology  
   Antimicrobial  
   Trade  name  
   Manufacturer  
 Silver substituted zeolite paper, 
  Silver  
  AgIon  ®    
  AgIon  Technologies  LLC 
plastic  
(USA)  
  Triclosan  plastic  
  Triclosan  
  Microban  ®    
  Microban  Products  (UK)  
  Allylisothiocyanate  labels,  sheets  
  Allylisothiocyanate  
  WasaOuro  ®    
  Lintec   Corp .  (Japan)  
 
Commercial antimicrobial packaging is 
acids and their slow release into bologna, 
available  (Table   14.7 ).  Silver - substituted 
cooked ham, and pastrami. Chitosan fi lms 
zeolite technology developed in Japan intro -
inhibited indigenous Enterobacteriaceae and 
duces a thin layer (3 to 6  μ m)  of  Ag - zeolite 
surface - inoculated 
 Serratia liquefaciens , 
on the surface of common food contact poly-
but failed to affect growth of lactic acid 
mers. Zeolite slowly releases antimicrobially 
bacteria. 
active silver in the food, provoking an 
 
Scannell et al.  
(2000) 
 investigated the 
antimicrobial effect. AgION 
 ®  
 Silver Ion 
immobilization of lacticin and nisin in 
Technology received U.S. FDA approval for 
cellulose 
- 
based paper and polyethylene/
use on all food - contact surfaces (FDA  2008 ). 
polyamide plastic for spoilage prevention of 
Triclosan - impregnated food packaging mate-
cooked sliced ham. Lacticin was unsuccess-
rials recently have been approved in the 
ful in binding to plastic, while nisin bound 
European Union as long as migration into 
well and retained its activity for 3 months. 
food products does not exceed 5  mg per 1  kg 
Nisin 
- 
treated cellulose paper applied to 
(Quintavalla and Vicini  2002 ). Triclosan is a 
cooked sliced ham packaged in MAP and 
nonionic, broad 
- spectrum 
antimicrobial 
stored at 4 ° C had a slight infl uence on total 
agent commonly used in personal hygiene 
plate count over a 24 
- 
day storage period 
items, such as soaps and detergents. Cutter 
(1    log 10 
CFU/g lower counts compared to 
 (1999)   investigated  triclosan - incorporated 
control at the end of the trial). In contrast, this 
plastic (1,500 
 
ppm triclosan, Microban 
 ®  , 
treatment successfully controlled lactic acid 
Microban Products Co., United States) 
bacteria (not detectable for nisin - treated vs. 
against bacteria on irradiated, inoculated, and 
4    log 10 CFU/g increase for control at the end 
vacuum 
- 
packaged beef surfaces. Except  of the trial). Ming et al.  (1997)  used pediocin -
slight reduction in  B. thermosphacta ,  triclo-
 coated cellulose casings to control  L. mono-
san failed to control populations of  cytogenes  growth on surface - inoculated fresh 
 Salmonella ,   Escherichia 
, or  
Bacillus.   The 
turkey breast, fresh beef, and ham.  L. mono-
lack of triclosan activity was speculated to be 
cytogenes  counts on pediocin - treated casing 
due to triclosan inactivation by fatty acids 
did not increase (3  log 10     CFU/ml  in  rinsates) 
and adipose tissues.  
over a 12 - week storage time, but increased to 
 
Some inherently antimicrobial polymers 
5.5, 6.0, and 4.0  log 10     CFU/ml  on  untreated 
include chitosan (discussed previously) and 
casing for ham, turkey breasts, and beef, 
irradiated nylon (Quintavalla and Vicini 
respectively. Franklin et al.  (2004)  showed 
 2002 ; Yingyuad et al.  2006 ). Irradiated nylon 
that packaging fi lms coated with cellulose -
has surface 
- 
bound amine groups that are 
 
based solution containing 7,500 and 
effective against numerous pathogens,  10,000    IU/ml  nisin  signifi cantly inhibited  L. 
although we are unaware of its use in meat 
monocytogenes  growth in vacuum - packaged, 
applications. Ouattara et al.  (2000)  investi-
surface - inoculated hot dogs. Counts remained 
gated chitosan as a food 
- 
packaging matrix 
at a constant 3  log 10     CFU/package  level  com-
for the incorporation of acetic and propionic 
pared to controls, which increased to 9  logs 
Novel Technologies for Microbial Spoilage Prevention     277
within 60 days of storage at 4 
° 
C. Similar 
summary of investigated antimicrobial active 
antimicrobial effects may be seen with lactic 
packaging  is  presented  in  Table   14.8 .     
acid spoilage bacteria, since the behavior of 
 L. monocytogenes 
 is similar to this group; 
 Other NonThermal Technologies 
however, confi rmation studies are needed. 
 Siragusa et al.  (1999)  incorporated nisin 
 
We are aware of a few other novel food 
in a polyethylene 
- 
based plastic fi lm  and 
processing technologies, but meat industry 
observed its activity against inoculated  
B. 
applications might be technically or econ -
thermosphacta   on  vacuum - packaged  beef 
omically challenging. Some equipment 
surface tissue sections. An initial reduction 
 
intensive applications may have future 
of  2.0    log 10     CFU/cm 2 
 of  
B. thermosphacta 
potential if the cost of production becomes 
was observed within 2 days of refrigerated 
economically viable. For example, pulsed 
storage at 4 
° 
C. After 20 days of storage, 
electric fi elds use bursts of high 
- 
intensity 
samples with nisin - containing plastic showed 
electric pulses to inactivate microorganisms. 
signifi cantly fewer bacterial numbers com-
The main problem with this method for meat 
pared with control, 5.8 vs. 7.2  log 10     CFU/cm 2 , 
applications is the requirement for the food 
respectively. 
to be liquid (Marth  1998 ). Pulsed high - inten-
 
Edible antimicrobial coatings, besides 
sity light treatment consists of xenon fl ash-
their main function, also hold meat juices, 
lamps capable of producing brief ( 
 5 - Log  
  Lopes   (1986)   
  Deionized  water  
  QUAT1  
  100 – 200  
   > 5 - Log  
  Lopes   (1986)   
  Deionized  water  
  QUAT2  
  200  
   > 5 - Log  
  Lopes   (1986)   
  Deionized  water  
  Sodium  hypochlorite  
  100 – 200  
   > 5 - Log  
  Lopes   (1986)   
  Stainless   steel  
  Sodium  hypochlorite  
  200  
  4 - Log  
  Mustapha  and 
Liewen   (1989)   
  Stainless  steel  
  QUAT   
  50  
   > 4 - Log  
  Mustapha  and 
Liewen   (1989)   
  Stainless  steel  
  Ethanol  
  70%  v/v  
    60 ° C,  which 
needed. 
may reduce smoke absorption or cause fat 
 Microbes also exert a substantial effect on 
separation in the surface layer. Immediately 
the sensory properties of meat, although the 
after  drying,  sausages  are  smoked  at  65 – 70 ° C 
hygienic quality of sausages has improved 
until the desired surface color and aroma 
tremendously. It is not possible to cover the 
have been reached, and the temperature is 
microbial effects exclusively. Salt (NaCl) 
about  50 ° C  (B ø gh - S ø rensen  et  al.   1981 ). 
decisively infl uences the microbial pattern in 
Then the sausages are cooked in steam (75 ° C) 
meat, as it strongly reduces the proteolytic 
until a core temperature of 72 
– 
73 
° 
C is 
metabolism of the fl ora. The inhibitory effect 
reached  (Fig.   17.6 ).     
of salt is based on its content in the water 
phase of the product. In countries where the 
product has a high fat content and phosphate 
is not added, the salt content in the water 
 Quality Aspects of the 
phase ranges from 4% to 5%; but with lower 
Finished Product 
fat and higher levels of water (with phos-
 Quality includes taste and fl avor,  structure, 
phates), the content in the water phase 
color, nutritional value, and microbial quality. 
could be even as low as 2.5%. It should be 
The taste and fl avor of sausage is a combina-
remembered that about 10 percentage units 
tion of the savory taste of cooked cured meat 
of lean meat water is strongly bound to the 
and spices. The fl avor is infl uenced by the 
polar parts of proteins and thus not included 
formulation (what meat animals have been 
in the free water phase of the product (3% –
used, what the proportions are, and especially 
 6% units of the product water, depending on 
the content of fat from the various sources). 
the lean meat content of product; Hamm 
An integral part of the fl avor is the effect of 
 1972 ). 
nitrite, which is based not on the direct taste 
 Nitrite also has a very strong inhibitory 
of the salt itself but on an indirect effect on 
effect on microbes, but the effect is strain 
various components of the meat (Pegg and 
specifi c. The effect is especially important 
Shahidi  2000 ). Much chemical research has 
against the most pathogenic bacteria within 
been performed on the effects of nitrite on 
the contents used in cooked meat products. 
fl avor, but this extremely complex system is 
As the pK 
a 
- 
value of the effective form, 
still far from fully elucidated. 
nitrous acid (HNO 2 ) is 3.4, nitrite is more 
 
