Sunflower (0)

The sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is an annual(iga aastane) plant in the family Asteraceae, with a large flower head (inflorescence(õiekobar, õisik, õitseaeg, õidumine)). The stem(tüvi) of the flower can grow up to 3 metres tall , with the flower head reaching 30 cm in diameter. The term "sunflower" is also used to refer (nimetama, viitama , üle andma) to all plants of the genus (perekond, sugu) Helianthus, many of which are perennial(alaline, aastaringne) plants.
What is usually called the flower is actually a head (formally(ametlikult) composite(liit-, komposiit - ; korvõieline, komposiit) flower) of numerous flowers (florets) crowded(täistuubitud, tunglev, rahvarohke) together. The outer flowers are the ray florets(pähik (õisiku osa) and can be yellow , maroon, orange, or other colors , and are sterile(steriilne, viljatu ). The florets inside the circular head are called disc florets.
Sunflower head displaying florets in spirals of 34 and 55 around the outside
The florets within this cluster( kobar , kimp, klaster, parv ; kobarasse kogunema) are arranged (korraldatud, ettekavatsetud)spirally(spiraalselt). Typically each floret is oriented(suunitlusega) toward (poole) the next by approximately ( umbkaudu , ligikaudu) the golden angle( parima nurga alla), producing a pattern(muster, lõikeleht, seaduspärasus) of interconnecting spirals where the number of left spirals and the number of right spirals are successive Fibonacci numbers .(fibonacci arv/ rida) Typically, there are 34 spirals in 1 direction(suund, juhatamine, juhis) and 55 in the other; on a very large sunflower you may see 89 in one direction and 144 in the other.
The disc florets mature(täiskasvanud ; valmima, kääritama ) into what are traditionally called "sunflower seeds", but are actually the fruit (an achene) of the plant. The true seeds are encased(ümbritsetud, koorikus) in an inedible husk (söögikõlbmatu, mittesöödav, kest, aganad ; kroovima, koorima)

Heliotropism (heliotropism (taime päikese poole pöördumine)

Sunflowers in the bud( pung , õienupp ; tärkama, punguma) stage exhibit (välja panema , näitama ; eksponaat , asitõend) heliotropism. At sunrise, the faces of most sunflowers are turned towards the east . Over the course (kurss, suund, kulg, kursus , käik, väljak, müürilade) of the day, they move to track (jälitama) the sun from east to west , while at night they return to an eastward(ida suunaline , ida poole) orientation. This motion(liikumine, esildis) is performed by motor cells in the pulvinus, a flexible segment (segment, lõik ; segmenteerima, tükeldama) of the stem just below the bud. As the bud stage ends, the stem(tüvi) stiffens(kangestuma, jäigastuma) and the blooming stage is reached.
Sunflowers in the blooming stage are not heliotropic anymore. The stem has frozen , typically in an eastward orientation. The stem and leaves lose their green color .
The wild sunflower typically does not turn toward the sun; its flowering heads may face many directions when mature. However , the leaves typically exhibit some heliotropism.

Cultivation and uses

A sunflower farm near Mysore, India.
Sunflower heads solds as snacks in China .
Sunflowers are native (pärit) to the Americas . The earliest known examples of a fully domesticated sunflower were found at the Olmec site of San Andrés dating some time before 2500 B.C.[1] The Incas used the sunflower as an image of their sun god. Gold images of the flower, as well as seeds, were taken back to Europe early in the 16th century .
The Giant sunflower (Hlianthus giganteus) is native to Connecticut. They can grow to be between 3 and 12 feet tall. Their flower heads can be between 2 to 3 inches wide . They are most commonly found in valleys with wet meadows or swamps. The Giant sunflower grows between July and October.
To grow well, sunflowers need full sun. They grow best in fertile , moist, well-drained soil with a lot of mulch. In commercial planting, seeds are planted 45 cm (1.5') apart and 2.5 cm (1") deep .
Sunflower " whole seed " (fruit) is sold as snacks and can be processed into a peanut butter alternative , Sunbutter, especially in China, the United States , the Middle East and Europe. In Russia it is probably the most wide spread snack.[ citation needed] It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in cooking and salads.
Sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds, is used for cooking (but is less cardiohealthy than olive oil), as a carrier oil and to produce biodiesel, for which it is less expensive than the olive product.
During the 18th Century, the use of sunflower oil became very popular in Europe, particularly with members of the Russian Orthodox Church because sunflower oil was one of the few oils that was not prohibited during Lent .
The cake remaining after the seeds have been processed for oil is used as a livestock feed . Some recently developed cultivars have drooping heads. These cultivars are less attractive to gardeners growing the flowers as ornamental plants, but appeal to farmers, because they reduce bird damage and losses from some plant diseases . There are also new breeds of sunflowers which are transgenic, so that they are resistant to some diseases.[citation needed] Sunflowers also produce latex and are the subject of experiments to improve their suitability as an alternative crop for producing hypoallergenic rubber . Additionally, the stem of a dead sunflower can dry out open wounds.[citation needed]
For farmers not intending to grow it, the sunflower is considered a noxious weed . The wild variety will grow unwanted in corn and soybean fields which can have a negative impact on yields.

Diseases

Main article: List of sunflower diseases

Greek myth

In Greek mythology, a girl named Clytie fell in love with the sun god Apollo , and would do nothing but watch his chariot move across the sky. After nine days , she was transformed into a sunflower. However, the word "sunflower" and its cognates existed long before Helianthus annuus was brought to Europe, and it is thought that the myth (which is mentioned in Ovid's poem Metamorphoses) actually refers to heliotrope or marigold.

Trivia

• The sunflower is the state flower of the U.S. state of Kansas , and one of the city flowers of Kitakyushu, Japan.
  
• The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosa) is related to the sunflower. The Mexican sunflower is Tithonia rotundifolia. False sunflower refers to plants of the genus Heliopsis.
  
• Scientific literature reports, from 1567, that a 12 m (40'), traditional , single -head, sunflower plant was grown in Padua. The same seed lot grew almost 8 m (24') at other times and places (e.g. Madrid). Much more recent feats (past score years ) of over 8 m (25') have been achieved in both Netherlands and Canada (Ontario).
  
• The sunflower is often used as a symbol of green ideology, much as the red rose is a symbol of socialism or social democracy .
  

Flower formation

1. The first stage of the flower formation
2. The flower is still covered, but faces the sun
3. The flower is nearly completely exposed
Introduction
Taste is tops , but health and nutrition rank high for consumers who want foods that are as good for them as they are good to eat. Sunflower oil and kernels meet that challenge with their combination of health benefits and flavor .
From phytochemicals and important vitamins and minerals to convenience of size and cost effectiveness, the amazing sunflower kernel is a powerhouse compared to no other! And one need look no further than NuSun oil for a healthy, trans-free alternative to hydrogenated oils and shortenings.
While the vibrant, strong sunflower is a recognized worldwide for its beauty , it is also an important source of food. Sunflower oil is a valued and healthy vegetable oil and sunflower seeds are enjoyed as a healthy, tasty snack and nutritious ingredient to many foods.
Sunflower is an important agricultural crop choice for US producers in the northern plains of the Dakotas to the panhandle of Texas. Browse this complete site on US sunflower production to learn about the sturdy sunflower and the healthy products it provides.
Introduction
Sunflower seeds are an American original. Called either confection or non-oil, seeds are a delicious and nutritious snack or addition to your favorite food.
It is a native species to North America and was used by American Indians for an important, high-energy food source. Spanish explorers carried it with them to Europe. Russian agronomists were responsible for the first agricultural hybrids . These returned to the United States with Russian and German immigrants .
Sunflower began as an important agronomic crop in the U.S. in the 1950's, starting in North Dakota and Minnesota .
Seeds, kernel(tuum), what is the difference ?
The answer , there isn't a difference. Here is how the NSA refers to sunflower seeds/kernel:

• In- shell means the seed is left intact with the " meat " of the seed still in the shell. It is normally roasted and seasoned. It is eaten as a snack by cracking the shell with one's teeth, discarding the hull and eating the delicious morsel within. 'Chew and spit' is a great American pastime, especially at baseball games and other outdoor events .
  
