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Extended essay: To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease? (0)

5 VÄGA HEA
Punktid
Extended  Essay
Research Question: To What Extent Does a  Plant   Based   Diet   Lower  the 
Risk of Coronary Artery  Disease ?
Subject : Biology
Word  Count : 3482
Abstract
     Because  there  has been much debate over whether plant based diets are  beneficial  or 
not, I’m wil ing to learn more about it and  since  there’s  eligible  data  available  on the  effects  
of   vegetarian / vegan   diets  on  cardiovascular   diseases ,  my  research  question  is   formed  
accordingly:  To  what  extent  does  a  plant  based  diet  lower  the  risk  of  coronary  artery 
disease? The  importance  of this  study  lies in my own  curiosity  and my  desire  to acquire 
further  knowledge on the  prevention  and treatment of coronary artery disease. 
     In this investigation I wil  study two  similar  prospective  studies  on plant based diets and 
cardiovascular diseases, mainly coronary artery disease, to  find  out if the outcomes of one 
have  anything  common  with  the   other .  I  want  to  find  out  whether  the  outcomes  of   these  
studies  are   reasonable   and  have  any   evidence   from  other  studies  to   support    them .  My 
sources   include  a  wide  variety of  medical  journals, studies and webpages.  
          The  Californian  Seventh-day  Adventists  study   found   vegetarian  men  to  have 
significantly  lower  risk  of  coronary  artery  disease  compared  to  non-vegetarians  whereas 
vegetarian   women   were  at  the   highest   risk.  The   Oxford   vegetarian  study,  on  the  other 
hand,  found  al   vegans  and  vegetarians  to  have  lower   mortality   rates  when  it   came   to 
coronary artery disease. Vegans were found to have the lowest cholesterol levels, lowest 
saturated  fat intake and highest dietary  fiber  intake which are al  associated with lower risk 
of  coronary  artery  disease. A  positive  correlation   between   plant  based  diets  and   higher  
mortality rates was found.

Word count: 250

Table of Contents: 
1. Introduction  ……………………………………………………………………………………. 4 
3.1. Plant based diets and  heart  disease prevention .………….……………………. 4 
3.2. Cholesterol and triglycerides ……………………………………………………… 5 
2. Investigation ………………………………………………………………………………..….. 8 
2.1. Californian Seventh-day Adventists Study …………………………………..….. 8 
2.2. The Oxford Vegetarian Study ……………………………………………………. 11 
2.3. The cholesterol debate …………………………………………………………… 16 
3.  Conclusion  and Evaluation .………………………………………………………………… 17 
4. Bibliography ……..…………………………………………………………………………… 19 
5.  Appendix  ………..……………………………………………………………………………. 23
Introduction: 
Plant based diets and heart disease prevention 
         Over the  centuries  cardiovascular diseases have become the  leading   cause  of  death  
worldwide  and  researches  have  found  that   different   diets  have  a  different   effect   on  the 
progression of cardiovascular diseases, mainly coronary artery disease. For that  reason
and many others, more and more people have started  changing  their diets into more plant 
based ones. To find out whether this  change  is worth  making , from a medical point of view, 
I’m going to investigate this topic in order to  answer  my research question: To what extent 
does a plant based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease?  
       There are different  types  of cardiovascular diseases. Some  affect  the heart’s  muscle
valves or rhythm, but most conditions are caused by the hardening or clogging of arteries. 
Coronary artery disease is associated with the hardening of arteries that supply  blood  to 
heart muscle and is, in most  cases , preventable and  even  treatable as it’s often found to 
be  caused  by  poor  lifestyle   choices .1  These  lifestyle  choices  include  unhealthy  dietary 
choices, lack of  exercise  and  cigarette   smoking . Other risk factors appear to be  diabetes
high blood  pressurestress  and history of heart disease running in the family. 2 
     A plant based diet is  solely  based on  foods  that are derived from  plants . Individuals who 
fol ow a plant based diet  exclude  al   animal   products  from their diet. They don’t consume 
any   meat ,   dairy   products  or   eggs ,  as  wel   as  other  products  that  are  either  derived  from 
animal sources, or are processed and  contain  traces of those products. A plant-based diet 
is also  known  as the vegan diet, which is a more restrictive form of a vegetarian diet. It’s a 
1 ‘’What is Coronary Heart Disease?’’, National Heart,  Lung  and Blood Institute, https://
www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/cad, 15.10. 2016
2 ‘’Clogged Arteries ( Arterial   Plaque ), WebMD,  http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/clogged -
arteries-arterial-plaque#1 15.10.2016
4
diet  that  has  been  approved  to  be  healthy  by  many   major   health  associations  when 
planned  and  nutritional y  adequate.  3 There  are  some  key  nutrients  that  vegans  need  to 
look  out for, mainly  vitamin  B12 and vitamin D, but with the help of fortified foods and food 
supplements it’s found to be appropriate for al  stages of life. 4 
          Individuals  fol owing  vegetarian  and  vegan  diets  appear  to  have  lower   body   mass 
indexes and lower rates of heart disease as wel  as lower blood pressure and cholesterol 
levels. 5 That being said, not al  diets fit al  individuals and any diet plan can  turn  out to be 
the opposite of healthful when not fol owed correctly. When comparing a plant based diet 
to a standard diet,  both  can be as equal y beneficial when properly planned and balanced. 