The sensory and nutritional quality is 
effi cient at lower pH values, but on the other 
mainly based on lean meat content, fat 
hand, low pH values increase the degradation 
content, and the amount of water added. In 
of nitrite (Honikel  2007 ). 
addition, if other foodstuffs are added, they 
 The nutritional quality of sausages directly 
may improve the overall nutritional quality, 
refl ects the formulations of the sausages, 
or as extenders, they may dilute the nutri-
which can be most variable. As the maximum 
tional density and taste. The use of phos-
temperature used in cooking is 72 
– 
74 
° 
C, 
phates facilitates the use of less lean meat and 
meat proteins do not lose their nutritive 
more water and fat, thus exerting a negative 
value, but on the contrary, collagen turns 
effect on nutritional value (unless low 
- 
fat/
digestible via denaturation (Bailey and Light 
low 
- 
sodium products are targeted). The 
 1989 ). Since sausage does not lose liquid by 
Cooked Sausages    323
cooking, minerals and vitamins remain in the 
excludes oxygen can reduce oxidation. 
batter. The vitamins are destroyed to a certain 
Consequently, sausages are not, or they need 
extent, depending on the vitamin and the 
not be, susceptible for rancidity, provided 
process. About 10% – 20% of the vitamins of 
that nitrite and ascorbates are used, and even-
the B group are destroyed during the prepara-
tually phosphates. Also, by avoiding a long 
tion. Vitamin A is quite resistant to cooking, 
freeze storage of meat raw materials, using 
but about one - third can be lost by chopping 
appropriate packaging, and avoiding micro-
(Niinivaara and Antila  
1972 
; Lawrie and 
bial spoilage, the risk of rancidity can be 
Ledward  
2006 
). Smoking may reduce the 
reduced (Pegg and Shahidi  2000 ).  
biological value of proteins, the signifi cance 
of which depends on the relative surface area 
and the intensity and length of smoking. In 
 Safety Aspects 
most cases however, the reduction is not 
 With a hygienically well - organized produc-
substantial. 
tion process and a satisfactorily cooked 
 
Connective tissue proteins (collagens) 
product, the sausage contains only a few 
denature when sausage is cooked, and they 
hundred living microbes per gram, and those 
are also largely comminuted by chopping, 
usually are not particularly capable of prolif-
especially in fi nely chopped sausages. Ninety 
erating at cold storage temperatures. Common 
percent of the denatured collagen will be 
salt inhibits proteolysis, and nitrite and other 
hydrolyzed in the human digestive track and, 
antioxidative agents inhibit oxidation. The 
consequently, used as energy or for protein 
main role of nitrite, however, is to inhibit 
synthesis (Bailey and Light  1989 ). The bio-
pathogenic bacteria. Most of these bacteria 
logical value of collagen is, however, very 
are strongly infl uenced by nitrite at the 
low as such, but in combination with other 
levels used in sausages (Pegg and Shahidi 
proteins, it may have some value. A protein 
 
2000 
). The primary reason for the use of 
effi ciency ratio (PER) of 2.5 for good - quality 
nitrite in meat products is its specifi c capacity 
proteins allows for a collagen content of up 
to inhibit the growth of  Clostridium botuli-
to 30% of the meat proteins (Bailey and Light 
num . This is increasingly important, as the 
 
1989 
). Therefore, most cooked sausages 
trends are for the use of vacuum packaging 
fulfi ll this requirement. 
(anaerobic), lowering the salt content, 
 
The oxidative changes in fats or mem-
improved hygiene (less competing fl ora), and 
brane phospholipids can cause rancidity. 
in - package pasteurization (hardly any vege-
Also, oxidative changes may cause polymer-
tative fl ora). In these circumstances, the 
ization of fats as well as proteins. Heme iron 
strictly  anaerobic  spore - forming   C. botuli-
is a strong prooxidant, and particularly in 
num  may start growing and become toxic, if 
freeze - stored meat and cooked meat, the oxi-
the packages are stored for longer period of 
dation may be very fast (the worst combina-
times, and especially if temperature abuse is 
tion is food prepared from freeze 
- stored 
involved (Korkeala  2006 ). However, nitrite 
meat). Microbes may also increase oxidative 
is by no means a guarantee for full safety.  
changes in meat. In sausages, however, there 
are effi cient antioxidative agents. Nitrite sta-
bilizes heme iron, which results in a much 
 Recent and Future Trends 
lower oxidation rate. Phosphates also have an 
antioxidative effect as they chelate prooxida-
 
The salt intake in modern industrialized 
tive cations. Ascorbates are also antioxidants, 
countries has been connected to elevated 
although they are primarily used as color 
blood pressure and consequently to an 
enhancers. Finally, the use of packaging that 
increase in coronary heart disease. Only the 
324    Chapter 17
salt that is detected by the taste receptors will 
gated linoleic acid (Martin et al.  
2008 
). 
be considered salty. Therefore, there have 
Vegetable fats usually melt at lower tempera-
been considerable efforts to reduce salt (i.e., 
tures than meat fats, and they are liquid at 
sodium) intakes, especially via industrial 
chopping temperatures. This causes a fat 
food. This reduction cannot be achieved 
separation during preparation and also during 
quickly, but over a period of years, so that 
cooking. This separation can be reduced by 
consumers gradually get used to lower salt 
making a preemulsion using an emulsifi er 
content in their foods. In Finland, for 
(e.g., soy protein or caseinate). As most 
example, the reduction of the average salt 
sausage fat is pork fat or poultry fat, which 
content in cooked sausages from 2.3% – 2.4% 
are close to or within the dietary recommen-
to 1.5% 
– 
1.7 % took about twenty years 
dations, the real benefi t of the replacement 
(Ruusunen and Puolanne  
2005 
). In many 
could be questioned. 
countries the same development has been 
 
Sodium has been targeted by replacing 
experienced, but all countries have not done 
sodium chloride with different mineral salt 
it yet. 
mixtures. Most of them contain potassium 
 The use of nitrite has been debated for 
chloride. The bitterness of potassium ion 
more than thirty years, and during that period, 
limits the total replacement of sodium with 
the levels added have been lowered through 
potassium. Also, lactate as potassium salt has 
legislative actions and voluntary decisions in 
been used as a partial salt replacer. As the 
the industry from about 200 
 mg/kg to 80 
–
contents required are rather high (from 1% –
 120  mg/kg. The industry is still looking for 
 2%), the bitterness caused by potassium is a 
possibilities for further reductions, and the 
limiting factor. 
number of nitrite 
- 
free cooked sausages is 
 
Accelerated processing (i.e., prerigor 
even increasing. However, no single sub-
curing) has been extensively studied over the 
stance that would replace all the positive 
years. Hot boning with prerigor curing allows 
effects of nitrite (inhibition of pathogenic 
a very fast processing of carcass without 
bacteria and spoilage fl ora, color formation, 
cooling of sausage meats. Salt is required 
antioxidant capacity, effects on taste) has 
at levels of 1.5% or more (in prerigor curing 
been  found  (Cassens   1990 ).  In - package  pas-
as well as in the sausage batter) in order 
teurization would allow a reduction of nitrite, 
to achieve the desired water/fat binding 
but then extra measures for pathogen safety 
(Puolanne and Terrell  1983 ). Prerigor curing 
must be performed. In 
- package  pasteuriza-
would replace the use of phosphates. Despite 
tion might increase the risk of spore - forming 
the research and demonstrated positive 
 C. botulinum , as it is not competitive when 
results, the practice has not been widely 
high numbers of other bacteria are present 
adopted in the industry.  
(Korkeala   2006 ). 
 Health food, or even functional food, is a 
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– 
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Cooked Sausages    325
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Fleisches .   Alzey,  Germany :   E.  Dietel   &   Co .  
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Nutrition  Press .  
 
holding in meat 
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Developments of Meat 
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meat industry .  Meat Science    74 : 188  –  196 .  
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    Feiner ,   G.     2006 .   Cooked  sausage .  In   Meat Products 
    Pegg ,   R.  B.  ,  and    F.    Shahidi  .   2000 .   Nitrite Curing of 
Handbook. Practical Science and Technology .   Boca 
Meat. The Nitrosamine Problem and Nitrite 
Raton,  Fla. :   CRC  Press .  
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 Mitteilung: Einfl uss 
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des  Fleisches:  Wasser - Verh ä ltnisse  und  der  Zerklein-
for cooked sausage formulation 
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- 
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wikipedia.org/wiki/ . Accessed on January 2009.  
 
 
Chapter 18
 Bacon  
 Peter R.   Sheard  
 
 Introduction 
chapter. This chapter focuses on the manu-
facture of bacon, as practiced in Europe, par-
 Originally developed as a method of preserv-
ticularly in the UK where annual per capita  
ing pork before the widespread use of refrig-
consumption  is  about  8    kg  (Fisher   2006 ).  
eration, bacon remains a popular product in 
its own right. Its production varies from 
country to country (Feiner  2006 ), but typi-
 Processing Stages 
cally involves the treatment of boneless pork 
 Traditional Wiltshire Curing 
cuts with curing salt, usually added as a 
brine. As practiced in North America, bacon 
 Fifty years ago, nearly all bacon was made 
is produced from boneless pork belly that is 
by a traditional Wiltshire process (Fig.  18.1 ). 
hot smoked, sliced thinly, and vacuum 
This involved three distinct stages: injection, 
packed (Andersen  
2004 
), while in Ireland 
immersion, and maturation. The process has 
and the United Kingdom, the most popular 
been described elsewhere (Hughes  
1988 
; 
bacon is made from cured pork loins. In con-
Varnam and Sutherland  1995 ; Ranken  2000 ; 
tinental Europe, bacon lardons (cubes) are 
Lawrie  and  Ledward   2006 ).   
used mainly as a cooking ingredient. 
 
Salt (sodium chloride) and nitrite are 
 Injection of Pork Sides 
essential for curing, although nitrates (sodium 
or potassium) are still used in some brines. 
 