• Kernel means the processor has mechanically removed the hull. The resulting kernel is now in a convenient form to be sold raw or roasted for snacking or as an ingredient.
  

Confection/Non-oil Sunflower Characteristics
Confection sunflower seeds are normally black with white stripes and approximately five eighths of an inch long. The heavy hull accounts for approximately half the weight of the seed and is loosely fixed to the kernel inside. Seed size is primarily affected by plant genetics, but also to planting density and weather .
Sunflower seeds are graded according to size and separated into groups. The largest size will go into the in-shell market . The medium -sized seeds are usually hulled for the kernel market. The smallest size will go into the bird and pet feeding market.
Sunflower Oil - Your Healthy Choice
Healthy, natural sunflower oil is produced from oil type sunflower seeds. Sunflower oil is light in taste and appearance and supplies more Vitamin E than any other vegetable oil. It is a combination of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats with low saturated fat levels.
The versatility of this healthy oil is recognized by cooks internationally. Sunflower oil is valued for its light taste, frying performance and health benefits.
There are three types of sunflower oil available ; NuSun, linoleic and high oleic sunflower oil. All are developed with standard breeding techniques. They differ in oleic levels and each one offers unique properties.
With three types of sunflower oil available, sunflower oil meets the needs of consumer and food manufacturers alike for a healthy and high performance non-transgenic vegetable oil.
Sunflower plantings, production, and supply and disappearance activities throughout the world are ever- changing . Statistics provide persons with a vested interest in the industry a foundation of where we’ve been in order to help us understand where we need to go. Use the Sunflower Statistics section as a resource for data on a global, national, and state-level perspective.
Meal /Wholeseed Feeding
Sunflower meal is the by-product of the oil extraction process . Oil is the majority value of sunflower seed and meal is considered a by-product. Sunflower meal is an excellent livestock feed, especially for ruminants. For the last several years, the supply of U.S. sunflower meal has been somewhat inconsistent. That is changing as the domestic market for sunflower oil increases .
September the fields and roadsides of the Great Plains erupt in a blaze of yellow as the sunflowers and goldenrods (also members of the sunflower family) make their presence known to the local pollinating insects .  While many sunflower species may begin blooming in July, they are not as noticeable then as later on when they have grown up and over the surrounding vegetation.  There are eleven species of sunflower recorded from Kansas.   Most of them are perennials.  Only the common sunflower and H. petiolaris, the Prairie Sunflower, are annuals.  Identification of sunflowers can be very complicated because they frequently hybridize and even within species there is a high degree of variability.  With a little practice, however, the most common species can be readily recognized.
The Common Sunflower has a long history of association with people.   Nearly 3,000 years ago it was domesticated for food production by the Native Americans.  The seeds of the wild type of sunflower are only about 5 mm. long.   It was only through careful selection for the largest size seeds over hundreds of years that the cultivated sunflower was produced. Lewis and Clark made mention in their journals of its usage by the plains Indians.  It was brought back to the Old World by the early European explorers and widely cultivated there also.  Today it is a common alternative crop in the Great Plains and elsewhere for food and oil production.    Next time you munch down on some sunflower seeds, thank the many generations of Native Americans whose careful husbandry gave us this valuable food item.
The wild cousins of those grown on the farm are still common, however, in fields, roadsides and disturbed ground throughout the Great Plains.
The Common Sunflower is a typical member of the Asteraceae, one of the largest and most successful families of plants.  Within the structure we think of as the "flower", it actually has two different types of flowers - ray and disk flowers.
The ray flowers have the big, straplike structures that we see around the edge of the "flower" while the disk flowers occupy the middle of it.   Within the Asteraceae, many confusing combinations of the two are possible along with the total absence of one or the other in some species!  Individual ray or disk flowers may be male , female or both and either fertile or infertile (do or don't produce seeds).  In sunflowers, the ray flowers are usually female and infertile.  The disk flowers are both male and female and are fertile.
 
If you look closely at the center of a sunflower you can see that the disk flowers grow in a mesmerizing pattern of two opposite spirals.  This is most easily seen either before the disk flowers open up or after the seed has set and all the accessory flower parts have fallen off.  This is one of the more interesting patterns in nature.
The rough -hairy quality of the Common Sunflower is characteristic of many members of its family.  These little bristles probably serve two functions :   to discourage plant-eating animals and to conserve water in the plant by limiting evaporation.
Members of the sunflower family are popular with butterflies because the wide flower head makes a good "landing platform " and the numerous individual flowers make for a high probability of finding nectar.  Monarch butterflies are commonly seen nectaring on sunflowers during their fall migration.
Whether as a source of food for people and wildlife or an eye-catching splash of color on the landscape , the Common Sunflower is an important member of the prairie community.

I. History:

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is one of the few crop species that originated in North America (most originated in the fertile crescent, Asia or South or Central America). It was probably a "camp follower" of several of the western native American tribes who domesticated the crop (possibly 1000 BC) and then carried it eastward and southward of North America. The first Europeans observed sunflower cultivated in many places from southern Canada to Mexico .
Sunflower was probably first introduced to Europe through Spain, and spread through Europe as a curiosity until it reached Russia where it was readily adapted. Selection for high oil in Russia began in 1860 and was largely responsible for increasing oil content from 28% to almost 50%. The high-oil lines from Russia were reintroduced into the U.S. after World War II, which rekindled interest in the crop. However, it was the discovery of the male-sterile and restorer gene system that made hybrids feasible and increased commercial interest in the crop. Production of sunflowers subsequently rose dramatically in the Great Plains states as marketers found new niches for the seeds as an oil crop, a birdseed crop, and as a human snack food. Production in these regions in the 1980s has declined mostly because of low prices, but also due to disease , insect and bird problems. Sunflower acreage is now moving westward into dryer regions; however, 85% of the North American sunflower seed is still produced in North and South Dakota and Minnesota.

II. Uses:

A. Edible(söödav)oil:

Commercially available sunflower varieties contain from 39 to 49% oil in the seed. In 1985-86, sunflower seed was the third largest source of vegetable oil worldwide, following soybean and palm . The growth of sunflower as an oilseed crop has rivaled that of soybean, with both increasing production over 6- fold since the 1930s . Sunflower accounts for about 14% of the world production of seed oils (6.9 million metric tons in 1985-86) and about 7% of the oilcake and meal produced from oilseeds. Europe and the USSR produce over 60% of the world's sunflowers.
The oil accounts for 80% of the value of the sunflower crop, as contrasted with soybean which derives most of its value from the meal. Sunflower oil is generally considered a premium oil because of its light color, high level of unsaturated fatty acids and lack of linolenic acid, bland flavor and high smoke points . The primary fatty acids in the oil are oleic and linoleic (typically 90% unsaturated fatty acids), with the remainder consisting of palmitic and stearic saturated fatty acids. The primary use is as a salad and cooking oil or in margarine . In the USA, sunflower oils account for 8% or less of these markets , but in many sunflower-producing countries, sunflower is the preferred and the most commonly used oil.
High oleic sunflower oil (over 80% oleic acid) was developed commercially in 1985 and has higher oxidated stability than conventional oil. It has expanded the application of sunflower oils for frying purposes, tends to enhance shelf life of snacks, and could be used as an ingredient of infant formulas requiring stability.