However ,  plant  based  diets  have  been  found  to  be  more  beneficial  when  it  comes  to 
preventing, treating or reversing heart disease.6 
Cholesterol and triglycerides 
    Elevated levels of triglycerides and LDL cholesterol in the blood have long  before  been 
associated  with  atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis  is  the  hardening  of  the  arteries.  When  it 
affects the arteries of the heart it is cal ed coronary artery disease.   
7 Triglycerides are  lipid  
compounds in the bloodstream. They’re the kind of  fats  that are either used by the body to 
3 et al.  Craig  WJ,’’ Position  of the American Dietetic  Association : vegetarian diets’’, US National 
Library of  Medicine  National Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19562864, 
26.10.2016 
Ginny  Messina, ‘’Recommended Supplements for Vegans’’, The Vegan R.D, http://
www.theveganrd.com/2010/11/recommended-supplements-for-vegans.html, 16.10.2016
5 ’’Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: vegetarian diets’’, US 
National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
12826028, 16.10.2016
6 Harvard Publications,’’Halt heart disease with a plant-based, oil-free diet’’, Harvard Health, http://
www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/halt-heart-disease-with-a-plant-based-oil-free-diet-, 
15.10.2016
7 ‘’What is Atherosclerosis?’’, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute,  https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/
health/health-topics/topics/atherosclerosis, 16.10. 2016
5
provide  energy or  stored  as fat when consumed excessively. Triglyceride levels are usual y 
elevated when foods with hight fat content are being consumed. But not al  fat is bad for 
our bodies. There are different kinds of fats in the foods we eat. Saturated and trans fats 
tend  to  raise  triglyceride levels in the blood  while  unsaturated fats help lower them. 8 
     Cholesterol is an  important  fat-like compound found in body tissue which is  essential  for 
neurological   function   and   memory   formation.  However,   having   too  much  of  it  in  your 
bloodstream  causes  your  arteries  to   build   up  a  plaque  which  narrows  the  arteries  and 
makes  it harder for  oxygen - rich  blood to flow  through  the arteries into the heart. Individuals 
who suffer from atherosclerosis are  prone  to  getting  a heart attack or angina. While heart 
attacks have become less deadly overtime, due to modern medicine, it is stil  important to 
keep   your  body  healthy  to   avoid   them  altogether  because  heart  attacks  tend  to  cause 
permanent  damage to the heart, contributing to heart failure and arrhythmias.   
9
     There are two types of cholesterol in our body. HDL-cholesterol, high- density  lipoprotein 
cholesterol,  is  what  we  cal   the   good   cholesterol,  because  it  helps  lower  the  bad 
cholesterol levels. To raise HDL-cholesterol levels one should consume more healthy fats 
that  are  high  in   omega   3  content.  LDL-cholesterol,  low-density  lipoprotein  cholesterol,  is 
what  we  cal   the  bad  cholesterol  and  having  high  levels  of  it  in  your  blood  is  usual y 
associated  with  a  higher  risk  of   developing   coronary  artery  disease. The  human  body  is 
capable of producing the  necessary  cholesterol it  needs  and the  primary  organ  responsible  
8 ‘’Triglycerides: Frequently Asked  Questions ’’, American Heart Association,  http://www.heart.org/
idc/groups/ahamah-public/@wcm/@sop/@smd/ documents /downloadable/ucm_425988.pdf 
15.10.2016                                                         
9 National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute,’’Coronary Artery Disease’’, Medline  Plus , https://
medlineplus.gov/coronaryarterydisease.html, 15.10.2016
6
for it is the  liver . The more saturated and trans fats are eaten the more LDL-cholesterol is 
produced by the liver.10  
          There  has  been  much  disputation  over  whether  eating  cholesterol  rich  foods  raise 