Whole sides, usually bone 
- 
in and rind  
- 
on, 
Both major ingredients, salt and nitrite, are 
were injected with a brine containing salt, 
multifunctional. Salt acts as a preservative by 
nitrate, and nitrite. Injection was carried out 
lowering water activity, gives bacon its char-
manually, using a single needle. The brine 
acteristic salty fl avor, and increases the 
was introduced at multiple points (25 
– 
30) 
water - holding capacity of meat by solubiliz-
along the carcass in order to obtain a reason-
ing myofi brillar protein and increasing the 
ably uniform distribution.  
myofi brillar lattice spacing (Offer and Trinick 
 
1983 
). Although nitrite chemistry is rela-
 Immersion in a  “ Live Brine ”  
tively complex, the basic functions of nitrite 
are well known (e.g., Pegg and Shahidi  2000 ; 
 Following injection, sides were stacked into 
Honikel  2008 ). It (1) acts as a preservative, 
large tanks capable of holding several 
(2) promotes the formation of the cured meat 
hundred pieces. These were sprinkled with 
color, (3) contributes to cured meat fl avor, 
salt, covered with an immersion brine, and 
and (4) acts as an antioxidant. The principles 
held for several days. A characteristic feature 
of curing have been described in an earlier 
of the process was that the immersion brine 
327
328    Chapter 18
 Figure 18.1.    Traditional Wiltshire curing as practiced 50 years ago involved the manual injection of a brine 
into pork sides, followed by immersion in a  “ live brine ”  and maturation for about 10 days. The process was 
slow and labor intensive.  
was continually reused and consequently 
 Modern Wiltshire Cured Bacon 
developed a unique microfl ora of salt - toler-
 
Bacon is still produced using a Wiltshire 
ant bacteria, typically  > 10 6 /ml, which played 
 style process, albeit adapted for modern pro-
an important role in converting nitrate to 
duction. Thus, manual injection of brine 
nitrite. Typically deep red in color, the brine 
using a single needle has given way to mul-
also contained proteins in suspension. This 
tineedle injection, which is less labour inten-
so - called   “ live  brine ”   was  also  believed  to 
sive and achieves a better brine distribution. 
contribute to the characteristic fl avor.  The 
Although some whole sides are still cured, it 
brine could be used almost indefi nitely.  To 
is more common to use boneless loin pieces 
do so required regular checks on the compo-
or bellies, which can be processed more 
sition, its temperature, and pH. Salt, nitrate, 
rapidly (Fig.  18.2 ). The period of maturation, 
and nitrite were replenished when necessary. 
2 to 4 days, is considerably shorter. As 
It was necessary to keep the brine chilled, 
before, careful handling of the live brine is 
2 – 5 ° C, and the pH within strict limits. An 
necessary  to  ensure  stability.     
unstable brine was associated with a high pH. 
Aeration helped maintain stability if the brine 
was unused for several days.  
 Maturation 
 
Following immersion, the sides were 
removed, stacked, and allowed to mature for 
10 to 14 days before further processing. The 
 Figure 18.2.   Whole sides were cured in traditional 
maturation period was believed to be impor-
Wiltshire curing, but most modern bacon derives 
from the loin and belly, which produce back bacon 
tant for fl avor development and to improve 
and streaky bacon, respectively. Often the shoulders 
sliceability.  
are used for sausages and the hindlimb for ham.  
Bacon    329
 Modern Bacon Production 
and fed a commercial concentrated diet. The 
pigs have a fast growth rate and are slaugh-
 Although some Wiltshire - style bacon is still 
tered at 90 
– 
110 
 kg when they are 5 to 6 
produced using a live brine, generally, this 
months old. Such pigs are relatively lean, the 
has been superseded by curing techniques 
average backfat thickness of UK pigs being 
that employ freshly prepared brines. Two 
about 11 
 
mm (BPEX  
2008 
). Bacon from 
techniques predominate: immersion curing 
organically  produced  pigs — reared  less  inten-
and bag curing. Both methods are more rapid 
sively and using organic feed 
— 
inevitably 
than traditional Wiltshire curing, due mainly 
commands a premium price .  
to the use of smaller, boneless pieces. Back 
bacon prepared from the loin is the most 
common, accounting for 84% of the market, 
 Slaughter and Chilling 
with streaky and middle bacon accounting 
for the rest (Fisher  2006 ). The production of 
 Plants that have their own slaughtering facil-
dry - cured bacon takes longer, but even this 
ity will normally source pigs from farms 
can be achieved within about 10 days. An 
located close to the factory, within a few 
overview of the main stages involved in 
hours ’  drive. A lairage area within the abat-
modern bacon manufacture is given in 
toir is provided to allow a period for the 
Figure   18.3 .   
animals to rest prior to slaughter. A fi ne mist 
is sometimes used to exert a calming effect, 
except in very cold weather. Any animals 
 Pig Production and Slaughter 
kept overnight must have access to feed and 
 Most bacon is made from pigs, of various 
water. Good stockmanship during unloading, 
genetics, reared in intensive indoor systems 
in the lairage, and in moving animals to the 
Unloading pigs
Butchery
Lairage
Backs and bellies
(rindless, boneless)
Stunning/shackling
Drain
Multi-needle injection
Apply dry   cure
Sticking/bleeding
Vacuum pack
Immerse
Vacuum pack
(cure in bag)
Scald/dehairing
(fresh/live brine)
Singe/scrape/polish
Mature
Evisceration/washing
(smoke)
Splitting
Temper
Chilling
High speed slice
Retail packing
(vacuum or MA)
 Figure 18.3.     Diagram illustrating the major operations in bacon processing. After unloading, the pigs are killed , 
dressed, and processed in modern, large throughput abattoirs. Most bacon is produced from boneless, rindless 
backs (loins) and bellies that are immersion or bag cured, tempered, high - speed sliced, and packaged in a 
modifi ed atmosphere (MA) or vacuum packed.  
330    Chapter 18
point of slaughter is important to reduce pre -
pieces, covered with fresh immersion brine, 
 slaughter stress that might otherwise cause 
and held for up to 3 days. The cured pieces 
a high incidence of PSE. The poor water 
are then removed, stacked, and matured just 
 holding capacity of the latter can adversely 
long enough to dry the surface. They are then 
affect brine uptake and retention (Kauffman 
ready for slicing.  
et al.  1978 ; Fisher et al.  2000 ). 
 The pigs are killed humanely and dressed 
hygienically. Electrical stunning, followed 
 Bag Curing 
by prompt sticking, has been the usual 
 This process differs in that it has no immer-
method, although this is being superseded by 
sion stage. Instead, the boneless pieces 
carbon dioxide stunning throughout Europe. 
are injected and, after a short drainage 
Singeing the carcass improves the sliceability 
period, placed in a moisture 
- 
 and oxygen 
of  rind - on  product. 
 impermeable bag, vacuum sealed, and held 
 Toughness is not a problem in bacon, so 
for a minimum of two days to allow time for 
interventions to improve tenderness (e.g., hip 
equilibration and the development of the 
suspension, electrical stimulation, and long 
characteristic cured color. As there is no 
aging periods) are unnecessary. Butchery 
immersion stage, all the necessary salt, pre-
normally commences immediately after  servative, and other ingredients have to be 
overnight chilling. The other parts of the 
introduced into the injection brine. The fi nal 
carcass are sold fresh or used for processing 
salt content is typically 3%.  
(shoulders for sausages and the hindlimb for 
ham). Most plants employ a traceability 
system that can trace product back to the day 
 Dry Curing 
of slaughter.  
 Some bacon is dry cured, but the process is 
quite different and much shorter than that 
 Immersion Curing (Tank Curing) 
used in the dry curing of hams (e.g., Parma 
 
The pieces to be cured, whether boneless 
or Iberian), which can take up to two years 
loins or bellies, are fi rst injected mechani-
to develop the characteristic aroma and fl avor 
cally with a brine containing salt and preser-
(Toldr 
á 
  
2002 
). Often the process takes no 
vative (sodium nitrite alone or in combination 
more than a couple of weeks, which does not 
with nitrate). Sodium polyphosphate, where 
allow suffi cient time for the proteolytic and 
included, will improve the water 
- 
holding 
lipolytic changes that occur in the production 
capacity but its use is less common than for-
of dry - cured hams. The major contributors to 
merly, due to consumer concerns. Sodium 
fl avor and odor in dry - cured bacon, therefore, 
ascorbate may be added to promote develop-
are those derived from the curing ingredients 
ment of the cured meat pigment and improve 
and generated during cooking. 
the color shelf life (Ranken  1981 ). Sugar is 
 Production involves rubbing the dry - cur-
used in the production of sweet - cured  bacon, 
ing ingredients manually into the surfaces of 
which helps to mask the salty fl avor.  The 
exposed lean tissue. The treated pork is 
target weight gain, typically 10%, is based on 
vacuum packed and stored under chill condi-
the total weight of the piece(s) to be injected, 
tions for about 10 to 14 days (depending on 
although it will be appreciated that propor-
the thickness of the product), after which it 
tionally more brine is taken up by muscle 
is ready to slice. A sweet cure can be obtained 
rather than adipose tissue. 
by rubbing in sugar after 7 days before re -
 Following injection, the pieces are stacked 
 packing and leaving the product for another 
in small tanks, with a capacity for 30 to  > 50 
7 days. 
Bacon    331
 Dry - cured bacon is drier and has a higher 
can be achieved using a one - stage system by 
meat content, about 97%, than that produced 
placing the bacon in a cold room operating at 
using a brine, but the fl avor is similar in both.  
the target temperature, or, more commonly, 
by a two 
- 
stage system employing a blast 
freezer and a separate cold room to achieve 
 Smoking 
equilibration (Brown et al.  2003 ). 
 Traditional methods of smoking use natural 
 
The amount and composition of the 
wood smoke generated under controlled tem-
adipose tissue can also affect the fi rmness of 
perature and humidity conditions from hard-
the bacon to be sliced (Enser et al.  
1984 
; 
woods such as oak, beech, and hickory. The 
Shackelford et al.  1990 ; Rentfrow et al.  2003 ; 
center of the product never rises above 30 ° C, 
Teye et al.  2006 ), depending on the degree of 
so the product remains uncooked, albeit with 
unsaturation of the component fatty acids, 
an altered fl avor, odor and color due to the 
which can vary widely. A high proportion of 
action of the smoking process. Smoked bacon 
saturated fatty acids results in adipose tissue 
accounts for approximately 25% – 30% of the 
that is relatively fi rm, which, in turn, affects 
UK market (Fisher  2006 ).  
sliceability.  
 Tempering and High - Speed Slicing 
 Packaging 
 