B. Meal:

Non-dehulled or partly dehulled sunflower meal has been substituted successfully for soybean meal in isonitrogenous (equal protein ) diets for ruminant animals, as well as for swine and poultry feeding. Sunflower meal is higher in fiber , has a lower energy value and is lower in lysine but higher in methionine than soybean meal. Protein percentage of sunflower meal ranges from 28% for non-dehulled seeds to 42% for completely dehulled seeds. The color of the meal ranges from grey to black, depending upon extraction processes and degree of dehulling.

C. Industrial Applications:

The price of sunflower oil usually prohibits its widespread use in industry, but there are several applications that have been explored. It has been used in certain paints, varnishes and plastics because of good semidrying properties without color modification associated with oils high in linolenic acid. In Eastern Europe and the USSR where sunflower oil is plentiful, sunflower oil is used commonly in the manufacture of soaps and detergents. The use of sunflower oil (and other vegetable oils) as a pesticide carrier, and in the production of agrichemicals, surfactants, adhesives, plastics, fabric softeners, lubricants and coatings has been explored. The utility of these applications is usually contingent upon petrochemical feedstock prices.
Sunflower oil contains 93% of the energy of US Number 2 diesel fuel (octane rating of 37), and considerable work has been done to explore the potential of sunflower as an alternate fuel source in diesel engines . Blends of sunflower oil and diesel fuel are expected to have greater potential than the burning of pure vegetable oil.

D. Non-Oilseed:

The use of sunflower seed for birdfeed or in human diets as a snack, has grown consistently over the past 15 years. Varieties used for non-oilseed purposes are characterized by a larger seed size and require slightly different management practices . During processing , seed is divided into 1) larger seed for in-shell roasting, 2) medium for dehulling, and 3) small for birdseed. Standards for different uses vary .

E. Forage(söök, toitu hankima, tuhnima):

Sunflower can also be used as a silage crop. It can be used as a double crop after early harvested small grains or vegetables, an emergency crop, or in areas with a season too short to produce mature corn for silage.
Forage yields of sunflower are generally less than corn when a full growing season is available. In one study , sunflower dry matter yields ranged from 2.0 to 3.0 ton/acre compared with 3.1 to 3.8 ton/acre for corn. Moisture content of sunflower at maturity is usually high (80 to 90%) and would require wilting before ensiling.
Nutritional quality of sunflower silage is often higher than corn but lower than alfalfa hay (Table 1). Crude protein level of sunflower silage is similar to grass hay and higher than corn silage. Generally, crude protein of sunflower decreases and lignin percentage increases after the flowering stage. High plant populations increases fiber and lignin percentage. Seed size does not seem to affect yield or quality.
Table 1: Nutritional quality of sunflower, immature corn, and mature corn silage, alfalfa hay (harvested in early bloom ) and timothy bay (harvested in late vegetative stage).1
 
Silage
Hay
 
Sunflower
Immature corn
Mature corn
Alfalfa
Timothy
 
% of dry matter
Total digestible nutrients
67.0
60.0
69.0
58.0
68.0
Crude protein
11-12
8.2
7.8
18.0
11.4
Ether extract
10-12
2.6
2.9
2.2
2.4
Crude fiber
31.0
31.0
23.0
31.0
31.0
Acid detergent fiber
32.0
---
31.0
38.0
33.0
Lignin
10-16
---
---
9.0
3.1
IVDDM 2
63-70
---
---
66.0
63.0
1Data from Miller, Oplinger and Collins , 1986.
2In vitro dry matter disappearance.
Sunflower silage contains considerably more fat than many other forages, (Table 1). Some producers and researchers in Oregon have experimented with sunflower/corn intercrops to increase energy content of a silage, but results of this work are not yet complete. In South Dakota trials, milk yields were reduced by 9% when straight sunflower silage was compared with corn. The nutritional quality of sunflower silage is generally recognized as adequate for dry cows, steers, and low milk producers.

III. Growth Habit:

Sunflower is an annual, erect , broadleaf plant with a strong taproot and prolific lateral spread of surface roots . Stems are usually round early in the season, angular and woody later in the season, and normally unbranched.
Sunflower leaves are phototropic and will follow the sun's rays with a lag of 120 behind the sun's azimuth. This property has been shown to increase light interception and possibly photosynthesis.
The sunflower head is not a single flower (as the name implies) but is made up of 1,000 to 2,000 individual flowers joined at a common receptacle. The flowers around the circumference are ligulate ray flowers without stamens or pistils; the remaining flowers are perfect flowers (with stamens and pistils). Anthesis ( pollen shedding) begins at the periphery and proceeds to the center of the head. Since many sunflower varieties have a degree of self-incompatibility, pollen movement between plants by insects is important, and bee colonies have generally increased yields.
In temperate regions, sunflower requires approximately 11 days from planting to emergence, 33 days from emergence to head visible , 27 days from head visible to first anther, 8 days from first to last anther, and 30 days from last anther to maturity. Cultivar differences in maturity are usually associated with changes in vegetative period before the head is visible.

IV. Environment requirements:

A. Climate:

Sunflower is grown in many semi-arid regions of the world from Argentina to Canada and from central Africa into the Soviet Union. It is tolerant of both low and high temperatures but more tolerant to low temperatures. Sunflower seeds will germinate at 39°F, but temperatures of at least 46 to 50°F are required for satisfactory germination. Seeds are not affected by vernalization ( cold ) in the early germination stages. Seedlings in the cotyledon stage have survived temperatures down to 23°F. At later stages freezing temperatures may injure the crop. Temperatures less than 28°F are required to kill maturing sunflower plants.
Optimum temperatures for growth are 70 to 78°F, but a wider range of temperatures (64 to 91°F) show little effect on productivity. Extremely high temperatures have been shown to lower oil percentage, seed fill and germination.
Sunflower is often classified as insensitive to daylength, and photoperiod seems to be unimportant in choosing a planting date or production area in the temperate regions of North America. Oil from northern regions tends to be higher in linoleic acid and has a higher ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids than oil produced in southern latitudes.
Sunflower is an inefficient user of water, as measured by the amount of water transpired per gram of plant above -ground dry matter. Levels were 577 (g H2O/g DM) for sunflower, 349 for corn, 304 for sorghum in an Akron, Colorado study. It is similar to wheat , soybean, fieldbean, oat, and rape in that respect . Efficiency is measured at an optimum moisture level and is not a measure of drought resistance .
Sunflower is not considered highly drought tolerant, but often produces satisfactory results when other crops are damaged during drought. Its extensively branched taproot, penetrating to 6.5 ft, aids the plant during water stress. A critical time for water stress is the period 20 days before and 20 days after flowering. If stress is likely during this period, irrigation will increase yield, oil percentage and test weight, but decrease protein percentage.

B. Soil:

Sunflower will grow in a wide range of soil types from sands to clays. The demands of a sunflower crop on soil macronutrients are not as great as corn, wheat or potato. As with other non-leguminous grain crops, nitrogen is usually the first limiting factor for yield. Medium to high levels of macronutrients are usually required for good plant growth. Sunflower stover contains a large proportion of these elements, which means sunflower is relatively inefficient in the use of these elements. However, most of these nutrients are returned to the soil with the stover.
Sunflower is low in salt tolerance but is somewhat better than fieldbean or soybean in this respect. Corn, wheat, rye and sorghum are rated medium, and sugarbeet and barley are high in salt tolerance.
Good soil drainage is required for sunflower production, but this crop does not differ substantially from other field crops in flooding tolerance.