blood cholesterol levels or not. Some of the earliest  scientific  studies have  proven  that high 
consumption   of  cholesterol  containing  foods  and/or  saturated  fat  are  connected  to 
atherosclerosis,  but   recent   studies  have  been  disproving  them.  Despite  these  findings, 
individuals  who  eat  a  diet  low  in  animal  derived  foods  have  been  found  to  have  lower 
incidence of heart disease. 11  
          Another   notable   finding   is  that  only  herbivorous  beings  are   able   to  develop  a  heart 
condition   called  atherosclerosis.  And  while   humans   are  identified  as  omnivorous 
organisms, we stil  get atherosclerosis, unlike other omnivorous and carnivorous  animals  
(eg.  dogs , cats,  tigers  and lions) who can consume excessive amounts of cholesterol and 
fat  without  developing atherosclerotic plaques.When comparing human  characteristics  with 
the  characteristics  of  other  animals,  evidence  suggests  that  humans  are   rather  
herbivorous and thus it’s self evident why individuals with plant based diets  stand  a lower 
risk of getting heart disease.12 
    

10 ‘’Where is Cholesterol Produced in the Body?’’, Disabled World,  http://www.disabled-world.com/
artman/publish/body-cholesterol.shtml 16.10.2016
11  Ella  Haddad,’’Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and  immune   status  of vegans 
compared with nonvegetarians’’, the American  journal  of  clinical  nutrition,  http://ajcn.nutrition.org/
content/70/3/586s. full  16.10.2016
12 William Roberts,’’ Twenty  questions on atherosclerosis’’, US National Library of Medicine 
National Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1312295 16.10.2016
7
Investigation: 
Californian Seventh-day Adventists study 
         Numerous studies have been conducted to find out the mortality ratios of vegetarian 
and/or  vegan  populations  compared  to  those  who  eat  a  standard  diet.  One  of  the   first  
studies  conducted  was  the  Californian  Seventh-day  Adventists  study  which  was  a 
prospective study in which 24 044 individuals  took   part  in during a 6- year   period , from year 
1960  to  1965.  Two   diagrams   were  drawn  in  this  study,  and  they  can  be  found  in  the 
appendix of this investigation. They tested the hypothesis that coronary artery disease is 
related   to  dietary   habits .  From  these   figures   [ Figure   1.  and  2.]  we  can   draw   the 
conclusions  that  the  standardised  mortality   ratio   suggested  that  coronary  heart  disease 
was significantly lower in vegetarian men compared those who were not vegetarian [Figure 
1  in  the  appendix].  On  the  contrary,   female   participants  that  fol owed  a  vegetarian  diet 
were  found  to  be  at  the  highest  risk  at  getting  coronary  artery  disease  [Figure  2  in  the 
appendix]. An exact reason to why vegetarian females were at higher risk was not found. 
Female  participants  might  have  either  had  a  dietary  deficiency  that  increased  the  risk  of 
coronary  artery  disease,  or  had  other  characteristics  that  put  them  at  higher  risk.  A 
decreased risk of coronary artery disease in men participants was  thought  to be the  result  
of their higher intake of dietary fiber or lower intake of  total  or saturated fat.13 
     When comparing the figures 1 and 2 in the appendix, it is clear that women tend to be 
at higher risk for developing coronary artery disease compared to men,  taking  al  dietary 
groups  into  consideration.  Lower  consumption  of  fat  was  correlated  with  higher  mortality 
rates  in  vegetarian  men,   therefore   it  can  be  assumed  that  women  of  al   dietary  groups 
were  at  higher  risk  for  developing  coronary  artery  disease  because  of  their  higher  fat 
13  Roland  Phillips, ‘’Coronary heart disease mortality  among  Seventh-Day Adventists with differing 
dietary habits: a preliminary  report ’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/31/10/S191.abstract?