Most bacon is sold pre 
- 
sliced. This is 
 
Two systems are used for packing pre 
- 
achieved using high - speed slicers operating 
sliced bacon: vacuum packing and modifi ed 
at 800 
– 
1400 revolutions per minute (i.e., 
atmosphere packing. Various studies have 
 ∼ 
10 
– 
20 revolutions per s). This requires 
shown that the cured meat pigment nitric 
bacon to be sliced in a tempered (partly 
oxide myoglobin (NOMb) is unstable when 
frozen) condition to maximize the yield of 
exposed to light and air. A major concern, 
high 
- 
quality slices. The optimal conditions 
therefore, in both pack types is to exclude 
for slicing depend on both the bacon (its tem-
oxygen, which is detrimental to the stability 
perature, salt content, and the amount and 
of the cured meat pigment. This is quite dif-
composition of the adipose tissue) and the 
ferent from fresh meats, where the predomi-
slicer (its design and slicing speed) (James 
nant pigment, oxymyoglobin, is favored by 
and Bailey  1987 ; Brown et al.  2003 ). High -
high oxygen concentrations. 
 
speed photography has demonstrated the 
importance of correct slicing temperature. If 
 Vacuum Packing 
the temperature is too high, the bacon is too 
soft and distorts when presented to the slicing 
 Twenty years ago, the majority of pre - sliced 
blade, resulting in a low yield of high - quality 
bacon in the UK was vacuum packed. 
(well - defi ned) slices. If the temperature is too 
Vacuum packing 
’ 
s use continues but less 
low, the bacon is more brittle and tends to 
commonly than formerly. Packing under 
shatter, again reducing the slicing yield. The 
vacuum extracts the air, and the package col-
optimal temperature varies with salt content. 
lapses around the meat. Any residual oxygen 
For bacon containing 3% salt, the optimal 
is depleted by tissue respiration, and carbon 
slicing temperature is about  
− 7 ° C  (Brown 
dioxide is produced. The resulting pattern of 
et al.  2003 ). The optimal temperature varies 
microbial growth is quite different from that 
because salt lowers the initial freezing point 
which occurs in air. The growth of pseudo-
(ifp), which, in turn, affects the ice content 
monads is inhibited, while lactic acid bacte-
and the resulting mechanical properties of the 
ria dominate and can reach high numbers 
semifrozen product. The temper temperature 
without causing objectionable spoilage.  
332    Chapter 18
 Modifi ed Atmosphere Packing 
Agency has set voluntary targets for the food 
industry aimed at reducing the average salt 
 Most retail - packed bacon employs a modi-
intake to 6  g/day from the current level of 
fi ed atmosphere having an initial composi-
about 9  g/day (Matthews and Strong  2005 ). 
tion of 70% 
– 
75% nitrogen and 25% 
– 
30% 
Meat and meat products currently contribute 
carbon dioxide. The residual oxygen level 
about 25% to the total dietary salt intake; this 
must be less than 1% to ensure a long color 
derives mainly from salt added to meat prod-
shelf life. Carbon dioxide, employed as a pre-
ucts (Henderson et al.  2003 ). Cured meats 
servative, is highly soluble in meat (Jakobsen 
(bacon and ham) are a signifi cant contributor 
and Bertelsen  2004 ), forming carbonic acid. 
to the total because of their high salt content 
The acid is able to pass through bacterial cell 
and their popularity. However, reducing the 
walls into the cell, where it dissociates 
salt content in cured meats is diffi cult  to 
and interferes with normal cell metabolism. 
achieve without altering the shelf life. For 
Lactic acid bacteria are less susceptible to the 
example,  Applegate   (1989)   demonstrated 
action of carbon dioxide and, therefore, con-
that reducing the salt content from 3% to 2% 
stitute the predominant microfl ora. The other 
in vacuum 
- 
packed bacon resulted in unac-
main gas, nitrogen, is inert and prevents pack 
ceptably high levels of  Enterobacteriaceae 
collapse.  
during the six 
- 
week storage period. The 
microbial fl ora was dominated by lactic acid 
 Storage Instructions 
bacteria, which were present at similar levels 
 
Once opened, the bacon should be kept 
of about 10 8  in the low - salt bacon as well as 
refrigerated and consumed within three or 
the 3% - salt bacon. Reducing salt from 3% to 
four days. Although the microbiological 
2% also infl uenced the amount and appear-
quality cannot be guaranteed beyond about 
ance of drip, the color of the product, and 
four days, anecdotal evidence suggests that 
meat pH, as well as fl avor. The study pro-
some consumers may use bacon for up to a 
vides a good example of the multiple proper-
week after opening. Microbiological deterio-
ties that can be affected in products where 
ration after opening may also be accompa-
salt content is reduced. 
nied by color fading, especially on the surface 
 Some low - salt bacon is available commer-
of slices exposed to oxygen.  
cially. This can be achieved by replacing up 
to a third of the sodium chloride with potas -
sium chloride, or by incorporating potassium 
 Industry Standards 
lactate as a shelf 
- 
life extender. Potassium 
 Most bacon producers in the UK are members 
chloride has similar properties to sodium 
of the Charter Quality British Bacon scheme 
chloride in terms of water holding (Hamm 
run by the British Meat Processors Associa-
 1960 ) and antimicrobial effi cacy (Bidlas and 
tion (BMPA). The BMPA standard (BMPA 
Lambert  2008 ), but higher replacement levels 
 
2006 
), available from the association 
’ 
s 
are associated with a bitter fl avor (Gou et al. 
website, lays down various standards and 
 1996 ). The use of either additive would, of 
specifi cations that must be adhered to by the 
course, require a declaration in the list of 
scheme ’ s  members.    
ingredients.  
 Issues Facing the Industry 
 Lower Nitrite Levels 
 Low - Salt Bacon 
 In addition to reducing salt levels, the UK 
 In an effort to reduce the incidence of hyper-
industry is faced with reducing nitrite levels 
tension in the UK, the Food Standards 
in certain types of bacon to comply with new 
Bacon    333
EU legislation aimed at minimizing the for-
during cooking. There is no evidence that this 
mation of potentially carcinogenic nitrosa-
affects eating quality, but the exudate none-
mines while maintaining microbiological 
theless adversely affects appearance during 
safety. Concern about the use of nitrite and 
cooking. Studies at the University of Bristol 
nitrate in cured meats stems from research in 
demonstrated that the exudate had a similar 
the 1970s showing that nitrosamines were 
composition to drip (Sheard et al.  2001 ). It 
generated during the frying of bacon (e.g., 
consists mainly of water, proteins derived 
Patterson et al.  
1976 
) and could also be 
from the sarcoplasm, and a relatively high 
formed in vivo in the acidic conditions 
level of salt. The amount of exudate was 
present in the stomach. Despite attempts to 
assessed subjectively by ranking photographs 
fi nd safer alternatives (see Pegg and Shahidi 
following   “ dry - frying ”   or  objectively  by  col-
 2000 ), nitrite continues to be used in curing, 
lecting exudate in an ice - cooled tray during 
albeit at much lower levels than those 
grilling. It was demonstrated that dry - cured 
employed 30 to 40 years ago when nitrite 
bacon produced less exudate than that pro-
levels in bacon could be as high as 1000  mg/
duced by Wiltshire cured bacon; the greatest 
kg (Ingram  1971 ), well above current permit-
amount of exudate was produced by rapidly 
ted  levels  (Table   18.1 ).   
cured bacon. Tempering increased the 
 In North America, a demand for natural 
amount of exudate. It was also noticed that 
and organically cured meats has led to the use 
higher amounts of exudate resulted from pigs 
of natural sources of nitrate (e.g., sea salt, 
with the lowest ultimate pH, with least exu-
raw sugar, and celery) rather than using con-
dates at the highest pHs. Although interven-
ventional curing ingredients. This approach 
tions to reduce the amount of exudate were 
can deliver the typical quality characteristics 
not investigated, it seems likely that improv-
expected of cured meats, provided that suf-
ing the water - holding capacity (WHC) — by 
fi cient nitrite is formed from the nitrate 
using phosphate, for example — would lead to 
source, although, in practice, residual nitrite 
less exudate.  
levels are often less than in conventionally 
cured  product  (Sebranek  and  Bacus   2007 ).  
 “ Tiger Stripe ”  
 Modern bacon sometimes exhibits a regular 
 White Exudate in Cooked Bacon 
alternating pattern of light and dark bands, 
 
Though bacon remains a popular product, 
which was described as  “ tiger stripe ”  when 
one of the frequent complaints heard about 
it was fi rst reported (Voyle et al.  1986 ). The 
modern bacon concerns the unsightly white 
alternating pattern had a regular periodicity 
liquor that sometimes exudes from bacon 
that seemed to coincide with the injection 
 Table 18.1.    Changes in maximum permitted levels of nitrate and nitrite in bacon 
   Legislation  
   Ingoing  amount  (mg/kg)  
   Residual  amount  (mg/kg)  
  Preservatives  Regs  1979  1    
    
  200  nitrite,  500  nitrite    +    nitrate  
  Food  Additives  Regs  1995  2    
  300  nitrate  
  175  nitrite,  250  nitrate  
  Food  Additives  Regs  2007  3    
  150  nitrite  and  150  nitrate  *    
    
 1 Preservatives in Food Regulations 1979 (amended 1982)  
 2 Miscellaneous Food Additives Regulations 1995 (implementing Directive 95/2/EC)  
 3 Miscellaneous Food Additives  &  Sweeteners (Amendment) (England) Regulations 2007 (implementing Directive 
2006/52/EC)  
 
