Inglise keelt kõnelevate maade ajaloo eksamiküsimused (17)

History exam
* Stonehenge - is a monument located in England . It is one of the most famous prehistoric sites in the world and is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. The surrounding circular, earth bank and ditch, have been dated to about 3100 BC. Stonehenge was produced by a culture with no written language . Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. There is little or no direct evidence for the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders.
*The Celts in Britain and their legacy – The Cets lived in Britain in The Iron Age. They were warring tribes who were battleful amongst themselves as well as inter-tribal war. They were not centrally governed. The Celts brought iron working, iron ploughs and metal swords, horses , wheels and chariots - all these things gave them an instant superiority over the native tribes. The Celts built a number of hill forts throughout the region . The society was divided into warrior aristocracy, agricultural commons and the priests, the druids.
* Caesar in Britain - Britain was very rich in minerals but that wasn’t the main reason Caesar wanted to defeat it. He could clearly see that Britain was a threat to his latest and greatest conquest - France . He invaded Britain twice, in 55 and 54 BC. The first invasion was unsuccessful - it gained a beachhead on the coast of Kent but achieved little else . The second was more successful, the Celts asked for truce. However it wasn’t a victory he had imagined and Julius Caesar never returned to Britain after that. The island was left undisturbed for nearly a century .
*The Roman occupation of Britain 43-410 and its legacy – Britain was conquered by Emperor Claudius , the Roman rule in England lasted up to 410. The Romans left behind a huge legacy: many types of animals and plants were brought to Britain in Roman times . Roman introduced theire measurements, Christianity, reading and writing. Also, many words in English and Welsh have been borrowed from the Latin language. An important legacy of the Romans was its roads, agriculture and cities. In the Roman times the land was dominated by rules and reguations.
*Christianity in Roman Britain – The Roman authorities were suspicious of Christianity because followers of Jesus Christ refused to take an oath of loyalty to the Roman emperor. For this reason the early Christians were regarded as dangerous enemies of the Empire . That ceased when the emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire in the early fourth century A.D. As the century progressed Christianity spread very quickly. Despite official recognition there was no mass conversion to Christianity; worship of the pagan gods and goddesses was not even formally banned until late in the fourth century.
* Boadicea /Boudica – At his death bed, Boudica’s husband left half his possession to the emperor, expecting that this would protect his family. However, his property was confiscated. When Boudica, the queen of the Celts, protested, she was flogged and her daughters were raped. She swept trough Southern Britain with her tribe and tortured every Roman she met. A women having power seemed unnatural to the Romans. She fought back for 2 years , but finally took poison and died.
* Hadrian ’s Wall – It was built by the emperor Hadrian and it marked the Northen border of the Roman empire. Hadrian's Wall was built, beginning in 122, to keep Roman Britain safe from hostile attacks from the Picts. The wall stretched from the North Sea to the Irish Sea. In addition to the wall, the Romans built a system of small forts called milecastles. Sixteen larger forts holding from 500 to 1000 troops were built into the wall, with large gates on the north face. To the south of the wall the Romans dug a wide ditch with high earth banks.
*The Picts, Caledonia – The Romans called Scotland 'Caledonia' because the dominant tribe of Picts they encountered was the Calidonii. Romans thought they were barbarian savages, but actually they had an advanced , cultured society. There was no slavery amongst them and women for instance had a higher standing than in Roman society. The Picts fought the Romans. The Picts- „The Painted Ones“- spoke Pict- Celtic .
*The Scots , Hibernia – In early medieval times Ireland was known by the name "Hibernia".
In Hadrian's time the ancient race called the Scots inhabited Hibernia (now called Ireland). Irish and Scottish missionaries were spreading Christianity in Anglo- Saxon England during the 6th centurie. The Latin term Scotti refers to the Gaelic-speaking people of Ireland and the Irish who settled in western Scotland.
*The Venerable Bede – Bede was a Christian monk , he was the most learned man in Europe at that time. He is remembered mainly for his "Ecclesiastical History of the English People." This five volume work records events in Britain from the raids by Julius Caesar to the arrival of the first missionary from Rome. Bede's writings are considered the best summary of this period of history ever prepared. Some have called it "the finest historical work of the early Middle Ages ."
*The coming ofe the Angles, Saxons , Jutes, Frisians to Britain – Very little is known about the first several hundred years of the Anglo-Saxon era, primarily because the invaders were an illiterate people. It is known that they established separate kingdoms: the Saxons settled in the South and West , the Angles in the East Anglia, Mercia , Northumbria and the Jutes in Kent. They probably thought of themselves as separate peoples, but they shared a common language and similar customs.
*The 7 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms – The first of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, which was popularly known as the Heptarchy (or the Seven Kingdoms), was founded in the latter half of the 5th century. Englan was divided into seven ancient kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex . The period supposedly lasted until the kingdoms began to consolidate into larger units, but the actual events marking this transition are debatable.
*St Patric and the Christianization of Ireland – was a Christian missionary and is the patron saint of Ireland. Legend says that Patrick tought the Irish about the concept of the Trinity by showing people the shamrock, a 3-leaved clover. The christianization of Ireland began in the fourth century AD, before the arrival of St Patrick, but it was not until Patrick arrived that Christianity was firmly planted. He was a leader of deep piety, humility, simplicity and unselfish devotion.