ijkey=18706be5e362ceac27ce659a27a82ac2364d4219&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha, 01.10.2016
8
consumption. In  addition  to that, it is notable that the female body is natural y designed to 
store   more  fat  for  reproductive   purposes .  Researchers  have  found  that  oestrogen,  a 
primary  female  sex  hormone,  is  what  reduces  fatty  acid  oxidation  and  is,  as  a  result, 
responsible for increased body fat in women.14  
           A  clear   indicator   to  why  vegetarian  women  were  at  the  highest  risk  for  developing 
coronary  artery  disease  was  not  found.  One  possible  reason   behind   it   could   be  that 
vegetarian  women  consumed  an  unhealthier  diet  compared  to  their  non-vegetarian 
counterparts.  Vegetarians,  unlike  vegans,  do  stil   consume  some  animal  derived  foods; 
mainly  eggs  and  dairy  products.  Eggs,  milk,   cheese ,  cream,   ghee   and  butter  are  widely 
present   in  vegetarian  diets.  It  could  be  possible  for  a  vegetarian  to  consume  more 
saturated  fat  compared  to  a  meat   eater .  To  put  this  into  perspective,  one  tablespoon  of 
butter, which is 14.2 grams, contains 7 grams of saturated fat.15 In  contrast , 100 grams of 
beef contains 6 grams of saturated fat.16 This makes butter much higher in saturated fat 
content,  and  high  consumption  of  saturated  fats  has  been  linked  to  higher  risk  of 
developing coronary disease.17 The elimination of meat from ones diet may  lead  to higher 
consumption of products high in trans fats and/or saturated fats like butter and cheese, but 
to be able to  prove  this hypothesis, further investigation on dietary choices of vegetarians 
would have to be conducted.  
14 Blaak E, ‘’ Gender   differences  in fat  metabolism ’’, US National Library of Medicine National 
Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11706283 , 26.10.2016
15 ‘’Show Foods’’, US National  Nutrient  Database,  https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/132 ?
fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=& format =&count=&max=50&offset=&sort=default&order=asc&qlookup=0114
5&ds=, 26.10.2016
16 ‘’Show Foods’’, US National Nutrient Database,  https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/7612 ?
fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=50&offset=&sort=default&order=asc&qlookup=2356
8&ds=, 26.10.2016
17 Walter Willet, Frank Sacks, Meir Stampfer, ’’Dietary fat and heart disease study is seriously 
misleading’’,The Nutrition Source,  https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2014/03/19/
dietary-fat-and-heart-disease-study-is-seriously-misleading/, 26.10.2016
9
         Another risk  factor  for higher coronary artery disease in vegetarian women may have 
been  a  nutrient  deficiency,  as  noted  by  the  researchers  of  the  Seventh-Day  Adventists 
study  researchers.  There  is  one  nutrient  in   particular ,  vitamin  B12,  that  vegetarians  and 
vegans especial y  seem  to be lacking. It’s a vitamin that is produced by bacteria which is 
common in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. It’s the virtual y the only nutrient absent in 
plant  foods.  It  is  extremely  important  for  vegetarian  and  vegan  individuals  to  either 
supplement   vitamin  B12,  or  consume  products  that  are  fortified  with  it.18 A   double -blind, 
placebo  control ed, randomised crossover study was conducted on fifty vegetarians. The 
study  showed  how  vitamin  B12  supplementation  improved  arterial  function  in  the 
participants  [Table  1.  in  the  appendix].  Serious  vitamin  B12  deficiency  can  often   times  
result in atherosclerosis (the hardening of arteries) or other cardiovascular diseases if not 
treated with the supplementation of vitamin B12.19  
         As a further matter, Seventh-Day Adventists are a  religious  group of people who also 
restrict their alcohol intake and smoking, therefore it must be taken into account that the 
vegetarian  men  participants  might  not  stand  a  lower  risk  of  developing  coronary  artery 
disease solely because of their plant based diet, but because of the other risk factors of 
which they lack.20

18  Jane  Higdon,‘’Vitamin B12’’,  Linus  Pauling Institute,  http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/
vitamin-B12#food-sources, 26.10.2016
19 et al. Kwok T,’’Vitamin B-12 supplementation improves arterial function in vegetarians with 
subnormal vitamin B-12 status’’, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22659999 , 02.10.2016                                                                    
20 Roland Phillips, ‘’Coronary heart disease mortality among Seventh-Day Adventists with differing 
dietary habits’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition,  http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/31/10/
S191.abstract?ijkey=18706be5e362ceac27ce659a27a82ac2364d4219&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha, 
01.10.2016
10
The Oxford Vegetarian study 
          Although   the  risk  factors  were  adjusted  for  the  Californian  Seventh-day Adventists 
participants, the  reasons  behind  such  differences in mortality rates among vegetarian and 
non-vegetarian men were stil  not  completely  evident. A new long-term prospective study, 
cal ed  The  Oxford  Vegetarian  Study,  was  conducted  between  1980  and  1984.  Smoking, 
body mass index and  social  index were adjusted for al  6000 vegetarians and 5000 non-
vegetarians. In the fol owing years, between 1984 and 1986, they took blood samples from 
the  surviving  participants  and  obtained  the  measurements  of   plasma   lipids  and  total 
cholesterol. They were also told to have food diaries to track their nutrient intake.  