V. Cultural Practices:

A. Seedbed Preparation :

Many different tillage systems can be used effectively for sunflower production. Conventional systems of seedbed preparation consist of moldboard plowing or chisel plowing to invert residue and several secondary field operations. Conventional systems have been shown to increase the availability and improve the distribution of potassium and nitrogen and to increase the seed zone temperatures. However, the risk of erosion and expense of the several tillage operations has led to greater interest in minimum or ridge tillage systems.
Both germination percentage and lodging have been shown to increase in ridge- till systems vs. level plantings. Several tillage systems have been used with some success in specific environments. Major considerations are: 1) firm placement of seed near moist soil, 2) absence of green vegetation during emergence, 3) maintaining an option to cultivate and 4) reduce the risk of soil erosion.

B. Seeding Date:

Sunflower can be planted at a wide range of dates, as most cultivars are earlier in maturity than the length of growing season in most areas. In areas of the world with no winters, sunflower has been planted at any month of the year to obtain satisfactory yields. In northern regions, highest yields and oil percentages are obtained by planting early - as soon after the spring -sown small grain crops as possible. In the northern midwest and Canada this is often May 1 through 20 and mid- March through early April in the southern USA. Resistance to frost damage decreases as the seedlings develop into the 6leaf stage, so too-early sowings in the northern USA or Canada can be risky.
A later planting date tends to increase the proportion of linoleic acid in sunflower, especially at southern locations. Damage of sunflower heads by insect larvae may be increased by early planting. Test weight tends to decrease with late plantings. A planting date of early to mid May is recommended in Minnesota and Wisconsin.

C. Method and Rate of Seeding:

A planting depth of 1 to 3.5 in. allows sunflower seeds to reach available moisture and gives satisfactory stands . Deeper plantings have resulted in reduced stands and yields. If crusting or packing of the soil is expected, with silt loam or clay soils, a shallower planting depth is recommended.
Sunflower row spacing is most often determined by machinery available, which might be 30 or 36 in. for corn, soybean or sorghum growers, or narrower rows for sugarbeet growers. In Minnesota trials, sunflower yield, oil percentage, seed weight, test weight, height , and flowering date did not differ at narrow vs. wide rows over five plant populations. Hence , row spacings can be chosen to fit available equipment . Row spacings of 30 in. are most common. There is evidence that earlier, semidwarf varieties may perform better in narrower rows at high populations.
Sunflower stands have the capacity to produce the same yield over a wide range of plant densities (Table 2). The plants adjust head diameter, seed number per plant, seed size, to lower or higher populations, so that yield is relatively constant over a wide range of plant populations. Trials in eastern North Dakota show increases in yields with densities up to 29,000 plants/acre, but most studies have shown less effect of seeding rate. Higher densities are often recommended for irrigated or high rainfall areas.
Table 2: Effect of plant population on yield and yield components - average of 12 trials in Minnesota
Plant density
heads/acre
Seed yield
lbs/acre
Seed number
seeds/head
Seed weight
mg/seed
Large seedl
Oil content
Lodging
score2
14,970
2,004
831
73
52
42.1
1.5
19,830
2,131
727
67
44
43.2
1.8
25,090
2,169
632
62
33
43.2
2.1
29,940
2,173
548
60
31
43.4
2.4,
34,800
2,231
501
58
16
43.8
2.5
lNon-oilseed cultivars held on an 0.8 cm round-hole screen
21 = erect, 9 = prostrate.
Plant population has a strong effect on seed size, head size, and percent oil. A medium to high population produces higher oil percentage than does low populations, and the smaller heads dry down faster at higher plant populations.
A lower plant population is critical for maximizing seed size for non-oilseed use. Current recommendations in Minnesota and Wisconsin are 17,000 plants/acre (4 lb seed/acre) for non-oilseed and 23,000 plants/acre (3 lb seed/acre) for oilseed.
Some have suggested that north-south orientation of rows produce higher yields than east-west rows, but studies to examine this effect have found no differences in yield.

D. Fertility and Lime Requirements :

Research has shown that sunflower responds to N, P and K. Nitrogen is usually the most common limiting factor for yield. Nitrogen fertilizer tends to reduce oil percentage of the seed, change the amino acid balance , and increase leaf area of the plant. Yield increases from N fertilizer rates up to 175 lb/acre have been observed, but rates considerably lower than this are usually recommended. Nitrogen recommendations in dryer regions can be made from estimates of nitrate nitrogen in the soil, but in wetter regions, this is not feasible. In the wetter regions of eastern and southern Minnesota and Wisconsin, recommendations are based upon soil organic matter and previous crop history. Recommendations of approximately 18 lb N/acre after fallow or legume sod, 60 lb N/acre after small grain or soybean and 80 to 100 lb N/acre after corn or sugarbeet are common. On higher organic matter soils, amounts should be lowered. Nitrogen can be supplied from mineral or non-mineral sources ( manures , legumes, compost). Row placement of P and K may be important in sunflower for maximizing efficiency of fertilizer use, as it is with many species.
More yield increases are reported as a result of applications of P than from K in Europe and North America. Recommendations for applications of P and K should be made from soil tests and the yield goal for each field. Recommendations range from 40 to 70 lbs P2O5 and -60 to 140 lbs K2O /acre for soils testing very low in P or K, depending on soil yield potential. These recommendations decrease as soil test P and/or K increase. Response to P is not expected if soil P exceeds 30 lb/acre nor to K if the K test is greater than 300 lb/acre.
Sunflower is not highly sensitive to soil pH. The crop is grown commercially on soils ranging in pH from 5.7 to over 8. The optimum depends upon other properties of the soil; no pH is considered optimum for all soil conditions . The 6.0 to 7.2 range may be optimal for many soils.

E. Variety Selection(mitmekesisuslik valik):

The development of a cytoplasmic male-sterile and restorer system for sunflower has enabled seed companies to produce high-quality hybrid seed. Most of these outyield open-pollinated varieties and are higher in percent oil. Performance of varieties tested over several environments is the best basis for selecting sunflower hybrids. The choice should consider yield, oil percentage, maturity, seed size (for non-oilseed markets), and lodging and disease resistance. Performance results from the Upper Midwest are usually available annually from North Dakota State University , University of Minnesota, and South Dakota State University.

F. Weed Control :

As a crop, sunflower yields are reduced, but rarely eliminated by weeds which compete with sunflower for moisture and nutrients and occasionally for light. Sunflower is a strong competitor with weeds, especially for light, but does not cover the ground early enough to prevent weed establishment. Therefore , early season weed control is essential for good yields. Annual weeds have been the primary focus of weed control research. Perennial weeds can also present problems but are usually not specific to sunflower.
Successful weed control should include a combination of cultural and chemical methods. Almost all North American sunflower plantings are cultivated and/or harrowed for weed control, and over 2/3 are treated with herbicides. Postemergence cultivation with a coilspring harrow , spike tooth harrow or rotary hoe is possible with as little as 5 to 7% stand loss when sunflowers are at the four to six leaf stage ( beyond cotyledon), preferably in dry afternoons when the plants are less turgid. One or two between row cultivations are common after the plants are at least 6 in. tall.
Several herbicides are currently approved for weed control in sunflowers. Information on chemical weed control in sunflowers is available at most county extension offices.

G. Diseases:

The most serious diseases of sunflower are caused by fungi. The major diseases include rust , downy mildew, verticillium wilt, sclerotinia stalk and head rot, phoma black stem and leaf spot. The symptoms of these diseases are given in Table 3. The severity of these disease effects on total crop yield might be ranked: 1) sclerotinia, 2) verticillium, 3) rust (recently more severe), 4) phoma, and 5) downy mildew. Resistance to rust, downy mildew, and verticillium wilt has been incorporated into improved sunflower germplasm.
Table 3: Major sunflower diseases and symptoms.
Downy mildew
Plasmopara halstedi
Cottony fungus on underside of leaves. Dwarfing, contrasting discoloration of yellow-green and green. Blackening and sometimes swelling at base of stem. Disease most severe when rain occurs before and after emergence.
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe cichoracearum
Cottony fungus on green leaves late in summer - not largely damaging.
Leaf spot
Septoria helianthi
Dead blotches on flower leaves before heading . Has not caused appreciable loss.
Verticillium wilt
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Before heading, dead areas along leaf veins, bordered by light yellow-green margins. Decayed vascular tissue in cross -section of stem.
Rust
Puccini helianthi
Rust colored pustules on leaves, latter black specks on stems.
Sclerotinia head and stem rot
Verticillium dahliae
Wilt soon after flowering. Light tan band around the stem at soil level. Grey-black sclerotia (size of seed) in rotted heads and stems. Seed and meats discolored.
Phoma black stem
Phoma macdonaldii
Large chocolate colored blotches on stems at maturity.