* 
 exemptions for immersion and dry cured bacon where maximum residual amounts of 175 
 mg/kg nitrite and 
250    mg/kg  nitrate  apply   
334    Chapter 18
marks caused by the needles of a mechanical 
quite different from those used today and at 
injector during the curing process. Micro-
a time when less was known about boar taint. 
scopic investigations revealed that the dark 
A French study on bacon lardons (bacon 
bands showed ordered myofi brillar structure 
cubes) prepared from gilts and boars at three 
(i.e., myofi brils with overlapping thick and 
different combinations of skatole (S) and 
thin fi laments and well 
- 
defi ned Z lines), 
androstenone (A) (low S/low A, low S/high 
while the light bands exhibited a disordered 
A and high S/high A) and assessed by 96 
structure in which the usual structural fea-
consumers demonstrated that the combina-
tures were obscured by amorphous material 
tion of high skatole and high androstenone 
which the authors attributed to denatured sar-
was signifi cantly worse for several odor 
coplasmic protein or denatured myofi brillar 
descriptors (Beague et al.  1997 ). This is to be 
material. The phenomenon was attributed to 
expected, since androstenone and skatole are 
localized variations in brine concentration 
both volatile, particularly at the high tem-
around the injection sites. At the time, some 
peratures attained during frying (a common 
affected batches of bacon were returned to 
method of cooking). Off - fl avors during con-
the manufacturer, but the condition now 
sumption may be less marked due to the 
appears to be accepted as a normal feature of 
partial volatilization of the taint compounds 
modern bacon production. A similar phe-
during cooking (Bonneau et al.  
1992 
) and 
nomenon can also occur in moisture - enhanced 
any abnormal fl avors partially masked by the 
pork (Gooding et al.  
2009 
), suggesting a 
curing ingredients, especially salt. 
common mechanism in both types of product.  
 Immuno - castration appears to be an effec-
tive way to reduce the incidence of boar taint 
in fresh pork (Prunier et al.  
2006 
; Pearce 
 Boar Taint 
et al.  2008 ), and its adoption could have a 
 
The compounds responsible for boar taint, 
marked effect in reducing the volume of 
androstenone and skatole, were identifi ed 
tainted bacon. This reduces both taint com-
many years ago, but boar taint remains a 
pounds because high levels of androstenone 
persistent problem for the pork industry. 
act naturally to increase skatole in the liver. 
However, quantifying the occurrence of off -
The use of different fi ber sources in the diet 
 odors  or  off - fl avors in cooked bacon is 
before slaughter (e.g., chicory) is effective in 
diffi 
cult, partly because individuals are 
reducing skatole.  
highly variable in their sensitivity, particu-
larly in their response to the pheromone, 
 PSE  and  DFD  
androstenone (Annor - Frempong et al.  1997 ). 
Castration of entire male pigs is a common 
 The incidence of the PSE condition in the UK 
method of preventing boar taint, but, even 
pork industry has risen from 6% in the 1970s, 
here, taint could arise due to high levels of 
to 13% in the 1980s, and 15% in the 1990s 
skatole. The latter is produced by fermenta-
(Table  18.2 ). This is probably due to changes 
tion of the amino acid tryptophan in the hind 
in abattoir operation (fewer plants with 
gut. 
higher throughputs and greater pre - slaughter 
 
Most of the studies investigating boar 
stress) and breeding programs that have 
taint in bacon were carried out more than 25 
resulted in pork with a higher incidence of 
years ago (Rhodes  1971 ; Lesser et al.  1977 ; 
white fi bers and a greater tendency to PSE. 
Mottram et al.  
1982 
; Smith et al.  
1983 
; 
The adverse effects of using PSE meat in 
Lundstrom et al.  
1983 
, cited by Malmfors 
cured meats are well documented (Kauffman 
and Lundstrom  
1983 
), when slaughter  et al.  1978 ; Honkavaara  1988 ; Clarke  1998 ; 
weights were lower and pig genetics were 
Fisher et al.  2000 ; O ’ Neill et al.  2003 ). Using 
Bacon    335
 Table 18.2.   Incidence of the  
PSE  condition in 
the cooking odour of lardons produced from pork with 
pork   longissimus  muscle: reports from three 
different androstenone and skatole contents . In  Boar 
large  UK  - based surveys over the last 30 years 
Taint in Entire Pigs, EAAP Publication 92 .  Stockholm, 
Sweden.  
     
   1970s  1    
   1980s  2    
   1990s  3 
    Bidlas ,   E.  ,  and    R.  J.  W.    Lambert  .   2008 .   Comparing  the 
antimicrobial effectiveness of NaCl and KCl with 
  N  
  6015  
  5383  
  5598  
a view to salt/sodium replacement 
.  
International 
  Mean  pH 45   
  6.55  
  6.38  
  6.39  
Journal of Food Microbiology    124 : 98  –  102 .  
  %  PSE 
  5.7  
  12.8  
  15.1  
   BMPA    2006 .   BMPA  standard  for  Charter  Quality 
(pH 45     6.5); a more severe heat treatment is 
 In the striated muscle, caloric fl ux is also 
necessary to destroy potentially present 
affected by the muscle fi ber  orientation. 
pathogens. A pH of 4.5 is the growth limit 
Conductivity, if this fl ux is perpendicular to 
for  Clostridium botulinum , a strict anaer-
the muscle fi bers, is 1.72  kJ/h m  ° C at 78% 
obe widely present in nature and seldom 
relative humidity, 0 ° C; at the same conditions 
found in canned foods. At this pH,  C. botu-
parallel to the muscle fi bers, conductivity is 
linum 
 can grow and produce toxins and 
1.76    kJ/h  m   ° C  (P é rez  and  Calvelo   1984 ). 
heat 
- 
resistant spores; processing condi-
Several additives act as antimicrobial agents: 
tions to destroy this microorganism is the 
several medium - chain fatty acids, essential 
calculation basis for thermal processing of 
oils (cinnamon, clove, garlic, onion, and 
many foods.  
oregano), or proteins such as conalbumin.  
   •       Water  activity  (a w ) is also a criterion for 
processing calculations; the limit value for 
 Toxins 
 Cl. botulinum 
 is 0.97 for psychrotrophic 
species, and 0.95 for mesophile species. 
 The pathogenicity of several microorganisms 
Unfortunately, a w  in most canned meats is 
present in foods depends on their infection or 
above this value.  
intoxication ability. Infection is due to micro-
   •       Redox  potential:  there  is  a  correlation 
bial colonization on the human organism; 
between redox potential, heating, and the 
intoxication is a condition caused by the 
presence of additives (nitrates, phosphates, 
intake of a toxin, produced by the secondary 
Canned Products and Pâté    339
metabolism of certain microorganisms.  temperatures; this is the case with tropical  
Several of these toxins are thermostable, 
preserves (Manev  
1983 
). Heat treatment 
whereas others can be destroyed by heat 
conditions destroying  
C. botulinum   and 
treatments. The toxin  Aeromonas hydrophila 
 Clostridium sporogenes  result in a thermo-
is heat sensitive ; Escherichia coli   0157:H7 
stable food, with considerably long shelf 
and  C. botulinum  (proteolytic types A, B, F, 
life and without the need of other preserva-
and nonproteolytic types B, E, F) toxins are 
tion processing. Inactivation of either patho-
medium heat resistant;   Vibrio   sp. ( V. cholera 
gen or spoilage 
- 
causing microorganisms is 
and  V. parahaemolyticus)  and  Staphyloccocus 
calculated by the heat penetration rate. 
aureus  toxins are highly heat resistant.  
Vegetative cells are destroyed at tempera-
tures slightly higher than optimum growth 
temperatures, whereas spores can survive at 
 Microbial and Enzyme Destruction 
higher temperatures (Zamudio  
2006 
). Heat 
in Canned Foods 
treatments depend on a time 
- 
temperature 
 As stated before, heat treatment ’ s fi rst aim is 
relationship. 
to destroy pathogens, spoilage microorgan-
 
Traditionally, process calculations con-
isms, and enzymes. Theoretical consider-
sider that, since heat application involves the 
ations for microbial destruction are also valid 
destruction of at least one microbial enzyme 
for enzyme inactivation (Dziezak  1991 ). The 
necessary to the bacterial metabolism, vege-
main criteria for thermal destruction are: (1) 
tative cells and spores are inhibited according 
all spores and viable cells able to grow and 
to a fi rst - order reaction rate equation (Baranyi 
produce toxins must be eliminated, taking as 
and Roberts  1995 ), even though Peleg  (2006)  
a calculation basis  
C. botulinum 
, the most 
stated that there is evidence bacterial spore 
dangerous microorganism from the public 
inactivation, including  C. botulinum   spores, 
health point of view; (2) spoilage microor-
does not follow fi rst - order  kinetics.  The 
ganisms must be reduced to a limit that 
author states that the  exponential  inacti-
ensures food quality for a given time. From 
vation rate depends on the spores ’  previous 
a commercial point of view, a food can 
thermal history, which is not considered in 
be considered sterile if it is free from 
the exponential inactivation rate equations 
 Bacillus stearothermophilus  or  Clostridium 
that follow a log 
- 
linear Arrhenius model. 
perfringens . 
However, the author concluded canning 
 In general, the strict anaerobe  C. botuli-
operations are generally a safe procedure due 
num  is taken as the target microorganism due 
to  over - processing. 
to its pathogenicity; however, other target 
 
When microbial populations are treated 
microorganisms are  
B. stearothermophilus, 
with humid heat at a temperature slightly 
B. thermoacidurans ,   B. macerans, 
 and  
B. 
higher than the maximum for growth, vegeta -
polymyxa 
 (Guerrero Legarreta  
2001 
), in 
tive cells and spores are destroyed according 
addition to specifi c pathogens most likely 
to the equation:
to colonize a specifi c food. In the case of 
dc
raw poultry meat and poultry products, 
 