          Vegans  were  reported  to  have  the  lowest  LDL-cholesterol   concentrations   (2.28  ± 
0.126),  while   fish   eaters  had  the  highest  HDL-cholesterol  concentrations  (1.56  ±  0.038) 
[Table  2.  in  the  appendix].21 This  is  mainly  because  plants  contain  very   little   amounts  of 
cholesterol when compared to animal derived foods. Moreover, plant cholesterol is  toxic  to 
human cel s and for that reason our intestines don’t absorb it very wel .22 While fish eaters 
had elevated levels of HDL-cholesterol, they had stil  got higher levels of LDL-cholesterol 
when  compared  to  vegetarians.  Nevertheless,  it  was   expected   for  both  vegetarians  and 
fish  eaters  to  have  more  or  less  the   same   mortality  rates  because  HDL-cholesterol  is 
necessary  when  it  comes  to  eliminating  excess  LDL-cholesterol  from  the  body,  which 
helps  prevent  heart disease. 23 
      
21 Paul Appleby, ‘’The Oxford Vegetarian Study’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/525s.full, 01.10.2016
22 E. J. Behrman, Venkat Gopalan, ‘’Cholesterol and Plants’’, chemistry.osu.edu, https://
chemistry.osu.edu/~gopalan.5/file/7B.PDF, 15.09.2016
23 K Mahdy Ali,’’Cardiovascular disease risk reduction by raising HDL cholesterol - current 
therapies and future opportunities’’, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3504986/ , 26.10.2016
11
     Vegans were also found to consume the  least  fat in  terms  of energy, and their saturated 
fat intake was significantly lower compared to those who consumed animal derived foods. 
Their  cholesterol  intake  was  natural y  very  low  compared  to  other  diet  groups  and  they 
also consumed the most fiber [Table 3]. Dietary fiber is also said to help lower cholesterol 
levels  by  moving  cholesterol  particles  out  of  the  body  and  is  therefore  associated  with  a 
lower risk of coronary heart disease.24  
          Fats  are  an  important  part  of  a  healthy  diet. They  give  us  energy  and  support  cel  
growth . There are good fats in foods that our body needs, these foods also contain some 
essential vitamins and minerals. For example, canola oil is one of the healthy fat sources. 
It  contains  omega-3  and  6  fatty  acids  as  wel   as  vitamin  E.   Above   al ,  foods  high  in 
omega-3’s are said to help lower LDL cholesterol levels. However, not every kind of fat is 
good  for  the  body.  Saturated  fats  are  known  as  the  bad  fats  that  raise  blood  cholesterol 
levels and therefore higher the risk of heart disease. Foods that contain high amounts of 
saturated  fats  include:  pork,  butter,  cheese,  lamb,  fatty  beef,  etc.  25  As  vegans  don’t 
consume any of these products it is self-evident why their saturated fat intake was  almost  
half of what the other dietary groups had.

24 D. E. Threapleton,’’Dietary fibre intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and 
meta - analysis ’’,  British  Medical Journal,  http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6879 , 01.10.2016
25 ’’Good fats and bad fats explained’’, British Nutrition foundation,  https://www.nutrition.org.uk/
healthyliving/basics/fats.html, 25.10.2016
12
 Table 3Daily  nutrient intake by diet groups with averages of both sexes 
calculated.26
Dietary group
Fat 
Saturated fat 
Cholesterol
Dietary fiber
% energy
% energy
mg
g
Vegan
34.9 ± 0.3
6.8 ± 0.5
5.5 ± 0.5
49 ± 0.7
Vegetarian
38 ± 0.2
13.2 ± 0.6
234 ± 4.5
36.6 ± 0.4
Fish eater
39.4 ± 0.2
12.9 ± 0.8
255 ± 5
33.4 ± 0.5
Meat eater
38.4 ± 0.3
13.7 ± 0.7
286 ± 4.5
30.9 ± 0.4
         The  consumption  of  saturated  fat  and  cholesterol  were  positively  associated  with  a 
higher  risk  of  coronary  artery  disease.  Individuals  who  fol owed  a  plant  based  diet  were 
found  to  have  lower  death  rates  for  coronary  artery  disease,  even  with  smoking,  body 
mass index and social class being adjusted. It was predicted that vegetarians would have 
a 25% less  chance  of developing coronary artery disease, and vegans 57% compared to 
non-vegetarians.27 
     The American Heart Association’s Nutrition  Committee  has set fat intake guidelines for 
Americans  to  help  prevent  heart  disease.  The   recommendation   for  daily  fat  intake  is 
between 25 and 35  percent  of total calories, and the daily saturated fat intake is advised to 
be  kept  under 7 percent of total calories.28 This  means  that  adult  women, consuming  2200  
calories  a  day  on   average ,  are  advised  to  keep  their  saturated  fat  intake  under  154 
calories  for  optimal  health.  In  contrast,  adult  men,  consuming  2500  calories  a  day  on 
average, are advised to keep their saturated fat intake under 175 calories. 