H. Insects, Pollinators, and Birds:

Bees are beneficial to sunflower yield because they carry pollen from plant to plant which results in cross pollination. Some sunflower varieties will not produce highest yields unless pollinators are present. All varieties will produce some sterile seed (without meats), but varieties differ in their degree of dependence on insect pollinators. Autogamous sunflower hybrids do not require bees for maximum yield and will yield the same when covered by bags as uncovered. In non-autogamous sunflower varieties, pericarp ( bull ) development is normal but no ovules or meat develop. Wind is relatively unimportant in cross-pollination of sunflower. Some of the older open-pollinated varieties such as Peredovick set only 15 to 20% of seed without pollinators, whereas many hybrids set 85 to 100% seeds without pollinators.
Insect pests have become major potential yield-reducing factors in sunflower production in the northern Midwest (Table 4). Insects specific to sunflower that feed on the heads include the larvae of three moths; sunflower moth , banded sunflower moth and sunflower bud moth. Sunflower midge has caused widespread damage in some years. Sunflower headclipping weevil, sunflower beetle, sunflower maggot, wireworm, grasshopper, cutworm, sugarbeet webworm, ragweed plant bug, woolybear and painted.lady caterpillar have caused occasional damage to sunflower. Adults of insect pests of other crops (such as corn rootworm beetle and blister beetle) can be found as pollen feeders on sunflower heads, but usually cause little injury.
Table 4: Common Insects in Sunflower
Sunflower moth
Homoeosoma electellum
Eggs are laid at flowering and hatch in 1 week. Larva have dark bands running length of body . Feeds on floral parts, tunnels in Seed.
Banded sunflower moth
Cochylis hospes
Moth has brown area mid- wing (.5 in.). Larvae are not dark striped, smaller than head moth. Makes a small hole in top of seed, feeds on meat.
Sunflower bud moth
Suleima helianthana
Dark grey moth. Larvae .5 to 1 in. in length. Feeds on young stem and head. Headless or damaged heads or large hole on stem near a leaf petiole is symptom.
Sunflower midge
Contarinia schulzi
Small (.1 in.) gnat with tiny (.1 in.) cream-colored larvae laid when head is 1" in diameter. Brown spots at base of individual florets or absence of ray flowers, cupping of heads is symptom.
Sunflower headclipping weevil
Haplorynchites aeneus
Black weevil, about .25 in. long, causes head drop.
Sunflower beetle
Zygogramma exclamationis
Adult is .25 in. long with yellow strips length of wing covers. Humpback yellow larvae causes large areas of defoliation.
Sunflower maggot
Strauzia longipennis
Adult a yellow fly with dark wing markings, smaller than housefly. Maggots burrow in stem.
Red sunflower seed weevil
Smicronyx fulvus
Adult about 1/8 in. long, rusty colored, and found in head. Adult female drills egg hole in developing seed and lays egg in hole. Larvae internal to seed; white legless with dark head capsule.
Gray sunflower seed weevil
Smicronyx sordidus
Adult about 1/8 in. long, gray colored; has behavior similar to red sunflower seed weevil.
Sunflower stem weevil
Cylindrocopturus adspersus
A robust brown and white spotted snout beetle found on the stem and in leaf axils. It is about 1/4 in. long. Drills egg hole in stem in which it lays its egg. The larva, a white legless larva, burrows in the stem pith. Much more abundant in drouthy sites and years.
Resistance to seed insects can be improved by the presence of a dark colored "armor" layer in the seed coat . Resistance to midge has been suggested but is not currently effective. Only currently approved insecticides should be used for control of insects.
Birds can be major pests in sunflowers. Especially important are blackbird, goldfinch, dove, grosbeak and sparrow. Many approaches to disruption of feeding have been tried, including scarecrows, fright owls, aluminum strips that flutter in the wind, and carbide exploders. No techniques are 100% effective, as birds will adapt to many of these techniques. However, in many environments, some attempt is wan-anted. Currently, no chemicals are approved for bird control in sunflower.

I. Harvesting:

Sunflowers are generally mature long before they are dry enough for combining. Seed maturity occurs when the backs of the heads are yellow, but the fleshy sunflower head takes a long time to dry. Often, there are only a few good combining days in October when the seed is dry enough for storage . Seeds should be below 12% moisture for temporary storage and below 10% for long term storage. Seed up to 15% moisture is satisfactory for temporary storage in freezing weather, but spoilage is likely after a few days of warm weather.
Commercially available sunflower headers are useful in decreasing loss of seed as the crop is direct combined. This equipment usually includes 9 to 36 in. width metal pans for catching matured seed and a three-armed or similar reel . A narrower (9 in.) pan width enables harvesting diagonal to the row, which produces fewer harvest losses in some situations.
Windrowing has been demonstrated to be effective, but probably would not be economical, given the added cost of windrower and pickup-modifications.

VII. Economics of Production and Markets:

The cost of production and return over variable costs for sunflower is similar to that for small grains. The culture of sunflower and growing season requirements makes them a good niche in cropping systems where small grains are the predominant crops. Markets are generally available in most areas where sunflower has been traditionally grown. However, if a grower considers sunflower as an alternative crop, marketing opportunities should be pursued prior to making the decision to grow sunflower, particularly for non-oilseed varieties.
Sunflower is the common seed name for the genus Helianthus. The sunflower is native to North America, and was used by early North American Indians for food and pressed to make hair oil. Meal from processed seed has been used for livestock feed. Today, whole seeds are used for oil, bird seed and snacks. The seeds are a rich source of calcium plus 11 other minerals. The 50 percent fat composition is mostly polyunsaturated linoleic acid.
Uses:
As a garden plant, the sunflower is valuable for forming a background screen. A rapid grower, it reaches a height of 8 to 12 feet in rich soil.
This rapid growth could cause competition with other garden plants, especially by shading. Sunflowers can be planted between groups of shrubs, particularly where these form a background. For smaller gardens , the multi -branched species are more suitable. Dwarf forms of 24 inches in height make a spectacular bed by themselves.
When growing sunflowers for bird food or human consumption, select the confectionery types over the oil types

Culture

Sunflowers do best when grown on soils with adequate water- holding capacity, internal drainage and proper fertility. They will tolerate a wide range of soil types; however, one that is too high in nitrogen encourages excessive plant growth that will check maturity of the flower heads. Adequate levels of phosphorus and potassium are recommended, and, as with any garden activity, frequent soil tests are recommended to get good results. The plant's roots go deep and spread extensively, so the sunflower can withstand some drought and nearby cultivation. Sunflowers should not be water stressed during the critical period; about 20 days before and after flowering.
Plant seed into moistened soil one to two inches deep, but no deeper than three inches. Space seed 12 inches apart in rows spaced 2 to 2 1/2 feet apart. Plants grown for large heads should be spaced farther apart or scattered around the garden.
In Ohio, planting can take place from early to mid-May. Seed bed soil temperature must be between 42 and 50 degrees F with temperatures above 50 degrees F preferable for germination to occur rapidly. Depending on variety and environmental factors, germination will occur in 7 to 12 days. Plants will mature in 80 to 90 days.
For the home situation, seed can be started in four-inch peat pots and transplanted outdoors. Transplants may grow taller and flower sooner than seed started plants. They should start to flower in ten weeks.
Weeds can be a problem for sunflowers. Weed control is practiced for the first four to five weeks after seed emergence. For the home garden, hand weeding and mulching are the best methods.