 −
= kc    
 (19.1)   
dt
these are  
C. prefringens ,   Salmonella   spp., 
 Staphylococcus 
 spp., and  
Campylobacter 
 
This means that cell concentration (dc) 
spp. Microbial inactivation calculations are 
decreases (hence, the negative sign) with 
based on how long the food shelf life must 
time (dt) in a direct proportion to viable cell 
be extended. 
concentration (c). This is a logarithmic cell 
 
Sporulated thermophiles must also be 
destruction rate (for example: 10 3  to 10 2 ),  but 
considered if the food will be stored at high 
time increases linearly. 
340    Chapter 19
 As mentioned before, another heat treat-
  A       =    area  of  transference  
ment objective is enzyme inactivation; meat 
 Δ T       =    temperature  difference  
enzymes (endogenous and exogenous) play 
 L       =    thickness  of  the  material  
an important role in meat spoilage, and it 
 k       =    thermal  conductivity  coeffi cient    
is, therefore, necessary to inactivate them. 
 The  coeffi cient k depends on the food 
Enzyme inactivation depends on several 
 intrinsic properties; it actually defi nes  how 
factors and practically the same affecting 
heating is facilitated or prevented by the 
microorganisms. However, in mixed 
- 
food 
treated material. Comparing k for stainless 
products, several heat 
- resistant  isoenzymes 
steel versus k for meats makes clear the low 
can be present, especially if plant material is 
conduction rate in foods. In stainless steel, 
added to the formulation, as peroxidases 
k    =    45.872    kg  cal/h  m 2    ° C  (Green  and 
may be present; the process parameters are 
Maloney  
1997 
), whereas on the average, 
calculated taking into account the most heat -
k    =    1.464    kg    cal/h  m 2  for meat (Mittal and 
 resistant enzyme (Braun et al.  1999 ).  
Usborne  1985 ). Conduction may differ even 
in different cuts of the same animal, due to 
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 
the particular chemical composition. Siripon 
et al.  
(2007) 
 reported different average 
 
In all thermal operations, the amount of 
thermal conductivity for white and dark 
transferred heat is necessary for calculations. 
poultry meat.  
Thermal processing is basically an operation 
in which heat fl ows from a hot element — the 
heating medium 
— 
to a cold element 
—   Convection 
the food. As it is a dynamic process, the heat 
fl ux is proportional to the driving force and 
 Convection is carried out in fl uids,  due  to 
inverse to the fl ow resistance. Heat transfer 
density differences. It is the mechanism 
obeys one of the following mechanisms: con-
occurring in homogenous soups, brines, 
duction, convection, or radiation. In canning 
sauces, and syrups. This mechanism is based 
operations, only conduction and convection 
on  Newtons ’ s  law:
mechanisms take place. Radiation occurs in 
 
 q = hA T
Δ    
 (19.3)  
heating systems such as microwaves and 
infrared heating.  
where:
  A       =    area  of  transference  
 Conduction 
 Δ T       =    temperature  difference  
 h       =    heat  transfer  coeffi cient    
 In conduction, heat is transmitted by vibra-
tions of adjacent molecules; this mechanism 
 
The heat diffusion rate is higher if an 
occurs in solids. This is the heating mecha-
external force is applied; can rotation 
nism that takes place in canned products such 
decreases the temperature difference ( Δ T)  to 
as brines containing solid chunks (e.g., in 
a minimum (Welti - Chanes et al.  2003 ). The 
soups containing meat pieces, canned sausage 
coeffi cient h describes the heating potential 
in brine, and products that gel during heating, 
of a given medium; it depends on fl ow prop-
such as luncheon meats and pat é ; Mittal and 
erties, surface type, and fl ow velocity of the 
Blaisdell  
1984 
). Conduction follows the 
heating medium. For instance, for boiling 
Fourier law:
water,  h    =    1.464    kg    cal/h  m 2    ° C;  for  condens-
ing  steam,  h    =    2.928  to  19.520    kg    cal/h  m 2    ° C 
 
 q = k (AΔT L)    
 (19.2)  
(Green and Maloney  
1997 
). Therefore, to 
where:
obtain the maximum heating rate during 
Canned Products and Pâté    341
canning, condensed steam is the most effi -
instance, 90% of a  C. progenies   population 
cient heating medium through a barrier (the 
is destroyed if heating at 110 ° C is maintained 
can) to the cold fl uid inside the can. 
for 10 minutes; D value in this case is 
 Heating mechanisms may change in prod-
D 110 ° C     =    10    min.  At  115 ° C,  the  necessary  time 
ucts that modify their physical characteristics 
for the same microbial reduction is 3 minutes 
during processing. For instance, in canned 
(i.e., D 115 ° C     =    3    min);  at  120 ° C,  1    min  is  neces-
emulsions,  such  as  luncheon  meats  and  p â t é s, 
sary to obtain the same population reduction 
where the product changes from semifl uid to 
(D 120 ° C   =   1  min). On the other hand, at differ-
solid, the heating mechanisms change from 
ent heating times, the number of destroyed 
convection to conduction. Process calcula-
microorganisms increases with time of expo -
tions must be carried out accordingly. 
sure. For example, in order to destroy 6 log 
 Finally, in products such as soups contain-
cycles (6D) of a given microbial population, 
ing meat pieces or in sausages in brine, a 
the required heating times are: 120 ° C for 6 
combined heat and mass transfer mechanism 
minutes (D 120 ° C     =    6),  or  115 ° C  for  18  minutes 
takes place: heat transfer between fl uids 
(D 115 ° C     =    18),  or  110 ° C  for  60  minutes 
within the meat and between the product and 
(D 110 ° C     =    60)  (ICMSF   1996 ).  D - values  allow 
the heating medium, and mass transfer as 
comparisons of the necessary heat treatment 
water and nutrients diffuse within the can.  
severity among different microorganisms or 
among temperatures.  
 Thermal Inactivation Parameters 
 z - Value 
 
In order to calculate the time 
- 
temperature 
relationship for a given heat process, several 
 Heat resistance of a given microbial popula-
parameters have been developed that accu-
tion is given by a z - value, which indicates the 
rately describe the necessary time at a given 
required temperature to reduce D - values by 
temperature to achieve a given microbial 
1/10. The thermal death  - time curve gives the 
destruction. Severe heat treatment can destroy 
heating time (x -  axis ) versus log number of 
all viable cells, and possibly all spores, 
survivors per ml or per g (y 
- 
axis); in this 
although other food characteristics such as 
curve, the slope is the z - value, showing the 
physicochemical (texture, color, water reten-
temperature (in  
° 
C) required to reduce a 
tion) and sensory quality can also be altered. 
given microbial population by 1 log cycle. 
Therefore, there must be a compromise 
For instance, if z   =   10 ° C, then D 100 ° C     =    50 
between destruction of most undesirable 
minutes, therefore D 
110 ° C     =    5  minutes,  and 
microorganisms (pathogens and spoilage 
D 120 ° C   =   0.5 minutes. This is shown in Figure 
 related) and food quality. 
 19.1 .    
 D  - Value 
 F  - value 
 
According to Equation  
19.1 
, 90% of the 
 F - value represents the thermal death extent 
microbial population is destroyed (1 log 
of a given microbial strain, as well as treat-
cycle) at a given time interval, provided a 
ment severity. It allows predictions con-
constant temperature is applied. This time 
cerning the product shelf life, as well as 
interval differs from one microbial strain to 
comparisons between different heat treat-
another and is called decimal reduction time 
ment conditions. As it is impossible to instan-
(D). It is given by the time in minutes neces-
taneously reach the processing temperature 
sary to destroy 90% of a given microbial 
in every part of a container or a can, the 
population at a constant temperature. For 
F - value is the sum of heat treatments in every 
342    Chapter 19
106
(Guerrero Legarreta  
2001 
). D and F are 
related through the equation:
110°C
105
 
 F = D(log a − log b)    
 (19.4)  
104
D=19 min
where:
103
  a       =    initial  viable  cell  load  
D=1 min
 b  =  fi nal viable cell load  
102
 In extreme cases, when the presence of  C. 
120°C
101
botulinum 
 is presumed or complete spore 
number of survivors per mL or g
destruction is necessary, a  “ botulinum cook ”  
10o
is applied. This is a process, generally applied 
0
10
20
only to low - acid foods such as meats, fi sh, or 
dairy products, where cell number is reduced 
 Figure 19.1. 
   Thermal death time curve.  
(Adapted 
from Stiebing  1992 .)  
from 10 1  to 10 0 , a 12 log - cycle reduction or 
12D. Heat treatment ensures the probability 
of fi nding 1 spore in 10 12  cans. Processing 
moment of the process: heating up, tempera-
parameters in botulinum cook are (for  
C. 
ture holding, and cooling down. A hypotheti-
botulinum ):  D 120 ° C     =    2.52  minutes  and 
cal situation occurs assuming F   =   1; this is 
z    =    10 ° C.   
the lethality effect when heating at 120 ° C for 
1 minute. F s  is the sum of all F values in each 
 Process Lethality Calculations 
point of the container 
 