26 Paul Appleby, ‘’The Oxford Vegetarian Study’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/525s.full, 01.10.2016
27 Paul Appleby, ‘’The Oxford Vegetarian Study’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/525s.full, 01.10.2016
28 ’’ Know  Your Fats’’, American Heart Association,  http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/
Cholesterol/PreventionTreatmentofHighCholesterol/Know-Your-
Fats_UCM_305628_Article.jsp#.WBE2uTvnj8s, 21.10.2016
13
     As I had gathered data on saturated fat intake from the Oxford Vegetarian study [Table 
4],  I  then  calculated  the  lower,  higher  and   medium   ranges  of  saturated  fat  intake, 
calorical y,  for  both  women  and  men  of  different  dietary  groups.  I  used  the  estimates  of 
2200   kcal   a  day  for  women  and  2500  kcal  a  day  for  men,  assuming  they  were  at  least 
moderately active. These calculations showed that only the vegans were able stay  below  
or  near  the recommended fat intake guidelines [Table 5-6]. Vegan men ate less  than  175 
calories of saturated fat on average, including individuals in the higher range. This means 
vegan men’s saturated fat intake was near ideal. The medium of vegan women was near 
ideal as wel . When comparing the saturated fat intake of vegans   with other diet groups, 
we  can  see  that  vegans  consumed  nearly  2  times  less  saturated  fat  in  every   case
Although fish eaters’ saturated fat intakes were lower than vegetarians’ in men, it was the 
other way  around  for women. Meat eaters seem to consume the most saturated fat of al , 
with  one  exception:  vegetarian  women  consume  insignificantly  higher  amounts  of 
saturated fat when compared to meat eaters. 
Table 5. Daily intake of saturated fats in female participants consuming the recommended 
amount of 2200 calories a day on average.  
Dietary group
Lower range
Higher range
Medium
Vegan
145 kcal
165 kcal
155 kcal
Vegetarian
287.5 kcal
317.5 kcal
302.5 kcal
Fish eater
295 kcal
330 kcal
312.5 kcal
Meat eater
315 kcal
345 kcal
330 kcal
14
Table 6. Daily intake of saturated fats in  male  participants consuming the recommended 
amount of 2500 calories a day on average.  
Dietary group
Lower range
Higher range
Medium
Vegan
151.8 kcal
173.8 kcal
162.8 kcal
Vegetarian
301.4 kcal
327.8 kcal
314.6 kcal
Fish eater
275 kcal
310.2 kcal
292.6 kcal
Meat eater
294.8 kcal
330 kcal
312.4 kcal
               These findings now help understand why the vegetarian women in the first study 
were  at  the  highest  risk  of  developing  coronary  artery  disease.  It  didn’t  seem   sound   as 
vegetarian  men   appeared   to  be  the  healthiest  of  them  al .  As  it  turns  out,  vegetarian 
women truly do tend to consume more saturated fat than those who eat a standard diet. 
The  difference  in saturated fat intake between vegetarian and non-vegetarian women is 
not significant, but it’s present. 
         Despite al  this, vegetarians of the Oxford Vegetarian study were stil  found to have 
25%  less  chance  of  developing  coronary  artery  disease  when  compared  to  non-
vegetarians, which definitely means that high saturated fat intake isn’t the only risk factor. 
When we look at the total cholesterol levels of vegetarians and meat eaters we see that 
cholesterol  levels  in  meat  eaters  are  significantly  higher  [Table  2  in  appendix].  Not  only 
that,  but  vegetarians  seem  to  consume  significantly  more  fiber  than  meat  eaters  do. 
Higher cholesterol and lower fiber intake must be related to lower mortality rates when it 
comes to coronary artery disease.

15
The cholesterol debate 
     In spite of these findings there are, and have always been, suspicions when it comes to 
animal  derived  foods  and  how  they  raise  blood  cholesterol  levels. There’s  a  widespread 
perception that cholesterol isn’t to blame. However in 1913 a Russian pathologist, Nikolai 
N.  Anitschkow,  tested  hypercholesterolemia  on  rabbits.  He  isolated  cholesterol  from  an 
egg yolk then dissolved it in sunflower oil and fed it to rabbits. It took a couple of weeks for 
him to  notice  how their arteries  developed  raised yel ow lesions that were rich in ‘’lipoids’’. 