Diseases and Pests

A common disease of sunflowers is Sclerotina or white mold , which causes stalk and head rots. Disease spores can live for many years in the soil. Other common diseases are downy mildew, rust and verticillium wilt. Sanitation and crop rotation should be considered for control in the home garden.
The sunflower head moth is the major insect pest . The moth attacks at flowering time with the larvae feeding on floral parts and tunneling through developing seed. Aphids and whiteflies also can be a problem.
Birds can be troublesome near harvest time. Seeds are exposed and the large flower head serves as a feeding perch. To deter birds, use frightening devices and human activity in the immediate area before damage is expected. Flower heads can be covered with plastic netting or cheesecloth.

Harvesting

Harvest begins in mid-September and can run into October. A check of the flower head will indicate maturity; florets in the center of the flower disk are shriveled, heads are downturned, and a lemon yellow color is on the backside . Pull a few seeds and split them with a knife to check if seed meat has filled . Poorly filled seeds may be due to a lack of pollinating insects.
To harvest, cut the seed head with about a foot of stem attached and hang in a warm, dry, well-ventilated, rodent and insect-free place. A paper bag with holes or cheesecloth can be placed over the heads to catch falling seeds as they drop during drying. Seed heads can be allowed to ripen on the plant, but cheesecloth or nylon netting will be needed for bird protection. Once the seed is dried, it can be rubbed easily from seed heads. Humidity levels must be kept low to prevent spoilage.

Roasting Seeds

Raw mature seeds may easily be prepared at home by covering unshelled seeds with salted water (2 qts. of water to 1/4 to 1/2 cups salt). Bring to a boil and simmer two hours or soak in a salt solution overnight. Drain and dry on absorbent paper.
Put sunflower seeds in a shallow pan in a 300 degree F oven for 30 to 40 minutes or until golden brown, stirring occasionally. Take out of oven and add one teaspoon of melted butter or margarine to one cup of seeds. Stir to coat. Put on an absorbent towel. Salt to taste.

Sunflower Species

Common Sunflower (H. annuus) - Includes the cultivars H. bismarkianus's, single yellow flower, 6 to 8 feet tall; H. citrinus, primrose yellow flowers, 6 to 8 feet tall; H. giganteus, Russian Giant, large, single yellow flower grown mainly for seeds, 10 to 12 feet tall.
Silverleaf Sunflower (H. argophyllus) - Stems and leaves covered with silky gray down, especially on younger growth. Flowers golden with purplish brown center, plants 5 to 6 feet tall. Silvery leaves used in fresh and dried flower arrangements .
Cucumberleaf Sunflower (H. debilis) - Four-foot plants with multiple branches. Excellent for cutting. Three-inch flowers have a purple disk and yellow rays.

The Sunflower Spiral Count.

These sunflower seeds seem to be arranged in 34 spirals opening clockwise. But you can also see spirals going the other way. Question: how many? Further down on this page, you'll get a chance to submit your answer.
The diagram on the right shows an abstract version of this pattern. Maybe you'll find it easier to count those
Do you know what country grows the most sunflowers? The former Soviet Union
Do you know what country grew the tallest sunflower? The Netherlands (25' 5.5" tall) grown in 1986 by M. Heijmf
Do you know what country grew the largest sunflower head? Canada (32 1/2" across)
Did you know sunflowers are at least 3000 years old? Archeologists found proof in North American clay!
Do you know what the scientific name of sunflowers is? Helianthus
Do you know what it means? Sun for helios and flower for anthos
Do you know the French word for sunflower? Tournesol
Do you know the translation ? Turn with the sun
Do you know which State's flower is the sunflower? Kansas
Of all crops harvested for seed around the world, only one was domesticated in America -- sunflower. This widely adapted crop is now grown in every temperate region, including many parts of the U.S.
In the U.S., 2.7 million acres were grown in 1991, about 85 percent of which was oilseed sunflower. The rest was grown for whole-seed confectionary uses. North Dakota has been the leader in sunflower production, with 1.4 million acres in 1991. South Dakota and Minnesota are the next biggest sunflower producers.
Kansas grew about 75,000 acres of sunflower in 1991, about two-thirds of it oilseed varieties. Nearly 20,000 acres were grown in Missouri in the late 1970s, but Missouri acreage declined to a few thousand acres after prices fell. The 1990 Farm Bill has renewed interest in sunflower, since it established new farm programs to promote sunflower and other minor oilseeds.

History

Sunflower is believed to have been domesticated from wild sunflower around 1000 B.C. in the western U.S. As can be seen along most Missouri roadsides in mid to late summer, wild sunflower is highly branched with small heads and small seeds, in contrast to the large seed head of domesticated sunflower.
Spaniards brought the sunflower to Europe in 1510 , but it was never really viewed as a food plant by Europeans until it reached Russia in the late 1800s. The process of improving sunflower into a modern crop began in Russia around 1860. By the late 1940s, Americans were able to bring back sunflower varieties with oil contents of nearly 50 percent. American varieties at the time had 20 to 30 percent seed oil content.
U.S. production has emphasized oilseed varieties, but sunflower as a snack food has gradually increased. Sunflower acreage peaked in the late 1970s, then fell due to lowered prices and pest problems. More pest-tolerant varieties, new government support and growing demand are again increasing sunflower acreage.

Description

One reason that sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is grown so widely is its relatively short growing season, generally requiring 90 to 100 days from planting to maturity in the north-central U.S. and somewhat longer for more full-season varieties in Missouri. The crop's progression through its growth stages depends more on growing degree days than photoperiod. Full-season sunflower flowers during July in Missouri, while double-cropped varieties flower in August.
Sunflower heads consist of 1,000 to 2,000 individual flowers joined together by a receptacle base. The large petals around the edge of a head are actually individual ray flowers, which do not develop into seed. Pollination and seed development begin at the periphery of the grain head and move toward the center. It usually takes about 30 days from the time the last flower is pollinated until maturity.
A well-known sunflower characteristic is that the flowering heads track the sun's movement, a phenomenon known as heliotropism. Most newer varieties have heads that will droop to face the ground as the plants mature. This has the potential of reducing bird damage and reducing some disease development that could occur if water collected in the seed head.
Sunflower plan heights vary widely, but most full-season field crop varieties range from 5 to 7 feet tall, except for dwarf varieties, which are more typically 3 to 4 feet tall with smaller grain heads. Stems normally are unbranched, with a single seed head on each plant.