Heating in not homogenous in a food 
 When a new thermal process is designed or 
material, even less in canned meats or meat 
applied for the fi rst time to a food, F - values 
products, where fat, connective tissue, and 
are analyzed using thermocouples at various 
other compounds such as carbohydrates 
positions on the container, mainly at the cold 
and other additives are present, each with a 
point. Recently, the use of thermocouples has 
wide range of heat 
- 
transfer capacities.  been substituted by radiotelemetry. 
Calculations, therefore, are carried out in ref-
 The rate at which a microbial population 
erence to the point where heating occurs at 
is destroyed and the total processed severity 
the slowest rate or the  “ cold point ” ; at this 
can be calculated by several methods; the 
point, the sum of all lethal effects is denoted 
easiest ones use the area under a curve that 
as F c . The cold - point position depends, there-
represents lethality versus time. Lethality is 
fore, on the food composition and the leading 
calculated by the equation:
heating mechanisms. If convection is the 
 
 log (t F) = (250 − T) z    
 (19.5)  
main mechanism, the cold point is located 
along the vertical can axis. Can agitation, for 
where:
instance when cans are rotated, increases the 
  t       =    time  at  any  given  minute  
heat - transfer rate; in this case, the cold point 
 T       =    temperature  in  the  process    
is located approximately one - third up from 
the can bottom. This is the case with meat 
 Another method for calculating the overall 
chunks in brine or canned sausages. If con-
process lethality is by adding the F - value at 
duction is the main mechanism, the cold 
every moment during the heating and cooling 
point is in the geometric can center. F 
c   is 
phases. Manev  (1983)  describes in detail the 
lower than F 
s 
, as heating in the center is 
process for a tropical preserve expected to 
always lower than in the rest of the container 
have a shelf life up to 1 year at 40 ° C; in this 
Canned Products and Pâté    343
case, F must be between 12 and 15. This type 
maximum for bacterial growth destroy all 
of preserves is intended for regions with 
viable cells; however, spores may survive in 
extreme heat and humid weather, such as the 
this condition. 
humid tropics, with no other preservation 
 
In food 
- 
processing operations, the term 
facility. Total F - value for the heating phase 
 “ sterilization ”  is incorrect, as sterility is not 
is 9.4589, and for the cooling is 5.1602; the 
fully achieved. This means that, although all 
overall  value  is  F    =    14.6191.  
pathogens are destroyed, some nonpathogens 
can survive, although environmental condi-
 Commercial Sterilization 
tions are such that they cannot proliferate. 
Under this situation, it is said that foods are 
 
The general principles underlying heat 
- 
 “ commercially  sterile, ”    “ microbiologically 
transfer mechanisms and the response of 
inactive, ”   or   “ partially  sterile. ”  
foods to the caloric fl ow are the same for all 
 
There are two methods of commercial 
processes. However, specifi c thermal pro-
sterilization: placing the food in a container, 
cesses have particular objectives. The objec-
with further heating; or heating and cooling 
tive of cooking (roasting, grilling, boiling, 
the foods, then placing it in a container. The 
and steaming) and frying is mostly to destroy 
fi rst method is the conventional canning 
heat 
- 
sensitive organisms and toxins, to 
operation, developed by Appert in the eigh-
improve sensory characteristics, and to make 
teenth century (therefore, it is also called 
the product more digestable; it is carried out 
 “ appertization ” ).  The  second  method  is  called 
at around 85 ° C, although frying can be done 
aseptic processing. 
at 160 °  to 190 ° C. Scalding is applied in order 
 
In aseptic processing, the food is com-
to inactivate enzymes, remove gas trapped in 
mercially sterilized before packaging; it is 
the tissues, and clean the food material; it is 
based on the same principles as pasteuriza-
carried out at around 65 
° 
C. Pasteurization 
tion, although the process is more severe. As 
destroys only part of the vegetative cell pop-
the temperature applied is between 132 °  and 
ulations; therefore, further preservation  175 ° C, this process is similar to HTST. It is 
methods must be applied. In most cases, the 
mainly based on enzyme inactivation, rather 
objective of pasteurization is to destroy 
than microbial destruction. Once the con-
pathogens, as is the case with milk. The high -
tainer is fi lled with the food, a hot fl uid such 
 temperature,  short - time  (HTST)  pasteuriza-
as brine is injected and the container sealed. 
tion method involves temperatures around 
This method is effi cient only if further refrig-
70 °  to 73 ° C for 15 to 20 seconds , or 140 °  to 
eration  is  applied  (Thumel   1995 ).  
150 
° 
C for 1 to 45 seconds for fl uid  milk, 
whereas  in  the  low - temperature,  long - time 
method, heating is at 62 ° C for 30 minutes 
 Canning 
(for fl uid milk).  
 Canning processing consists of fi ve  stages: 
(1) food preparation (cleaning, cutting, selec-
 Aseptic Processing 
tion, etc); (2) can, pouch, or jar fi lling; (3) air 
 Sterilization is a process where severe treat-
exhaustion; (4) sealing; and (5) thermal 
ments are applied to completely destroy  C. 
processing (heating and cooling). 
botulinum 
 or  
C. perfringens 
; although it 
results in a stable food, sensory characteris-
 Food Preparation 
tics such as texture and fl avor are consider-
ably altered. A sterile food is that where 
 In the case of meat and meat products, the 
no viable microorganisms are present. How-
earlier operations depend on the type of 
ever, treatments at temperatures above the 
product. Canned sausages are fabricated 
344    Chapter 19
according to certain formulations (curing, 
the headspace (Mathlouthi  1986 ). Exhaustion 
cooking, smoking, etc.). In the case of lun-
is also carried out by heating, mechanical air 
cheon meat, an emulsion is prepared and the 
removal, or by steam injection; if the last is 
can fi lled with the raw meat batter.  
applied, cans are immediately sealed. During 
can cooling, a vacuum is generated due to 
steam condensation, but if the headspace is 
 Can Filling  
excessive, a vacuum is not formed. Also, if 
 Heat penetration depends on the solid - liquid 
air is not completely removed from the can, 
ratio and the food distribution inside the can. 
bacteria such as  
Bacillus subtilis 
 and  
B. 
In canned sausage distributed along the verti -
mycoides  can grow.  
cal axis, a convection - conduction mechanism 
takes place; if the solid material is loosely 
 Thermal Treatment 
packed, the heating rate will be faster. In 
general, 30% of the can volume should be 
 This includes three cycles: heating, tempera-
fi lled with a liquid, such as brine, to provide 
ture holding, and cooling. Time - temperature 
a high heat 
- 
transference rate. The brine is 
relationships during the heating phase are 
always added after the solids; in the case of 
calculated according to microbial destruction 
pastes, the fi lling operations are generally 
and enzyme inactivation criteria, as described 
carried out with automatic fi lling  equip-
earlier, whereas cooling is applied for practi-
ments; care must be taken not to incorporate 
cal reasons, such as handling. 
bubbles. The headspace must be 0.5% of 
 
Commercial sterilization can be carried 
total can volume; effi 
ciency during the 
out by several methods, all based on the 
exhausting phase depends on the headspace.  
theoretical principles already discussed. 
The main methods are batch still retorts or 
continuous operations. 
 Exhausting 
 
The batch method is still used in large 
 Oxygen is a very reactive substance that acts 
industrial operations handling cans and glass 
on food components. It modifi es color, fl avor, 
jars, and all types of containers in small oper-
and overall quality. Air removal from the 
ations. However, Crang and others  
(2006) 
 
headspace is necessary to prevent these 
describe a process for bottling and canning 
changes, as well as to improve the heat pen-
sausage meat with domestic equipment. The 
etration rate and reduce the growth of aerobes. 
authors concluded that some of the products 
Vacuum formation in the can also prevents 
in jars of thicker glass require a longer pro-
the risks of an increase in the pressure inside 
cessing time to give the same level of safety. 
the can during heating, and possible can 
The method basically consists of loading the 
blowing or deformation. 
retort, closing it, and fi lling it with steam. 
 Exhausting is carried out at normal atmo-
 
The second cycle, temperature holding, 
sphere or under vacuum. If large meat pieces 
depends on the time - temperature relationship 
are put into the can, exhausting during fi lling 
to satisfy the processing parameters (D, z, F). 
and sealing is enough to evacuate the air; 
 Cooling is carried out by closing the steam 
however, if pastes are canned, air can be 
valves and injecting cold water into the 
incorporated if this operation is not carried 
retorts. Care must be taken to gradually 
out under vacuum. Cans are heated at 75 °  to 
reduce the retort pressure in order to avoid 
95 ° C immediately before fi lling and sealing; 
deformation or breaking of containers. 
alternatively, the cans are placed in a con-
 Continuous retorts are generally used in 
veyor where they are heated at 85 °  to 95 ° C, 
large operations. The retort pressure differ-
removing approximately 90% or more from 
ence is controlled to avoid deformation of 
Canned Products and Pâté    345
large - format cans or lid blowing in glass jars. 
then a combination of convection and con-
In general, there are four systems, all using 
duction, as explained before. Chili con carne 
steam as the heating medium: Sterilmatic ™ , 
or  “ chili ”  is a spicy stew - like dish. The essen-
Orbitort ™ ,  Hydrostatic ™ ,  and  Hydrolock ™ . 
tial ingredients are, in addition to meat, chili 
Sterilmatic ™  are Orbitort ™  are similar; the 
peppers, garlic, and cumin. It often includes 
cans are fed into the system through a pres-
tomatoes, onions, beans, and other ingredi-
sure seal, moving through the retort in a helix 
ents, as well. 
conveyor that takes the cans through the 
 
Other products, such as luncheon meat 
heating 
- 
cooling zones. Heat transfer is  and p â t é , change their heating mechanisms 
increased by rolling the cans on rails. 
during processing, as they turn from semi-
 After completing the thermal processing, 
fl uid to solid. P â t é  is a product in which an 
cans are cooled by cold 
- 
water spray or 
emulsion system turns into a gel.  
immersion. This allows easier handling and 
reduces the pressure inside the can. However, 
  Paste Products: Liver P â t é  and 
water used for cooling must be sanitary, since 
P â t é  de Foie Gras 
seam failures or microscopic holes (pinholes) 
in the can allow water to enter into the food; 
 Meat  paste  products,  such  as  p â t é ,  are  similar 
microorganisms present in the water can 
to emulsions. A true emulsion is defi ned  as 
grow and proliferate inside, causing sanitary 
two immiscible liquids, one of them being 
failures as well as other alterations such as 
droplets or fat globules (the disperse or inter-
blowing. If cooling after heating is insuffi -
nal phase) dispersed into another (the con-
cient, thermophiles can grow. As a general 
tinuous phase); the droplet or fat globule 
rule, canned meat products are cooled down 
diameter in a true emulsion is between 0.1 
to 35 ° C. At this temperature, the can ’ s outer 
and  100     μ m (McClemens  1999 ). Meat emul-
surface cools rapidly (Guerrero Legarreta 
sions, however, also contain in the disperse 
 2001 ). 
phase muscle fi bers, small connective tissue 
 
Cans must be stored in small blocks 
fractions and carbohydrates, and the fat 
in well 
- 
ventilated areas to allow them to 
droplet diameter of the disperse phase is 
reach room temperature at a fast rate. 
larger than 100 
 μ 
m; therefore, meat emul-
Recontamination after heat treatment is a 
sions are not considered true emulsions, but a 
very common problem, causing can blowing; 
 “ paste ”   or   “ batter. ”   When  heated,  the  proteins 
it indicates seam failure. The main microor-
in the continuous phase gel, due to unfolding 
ganisms responsible for this alteration are 
and interlinking. This phenomenon stabilizes 
cocci  and  bacilli  (Ray   1996 ).   
the product. However, the high fat content 
provides a smooth texture and spreadability. 
 