It was very  close  to what human atherosclerosis looks like. 29  
          A  control ed   trial   in  1981  studied  21  strict  vegetarians  for   eight   weeks.  First  they 
fol owed their  regular  diet for two weeks and then they were fed 250 grams of beef daily in 
addition to what they used to eat before. The participants didn’t  experience  any  changes  in 
HDL-cholesterol levels, but their total blood cholesterol had  gone  up by 19% at the end of 
the  fourth  week. 30 
     Another cohort study, on elderly people, suggested that high levels of LDL cholesterol 
are not necessarily linked to cardiovascular diseases, and that total cholesterol lowers as 
people got older, so it didn’t affect their cardiovascular health.   
31 Stil , these findings have 
little  back -up and LDL-cholesterol levels need further investigation, before we can  rule  out 
the possibility of it being one of the risk factors for coronary artery disease.

29 D. Steinberg,’’In  celebration  of the 100th anniversary of the lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis’’, 
US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles /PMC3793599/, 02.10.2016 
30 et al. Sacks FM,’’Effect of ingestion of meat on plasma cholesterol of vegetarians’’, US National 
Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7019459, 
02.10.2016
31 Uffe Ravnskov,’Lack of an association or an inverse association between low-density-lipoprotein 
cholesterol and mortality in the elderly’’, BMJ  Openhttp://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/6/6/
e010401.full, 26.10.2016
16
Conclusion and Evaluation: 
         The   compilation   of  these  finding  suggest  that  a  plant  based  diet  can  be  used  as  a 
measure  when  it  comes  to  lowering  the  risk  of  coronary  heart  disease.  I  have  found  out 
that those who fol ow a plant based diet are less likely to die of coronary artery disease. 
Common  factors  for  reduced  coronary  artery  disease  appear  to  be  lower  saturated  fat 
intake, lower cholesterol intake and higher fiber intake. Vegan and vegetarian populations 
also  tend  to  have  lower  body  mass  indexes  and  lower  blood  pressure  which  are  also 
positively correlated with a reduced risk of heart disease. 
     However, it is necessary to pay close attention to the diet and to keep it balanced. It’s 
important  to  eat  an  abundance  of  nutritious   whole   foods  like  fruits,  vegetables,  grains, 
legumes , nuts and seeds. And to supplement when needed. Vegetarian and vegan diets 
can  be  made  unhealthy  in  the  absence  of  whole  foods.  The  same  thing   goes   for  the 
standard diet. Vegans and vegetarians can be just as unhealthy as meat eaters who eat 
junk  food daily. Nowadays there are many options and replacement products for meat and 
dairy  based  products,  and  they’re  highly  processed  in  most  cases. A  vegan  can  just  as 
easily die of coronary artery disease as a meat eater. One could eat doughnuts for  lunch  
and  french  fries for  dinner . These foods are very high in trans fats which increase the risk 
of developing heart disease when consumed excessively. It is important to eat everything 
in moderation and to  focus  on whole foods, rather than packaged and processed foods, for 
a plant based diet to offer health benefits. 
17
         This investigation favours a purely vegan diet over a vegetarian diet. Vegetarians do 
tend to over consume some animal derived products, like cheese and butter, that are high 
in  saturated  fat  content  and  artery  clogging.  Vegetarians  that  are  concerned  about  the 
health  of  their  arteries  should  seriously  cut  back  on  dairy  products  that  are  high  in 
saturated  fat,  and  put  an   emphasis   on  whole  foods.  A  vegan  diet  is  protective  agains 
coronary  artery  diseases  only  as  long  as  it’s  healthful,  and  when  saturated  fats  are 
consumed minimal y.  
         Although  there  was  enough  sufficient  data  I  was  hoping  there  would  be  more  case 
studies  on  different  populations  from  al   around  the  world.  Unfortunately  vegan  and 
vegetarian populations only make up a smal  portion of people. This investigation could be 
made  even  more  comprehensive  if  there  was  data  available  on  people  that  are   lacto -
vegetarians, ovo-vegetarians, raw vegans as wel  as people who are on a meat only diet. 
There could be even more possible variables and outcomes.  
          I  believe  this  investigation  would  have  turned  out  a  lot  better  if  the  Seventh-Day 
Adventists study conductors had examined the saturated fat and cholesterol levels, as wel  
as dietary fiber in their participants like the Oxford Vegetarian Study did. I would’ve been 
able  to  add  the   results   together  to  get  a  broader  overview  of  the  outcomes.  It  would’ve 
helped  if  other  nutrients  in  the  body  were  examined  to  determinate  whether  any 
deficiencies, for example B12 deficiency, may induce coronary artery disease.