Uses

Food
Vegetable oil is the main market for sunflower in the U.S. and worldwide. Sunflower oil generally is considered a premium oil due to its light color, mild flavor, low level of saturated fats and ability to withstand high cooking temperatures. Despite these advantages, it is normally handled in the U.S. marketplace as a commodity vegetable oil. In the U.S., sunflower is perhaps better known as a snack food, even though that is actually a smaller market for the crop.
Birdseed
Another well-known use of sunflower in the U.S. is as a birdseed, most typically mixed with millet and other grains. The black oilseed varieties usually are favored over the striped confectionary seeds, since they cost less per pound. Sunflower seeds' high oil content provides a good energy source for birds.
Livestock
Sunflower is sometimes used as a livestock feed and in recent years has been determined to be a reasonable silage crop for certain situations.
The material remaining in the seed after oil extraction, called meal, has 28 to 42 percent protein and is an adequate feed source. Most often the seed is not dehulled or is only partially dehulled, somewhat lowering the protein percentage.
Hulled or partially dehulled sunflower meal is higher in fiber but lower in energy value and protein than soybean meal. Sunflower meal is best substituted for soybean meal on an equal protein basis, which means that a larger amount of sunflower is needed.
Sunflower hulls are sometimes used as a roughage for ruminants, but more often are burned at the processing facility due to the cost of transportation.
Sunflower can be used as a forage, although this is not common. When it is grown as a silage, the most appropriate harvest stage is when about half of the head area has immature seeds. The plants should be allowed to wilt and lose moisture before being ensiled.
The crude protein level of sunflower silage is greater than that of corn silage. It is about the same as that of tall fescue hay but lower than that of alfalfa hay. If sunflower is not cut for silage until after the flowering stage, crude protein level will decline and lignin content will increase. Sunflower silage is considered adequate for steers and dry cows or low milk producers, but not for high-producing milk cows.
Industrial
Like most oilseeds, sunflower has potential for many industrial products, but has not been used much for non-food, non-feed purposes in the U.S. Because sunflower oil is used for food purposes, its price is higher than is currently competitive with petroleum feedstocks for oil-derived products.
Sunflower hulls have been marketed for specialty purposes such as poultry litter , fireplace logs and other high-fiber products, but these markets are limited. Sunflower oil has been researched as a potential diesel fuel substitute, since sunflower oil has an energy content equivalent to 93 percent of no. 2 U.S. diesel fuel.

Marketing and economics

Sunflower profitability depends greatly on price levels. In 1991, sunflower prices were as high as 11 to 12 cents a pound, but fell to 8 cents a pound by the end of the year. At the higher price level, and with yields of 2,500 pounds per acre (which is achievable but not certain), sunflower is competitive with corn, especially if government payments are received . Under the minor oilseed provisions of the 1990 Farm Bill, which will be in effect until as least 1995, a producer can plant sunflower on normal flex acres and still receive deficiency payments for the program crop. Another option is to enroll program crop acres in the 0/92 program and plant sunflower.
Lack of crushing facilities limit oilseed sunflower marketing in Missouri. The closest sunflower processors probably are those in western Kansas. Sometimes soybean processors will crush sunflower during the off season, but only if there is a substantial volume of seed. Cost-effective transport requires that enough sunflower be grown locally to fill a rail car or barge. Trucking oilseed sunflower to an out-of-state processor usually is too costly for an individual producer.
Fortunately, a substantial in-state sunflower market exists for birdseed mixes. Missouri birdseed manufacturers consumed an estimated 10,000 tons of sunflower in 1991, most of it from out of state. Two major birdseed processors are The Grainery (Mexico, Mo., 573-581-3980) and Pennington Seed (Greenfield, Mo., 800-492-4175). (Keller's, in Quincy, Ill., also has purchased large volumes of sunflower seed for packaging.)
These processors usually prefer oilseed varieties over the striped seed varieties, since striped seed sells for a premium. Producers are encouraged to obtain a contract with a birdseed processor or other market outlet before planting a sunflower crop.

How to grow sunflower

Sunflower produces large quantities of vegetable oil per acre, since oilseed-type seeds generally are 40 to 50 percent oil by weight. Yields can be more than 3,000 pounds per acre, although most Missouri soils are more likely to be in the 1,000 to 1,500 pounds-per-acre range, with up to 2,500 pounds per acre possible under good growing conditions. Variety selection and pest pressures are major determinants of yield. Sunflower yields are less affected by dry conditions than corn yields, which is an advantage in Missouri.
As with most alternative crops, it is best to identify a market outlet before growing sunflower. Producers should start with a small acreage to get a feel for yield potential, then adjust acreage levels based on current prices and projections of sunflower stock levels.

Rotations and site selection

Sunflower can be grown either as a full-season crop or a double crop. From an economic standpoint, it is particularly attractive as a double crop, since the yield reduction due to planting late (after the wheat harvest) is less than the yield reduction normally seen with soybeans.
As a full-season summer annual crop, sunflower can follow any of Missouri's other summer annual crops. Sunflower seeds will volunteer as weeds in the next year's crop, but can be easily controlled by herbicides available for corn, sorghum or soybeans. Sunflower volunteers, most of which will emerge in the first year, also can be controlled by cultivation and hand weeding, or by extra spring tillage.
It is important to use a long rotation period, since disease organisms can build up quickly and become quite severe. Producers should not grow sunflower more than once every three to four years on a given field. An even longer rotation period is preferable, since some sunflower diseases can stay in the soil for several years (up to 10 years for Verticillium spp.). The shorter the rotation, the more important it becomes to select disease-resistant or tolerant varieties.
If a field is already in row crop production, it is probably suitable for sunflower. The only situations likely to severely limit sunflower are poorly drained soils or soils that would prevent taproots from penetrating. Sunflower survives droughts through its extensive tap root ; the above-ground portion of the plant does not use water very efficiently . Sunflower can tolerate pH values from 5.7 to 8.0.

Choosing a variety

Sunflower varieties have steadily improved over time. Numerous options are now available, including dwarf types and specialty oil (high oleic) types. Hybrids are the most common and normally have higher yields and higher oil percentage. Most modern varieties are autogamous, able to produce seed without help from insect pollinators. Besides yield and oil percentage, traits to consider in variety selection include lodging and disease resistance, maturity, and seed size if the crop is for the snack food market.

Field preparation

Sunflower is more likely to be limited by nitrogen than any other nutrient. If nitrogen is limited, yields and oil percentage will be reduced. Amount of nitrogen fertilizer needed depends on soil type, organic matter and the preceding crop, but around 100 pounds per acre should be adequate following corn, (60 pounds per acre following soybeans).
Research suggests sunflower is somewhat more sensitive to phosphorous than potassium. A 2,000 pounds-per-acre sunflower crop would take up about 40 pounds of phosphorous per acre and 80 pounds of potassium per acre. Use a soil test to determine how much of each should be added through fertilizer.
Seedbed preparation can be much like that for other row crops. No-till can be used as long as the soil drains adequately, but most sunflower fields receive some spring tillage. Preserve soil moisture, since sunflower seeds require high moisture for good germination. If soil crusting limits seed emergence, a rotary hoe can be used to help loosen the crusted layer.

Planting

The most critical planting requirements are getting the seed into adequate soil moisture and choosing an appropriate seeding rate. Planting date and row widths can vary considerably without seriously affecting production. For heavy soils, seeding depth should be 1 to 1.5 inches, depending on depth to moisture.
Seeding rate is especially important for sunflower varieties intended for the snack food market. A high seeding rate will cause seed to be smaller, which is undesirable for snack food. A general recommendation for this type of sunflower is 17,000 seeds per acre (roughly 4 pounds per acre), while a general recommendation rate for oilseed varieties is 23,000 seeds per acre (roughly 3 pounds per acre). The higher seeding rate is recommended for oilseed types to improve yields. Seed size will be reduced, but market prices for oilseed sunflower are unaffected by seed size.
Yields from April or May plantings normally will be higher than June or July plantings. Sunflower can germinate and emerge from soils as cool as 46 degrees F if the seed is of good quality. Frost will not cause long-term damage until plants are around the six-leaf stage, which is normally after the danger of frost has passed . Mature sunflower also tolerates low temperatures, being able to withstand temperatures down to 25 degrees F.
Row spacings should be wide enough to permit cultivation, typically 20 to 30 inches. Various row spacings show little effect on yield, except that dwarf sunflower will close a canopy better and yield more when rows are less than 30 inches apart. Row orientation is another factor often debated for sunflower. Research has shown no yield difference among possible row orientations, but some have suggested that a north-south row orientation can make harvesting easier.
A common planting method is to equip a corn planter with special sunflower seed plates, which are sold by various companies. A fungicide seed treatment prior to planting is often recommended.