On the other hand, foie gras, a French 
 Canned Meat Products 
term for  “ fat liver, ”  is a traditional product 
 Canned meat products include meat stews, 
fabricated only from the hypertrophied liver 
luncheon meat, sausages, sauces with meat 
of goose or duck; this hypertrophy is obtained 
pieces, and paste products. These products 
by supplying special diets to the animals. The 
can be fully cooked before canning, as in the 
practice of force 
- 
feeding geese to enlarge 
case of sausages, or can be homogenous 
their livers dates back to at least 400 B.C. 
products cooked inside the can, as in the case 
Egyptian hieroglyphics depict slaves force -
of luncheon meat. Products such as  “ chili con 
 
feeding geese to enlarge their livers and 
carne ”   ( “ peppers  with  meat ” ),  sausages,  and 
obtain a primitive foie gras. To obtain foie -
sauces with meat pieces have solid and fl uid 
 gras livers, animals are immobilized on farms 
ingredients in the can. The heat process is 
and fed with diets high in calories; the liver 
346    Chapter 19
obtained has no pathology but is merely an 
p â t é s,  followed  by  duck  liver  p â t é s.  Both 
organ with excessive fat content. Unlike 
products,  liver  p â t é   and  p â t é   de  foie  gras,  are 
other  p â t é ,  in  p â t é   de  foie  gras  fabrication, 
high in calories, saturated fats, cholesterol, 
the liver is not mixed with meat or any other 
and sodium. 
ingredients; it is only heat treated to obtain a 
product fulfi lling sanitary regulations. French 
law requires that at least 80% of p â t é  de foie 
 Liver P â t é  
gras must be liver; this makes the product 
 Processing 
very expensive. There are three commercial 
types of p â t é  de foie gras: frais (fresh), mi - cut 
 The main ingredient in liver p â t é  is chopped 
(semicooked), and bloc (restructured block). 
liver, which must be cleaned and freed from 
Mousse or pur 
é 
e de foie gras, a cheaper 
any connective tissue residue. Meat ingredi-
version, contains 55% liver. 
ents (viscera and lean meat) are fi rst coarsely 
 
An even cheaper product, or one for 
ground or chopped, and then cooked at 
people not agreeing with animal force 
- 
approximately  80 ° C.  Fat  (45% – 50%  total 
feeding,  is  the  chopped  liver  p â t é   made  of 
formulation), previously scalded at around 
other  animals ’   livers.  P â t é   is  French  for 
65 ° C, is then added. Alternatively, fat substi-
 
“ 
pie 
” 
; it is traditionally served baked in a 
tutes are included in the formulation, as will 
crust (cro 
û 
te) or molded as a terrine. The 
be explained later. The meat block is then 
terms p â t é  and terrine are often used inter-
homogenized, adding hot broth, though this 
changeably. Originally, the crust was  operation is done in order to obtain the 
intended to hold the p â t é  together, not to be 
desired  texture  (Totosaus  and  P é rez - Chabela 
eaten. Terrines are not surrounded by a crust 
 2005 ). In some cases, nonmeat proteins, such 
but laced in a mold and cooked in a water 
as skim - milk powder or soy protein concen-
bath. Terrines are made of different compo-
trates, are included in the formulation to 
nents and have various structures; they can 
stabilize the emulsion. Once this paste is 
include meat chunks, such as terrine de cam-
homogenized, the homogenized liver is 
pagne, or have the structure of a pur 
é 
e 
added, followed by spices, herbs, and other 
such as terrine de foie de volaille (poultry 
additives, such as almonds and truffl es. 
liver). 
 Homogenization in the chopper forms an 
 The basic ingredients of p â t é  may vary, 
emulsion, where the main emulsifying agents 
but they are in general made from the liver 
are the liver proteins. However, in commer-
of beef, pork, poultry, and duck; or from 
cial operations, other emulsifi ers are added in 
seafood, wild game, and even vegetables. 
order to stabilize the product, as well as 
However, liver and other viscera are usually 
plasticizers such as sorbitol and glycerol 
included as part of the main ingredients. In 
to improve spreadability. The batter is then 
addition, a number of other components are 
stuffed into casings or canned. As it is a 
necessary for p â t é  fabrication, such as herbs, 
semifl uid material, it is important to avoid 
spices, milk, and starches. A smooth and 
trapping bubbles during stuffi ng or canning, 
creamy texture is obtained after grinding all 
since air reduces heat transference, resulting 
the ingredients, although in some cases, a 
in an underprocessed food; air can also 
chunky product is desired. Although this type 
promote lipid and pigment oxidation, reduc-
of  products  is  generally  called   “ p â t é , ”   the 
ing the fi 
nal product quality. Time 
correct  name  is   “ paste ”   or   “ liver  paste, ”   pre-
 temperature relationship depends on casing 
ceded by the name of the animal used for its 
or can diameter, in addition to processing 
fabrication  (i.e.,  chicken  liver  p â t é ).  The 
parameters. In small casings (50  mm diame-
most commonly merchandised are pork liver 
ter), heating must be at 70 °  to 74 ° C for 41 to 
Canned Products and Pâté    347
Liver (poultry, pork, game, etc.)
Spices, herbs, 
other additives
Lean meat + viscera
12 - 18% final product
Cooking at 80oC
HOMOGENIZATION
(emulsion formation)
Fat
Scalding at 65oC
45 - 50% final product
Heat treatment
time-temperature relationship
depends on the can or casing
diameter
 Figure 19.2.    Flow diagram of liver p â t é  fabrication.  
58 minutes at the product center; in large 
and spreadability in particular are the most 
formats  (150    mm  diameter),  68 °   to  70 ° C  for 
important physicochemical characteristics. 
314 to 360 minutes are necessary for a fully 
 Spreadability, a subjective texture charac-
processed material (Totosaus and P 
é 
rez 
teristic of semisolid foods, is related to the 
 Chabela   2005 ).  Figure   19.2   depicts  the 
material yield stress, the minimum shear 
general  process  to  obtain  liver  p â t é .  In  addi-
stress required to initiate fl ow  ( σ 
o); it is 
tion to ensuring product microbial safety, 
inversely proportional to  
σ o. Kryscio and 
heating develops sensory characteristics such 
others  (2008)  developed a method to measure 
as fl avor and texture; the emulsion turns into 
spreadability of pharmaceutical topical for-
a gel, stabilizing the product, although the 
mulations, based on a torque exerted by a 
high fat content also contributes to the desir -
vane. It involves the immersion of vane 
able spreadability characteristic of this meat 
blades into a sample, followed by slow rota-
product.   
tion at a constant speed until the torque 
 In the case of p â t é  foie gras, the high fat 
exerted on the vane reaches a maximum 
content (44%, Table  19.1 ) makes this product 
value and the sample begins to fl ow. Torque 
melt too easily, so it is served chilled; liver 
versus time curves are used to determine 
p â t é s can be served warm or hot. Chefs rec-
yield stress, and the maximum torque 
ommend  that  canned  p â t é   age  for  three 
exerted on the vane by the fl uid is measured. 
months before opening, to develop fl avor.    
Daubert and others  (2007)  reported a method 
for rapid and quantitative measurement of 
spreadability based on the yield point of 
 Physicochemical Characteristics 
food items. The authors concluded that this 
 Since  p â t é   is  a  semisolid  food  that  is  expected 
textural property has been linked to the 
to be consumed as a spread, texture in general 
yield stress of a material, but observations 
 Table 19.1.    Nutritional content of pork liver p â t é  and p â t é  de foie - gras (100  g) 
     
   energy 
   protein 
   fat(g)  
   Cholesterol 
   sodium 
   Iron 
 ( kcal )  
 (g)  
 (mg)  
 (mg)  
 (mg)  
  pork  liver  p â t é   
  305  
  10  
  28  
  96  
  660  
  3.5  
  p â t é   de  foie - gras  
  448  
  10  
  44  
  380  
  740  
  6.4  
    http://www.consumer.es/web/es/alimentacion/aprender_a_comer_bien/curiosidades/2008/01/19/145977.php      
348    Chapter 19
support that strain at yielding may also be 
includes 40% to 80% ground lean meats 
important.   
(3% – 8% fat), up to 15% fat substitute, 15% –
 50% added water, 1.2% – 2.4% nitrite salts, 
and up to 0.3% phosphates. The authors 
 Low - Fat P â t é  
reported that the meat emulsion undergoes 
 In  emulsifi ed low 
- 
fat meat, the disperse 
proteolytic digestion and cooking, and when 
phase is partially or totally replaced by other 
later subjected to hydrostatic pressure 
materials that contribute to the formation of 
( > 400,000  kPa) for enough time, obtains