18
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20
18.  K Mahdy Ali,’ Cardiovascular disease risk reduction by raising HDL cholesterol - current 
therapies and future opportunities’’, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3504986/ , 26.10.2016 
19.  D. E. Threapleton,’ Dietary fibre intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: systematic review 
and meta-analysis’’, British Medical Journal,  http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6879, 
01.10.2016 
20.  ’ Good fats and bad fats explained’ , British Nutrition foundation,  https://www.nutrition.org.uk/
healthyliving/basics/fats.html, 25.10.2016 
21.  ’ Know Your Fats’’, American Heart Association,  http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/
Cholesterol/PreventionTreatmentofHighCholesterol/Know-Your-
Fats_UCM_305628_Article.jsp#.WBE2uTvnj8s, 21.10.2016 
22.  D. Steinberg,’ In celebration of the 100th anniversary of the lipid hypothesis of 
atherosclerosis’’, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3793599/, 02.10.2016  
23.  et al. Sacks FM,’ Effect of ingestion of meat on plasma cholesterol of vegetarians’’, US 
National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
7019459, 02.10.2016 
24. Uffe Ravnskov,’Lack of an association or an inverse association between low-density-
lipoprotein cholesterol and mortality in the elderly’’, BMJ Open,  http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/
6/6/e010401.full, 26.10.2016 
25. Ginny Messina, ‘’Recommended Supplements for Vegans’’, The Vegan R.D, http://
www.theveganrd.com/2010/11/recommended-supplements-for-vegans.html, 16.10.2016
21
26. ‘’What is Atherosclerosis?’’, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute,  https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/
health/health-topics/topics/atherosclerosis, 16.10. 2016
27. ‘’What is Coronary Heart Disease?’’, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, https://
www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/cad, 15.10.2016

22
Appendix: 
Figure 1. Coronary artery disease standardised mortality ratios in male participants by age 
and diet groups.32 
Figure 2. Coronary artery disease standardised mortality ratios in female participants by 
age and diet groups.33

32 Roland Phillips, ‘’Coronary heart disease mortality among Seventh-Day Adventists with differing 
dietary habits: a preliminary report’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/31/10/S191.abstract?
ijkey=18706be5e362ceac27ce659a27a82ac2364d4219&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha, 01.20.2016
33 Roland Phillips, ‘’Coronary heart disease mortality among Seventh-Day Adventists with differing 
dietary habits: a preliminary report’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/31/10/S191.abstract?
ijkey=18706be5e362ceac27ce659a27a82ac2364d4219&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha, 01.20.2016
23
Table 1. Improvements in FMD and IMT after periods of vitamin B12 supplementation.34 
Flow-Mediated Dilation
Intima-Media Thickness
Prior to B12 supplementation
6.3 ± 1.8%
0.69 ± 0.09 mm
After 12 weeks of vitamin B12 
6.9 ± 1.9%
0.67 ± 0.09 mm
supplementation
After 24 weeks of open label 
7.4 ± 1.7%
0.65 ± 0.09 mm
vitamin B12 supplementation
Table 2. Plasma lipid concentrations by diet group, adjusted for age and sex.35 
Table 4. Daily nutrient intake by diet and sex.36
34 et al. Kwok T,’’Vitamin B-12 supplementation improves arterial function in vegetarians with 
subnormal vitamin B-12 status’’, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22659999 , 02.10.2016                                                                    
35 Paul Appleby, ‘’The Oxford Vegetarian Study’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/525s.full, 01.10.2016
36 Paul Appleby, ‘’The Oxford Vegetarian Study’’, the American journal of clinical nutrition, http://
ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/525s.full, 01.10.2016
24
Vasakule Paremale
Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #1 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #2 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #3 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #4 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #5 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #6 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #7 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #8 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #9 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #10 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #11 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #12 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #13 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #14 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #15 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #16 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #17 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #18 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #19 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #20 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #21 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #22 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #23 Extended essay-To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease #24
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The compilation of these finding suggest that a plant based diet can be used as a measure when it comes to lowering the risk of coronary heart disease. I have found out that those who follow a plant based diet are less likely to die of coronary artery disease. Common factors for reduced coronary artery disease appear to be lower saturated fat intake, lower cholesterol intake and higher fiber intake. Vegan and vegetarian populations also tend to have lower body mass indexes and lower blood pressure which are also positively correlated with a reduced risk of heart disease.

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