Weed control

When planted in wide rows, sunflower can be easily cultivated for weed control. Delaying planting to allow more time for shallow tillage can aid in control of some early season weeds. Most sunflower varieties grow rapidly and can compete effectively with weeds once they are well established (this is less true for dwarf sunflower).
Several herbicides are registered for sunflower, including compounds such as Eptam, Treflan, Sonalan, Poast, Assert and Prowl. Since the list of registered products changes periodically, growers are encouraged to contact MU Extension personnel or industry representatives for up-to-date information.

Insects

Both beneficial and pest insects can be found on sunflower plants in the summer, especially around the head. Many insect pests are known to cause head damage, but the damage usually is quite limited.
Insect pests that occasionally appear on sunflower plants include sunflower moth, sunflower maggot and sunflower beetle. Heads can be clipped off or leaves damaged by cutworm, headclipping weevil and assorted caterpillars. Grasshopper, wireworm, and sunflower maggot also can cause plant damage.
Of these pests, sunflower moth is the most likely to cause damage in Missouri. Unfortunately, economic threshold levels have not been determined for sunflower insects, so it is sometimes difficult to know when it is profitable to spray for pests unless massive damage is clearly being done.
Several insecticides are labeled for sunflower use, but such sprays should be used with caution during pollination with varieties that depend on insect pollinators (autogamous varieties can achieve 85 to 100 percent seed set without insect pollinators).

Diseases

Diseases can be a serious problem in a sunflower field. Newer varieties have significantly improved resistance or tolerance, but once a disease occurs, little can be done for control. Verticillium wilt and sclerotinia stalk/head rot are two of the worst diseases. Rust, phoma and downy mildew also can appear. Sclerotinia is hard to avoid, since varietal resistance is minimal and sclerotinia organisms can be built up in a field by soybean, alfalfa, canola, and weeds such as lambsquarter and wild mustard.

Harvesting and storage

Sunflower is ready to harvest when the back portion of the head turns brown. The seeds actually mature somewhat earlier, but the head will be too wet for efficient harvest until the brown color appears . Timely harvest is important to minimize losses due to birds and late season diseases.
Efficient harvest requires a modified grain head on the combine. A standard combine header will cause excessive seed loss to the ground from shattering, so a special sunflower header should be obtained, or a conventional header can be modified by adding catch pans, deflectors and possibly a smaller reel.
The modifications are intended to collect the sunflower head while minimizing stem material collection . (A guide on modifying standard grain heads for use in sunflower harvest is available from the authors , MU Extension -- Agronomy Office, 214 Waters Hall, Columbia , MO 65211.) Cylinder speeds should be relatively slow , from 300 to 450 rpm. A proper concave adjustment is necessary to prevent dehulling the seeds.
Seeds can be stored at up to 12 percent moisture for short periods, but should be dried to 9 percent moisture for long-term storage. It is best to have on-farm storage available, since some of the current market outlets in Missouri accept sunflower delivery only during certain time periods.
Sources of sunflower seed
Agri-Pro
Shawnee Mission, KS
913-384-4940
Agway
Grandin, ND
701-484-5313
Cargill Seeds
Fargo, ND
800-634-8941
Dahlgren and Co.
Crookston, MN
218-281-2985
ICI Seeds
Coon Rapids, IA
800-348-2742
Interstate Seed
Fargo, ND
800-437-4120
Jacques Seed Co.
Prescott, WI
800-321-2867
Kaystar
Huron, SD
800-288-8791
Pioneer
O'Fallon, IL
618-624-8222
Sigco Sun Products
Breckenridge, MN
800-654-4145
Triumph Seed Co.
Ralls, TX
806-253-2584

Oil-Type Sunflowers

Sunflowers grown for oil are characterized by black hulls. With oil-type sunflowers there are 3 different groupings: traditional, mid-oleic (NuSun), and high oleic. These groupings are based according to their specific oil profile . The mid-oleic varieties have an oil profile that is intermediate to the traditional and the high-oleic sunflower varieties. Currently most of the sunflower varieties recommended and grown in Manitoba are of the conventional oil type.
Name: The botanical name is Helianthus. The Greek word "helios" means sun and "anthos" means flower. It is aptly named after the sun which it resembles.
Description: A large flower head with usually a big dark centre and bright yellow petals.
Origin: South and West of the USA.
Colour : Most sunflowers are bright yellow with dark brown centres , but varieties are appearing now which have tan, orange, maroon or striped petals, and green-yellow centres. Some are even without the central disc, but are fully covered in petals instead.
Availability: A summer flower, but some are available all year round ('Orit') and most can be available from late spring to late autumn.
Family: Asteraceae, Aster family
Varieties: There are now so many varieties owing to its popularity and sunflower is one of the top ten best selling cut flowers in UK. 'Snittgold' cultivar, which is the classic sunflower, has more than 15 different varieties from the small-flowered ' Sonja ' to the large-flowered 'Orit'. 'Sunrich Orange' has the darkest yellow of all the sunflower varieties. Other bi colours such as 'Prado Red' and ' Floristan ' have reddish brown petals with yellow bordering.
Care Tips: They need a lot of water.
Trivia :
Facts: Sunflower stems were used to fill lifejackets before the advent of modern materials. Low-pollen sunflowers have been developed in recent years which not only helps asthma sufferers, but extend the flower's life
Language of Flowers: The dwarf sunflower means "adulation".
Medicinal: The sunflower is grown for the seeds and oil it produces.Each mature flower yields 40% of its weight as oil.
History: The flower was cultivated by North American Indians for many years as a food crop The nutritional value is still the main reason for growing it in many parts of the world. Only recently have we begun to grow sunflowers for decorative reasons.
Zodiac: Sunflowers are bold and exuberant and one of the flower associated with the star sign Leo.
Sunflower History
Around the world, the sunflower is the only crop harvested for seed that was domesticated in the United States. Sunflower was a common crop among Native American tribes throughout North America. Evidence suggests that Native Americans were cultivating sunflowers in the Four Corners area of the southwestern United States about 3,000 B.C. Sunflower seeds were ground or pounded into flour , cracked and eaten as snacks, mixed with other vegetables, or even squeezed for oil which was used in making bread . Non-food uses included purple dye, medical uses, and using the dried stalk as a building material. The plant and the seeds were widely used in ceremonies.
In Peru, this flower was much revered by the Aztecs. In the Aztec temples of the Sun, the priestesses were crowned with sunflowers and carried them in their hands. The early Spanish conquerors found numerous pure gold representations of the sunflower in these temples.
Spanish explorers took the exotic sunflower plant to Europe in the 1500's, where it was widely used as an ornamental plant. By 1716, an English patent had been granted for squeezing oil from sunflower seeds but the sunflower was never really viewed as a food plant until it reached Russia. By 1830, sunflower oil was being commercially manufactured. The Russian Orthodox Church increased the popularity of sunflower oil when sunflower was left off the list of oil foods prohibited from being consumed during Lent.
By the early 19th Century, Russian farmers were growing over 2 million acres of sunflowers and government research programs were being implemented in Russia. By the late 19th Century, Russian sunflower seed had found its way into the United States, probably being reintroduced by Russian immigrants.
The first commercial use of the sunflower crop in the United States was as silage feed for poultry. In 1926, the Missouri Sunflower Grower's Association processed sunflower seed into oil.
Canada started the first official government sunflower breeding program in 1930, using basic plant breeding material from Mennonite (Russian immigrants) gardens. Sunflower acreage spread from Canada down into Minnesota and North Dakota, rapidly increasing in the United States in the late 1970's.
The top 3 sunflower producing states are North Dakota, South Dakota, and Kansas.
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