*St Columba and the Irish Christian mission to Iona – Columba, who had the potential to become a king in Ireland, instead, chose to give his full service to the mission of God. Columba is credited as being a leading figure in bringing the living in monasteries into life again . Iona is a small island in Scotland, where Columba settled and founded a monastery on it. From there he set about the conversion of pagan Scotland and much of northern England to Christianity. Iona became a holy island where several kings of Scotland, Ireland and Norway came to be buried
*St Aidan and the Irish Christian mission to Northumbria – was the founder and first bishop of the monastery on the island of Lindisfarne in England. A Christian missionary, he is credited with restoring Christianity to Northumbria. By patiently talking to the people on their own level Aidan and his monks slowly restored Christianity to the Northumbrian communities. Aidan also took in twelve English boys to train at the monastery, to ensure that the area's future religious leadership would be English.
*St Augustine and the Roman Catholic mission to Kent – He was a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury . He is the founder of the English Church . St. Gregory chose him to lead a mission to Britain to convert the pagan King Æthelberht of the Kingdom of Kent to Christianity. Kent was probably chosen because it was near the Christian kingdoms in Gaul and because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha. King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and also allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls.
*St George – He is immortalised in the tale of George and the Dragon . According to this story he saved a maiden in distress from a dragon. His memorial is celebrated on 23 April. St. George is a very popular saint and is the patron saint of England, Georgia, Greece , Russia and many other countries. George was offered gifts of land, money and slaves if he made a sacrifice to the Pagan gods, but he refused. So, he was executed for his refusal. Before the execution George gave his wealth to the poor and after his death, the Christians soon came to honor him as a martyr.
*St Andrew – He is the patron saint of Scotland. He was a very humble man and to honour the Savior he had himself crucified on the X-shaped cross. It was not a regular cross, because he did not want to put himself on the same level than the Christ. The flag of Scotland feature St Andrew's X-shaped cross. The feast of Saint Andrew is held on November 30 in both the Eastern and Western churches, and is the national day of Scotland.
*St David – He is the patron saint of Wales . He was a model monk ad he established 12 monasteries in Wales. David contrasts with the other national patron saints of the British Isles, because he is a native of the country of which he is patron saint. He became known as a teacher and preacher , founding monastic settlements and churches. He rose to a bishopric, and and went on pilgrimages to Jerusalem and Rome. St David's Cathedral now stands on the site of the monastery he founded in the remote and inhospitable valley of 'Glyn Rhosyn' in Pembrokeshire.
*The Synod of Whitby 664 – The Roman monks who were sent to convert the "English" to Christianity, found that the missionaries from Ireland observed Easter at a different time from that which had been appointed by the Roman church. King Oswy, who was seriously concerned about the religious differences decided to call a meeting of church leaders in 664 to resolve things once and for all. This became known as The Synod of Whitby as it was held at Hilda's monastery. It was shown that the Roman ways stemmed directly from St Peter, who held the keys of Heaven. The king hardly wished to offend St Peter and decided in favour of the Roman ways.
*Offa’s Dyke – Offa was a very powerful King of Mercia. Offa's Dyke is a linear earthwork which roughly follows the Welsh/English boundary . Offa's Dyke is one of the most remarkable structures in Britain. Offa's intention was to provide Mercia with a well-defined boundary from with a distance of 240 kilometers. It consists of a ditch and rampart constructed with the ditch on the Welsh-facing side, and appears to have been carefully aligned to present an open view into Wales from along its length . As originally constructed, it must have been about 27 metres wide and 8 metres from the ditch bottom to the bank top.
*Redwald and Sutton Hoo – Redwald was a rich, influential pagan warrior. He kept both a Christian and a pagan altar in his temple . It seems that he had a last lapse into paganism before his death, for he was burried in the great Sutton Hoo ship burial . The burial site in Sutton Hoo was discovered near his royal court in Suffolk . Only the impression of the wooden vessel remained, but the treasure buried with the king contains a splendid amount of imported silver, jewellery and coins from France.
* Alfred the Great and the rise of Wessex to cultural pre- eminence – He is said to be one of the best kings ever to rule mankind. He was the king of Wessex. He defended Anglo-Saxon England from the Danes, formulated a code of laws and improved military skill . He limited the practice of blood feuds and took steps to protect the weak . He also promoted learning and literacy , inviting scholars from neighboring nations and Europe to his court during the lulls in fighting. Alfred was not only a great military leader but a ruler with foresight. Thanks to his actions , Wessex became a cultural pre-eminence. King Alfred encouraged his subjects to learn to read English, and saw to it that books were made available in the language.
*Danelaw and other Viking territories in the British Isles – The Danelaw is a historical name given to the part of Great Britain in which the laws of the "Danes" dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. The prosperity of the Danelaw led to its becoming a target for the Vikings . The Vikings also made raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin and Limerick. The Vikings and Scandinavians settled down and intermixed with the Irish. By the mid-ninth century they had also settled in parts of mainland Scotland, for example Shetland and the Isle of Man. The Viking settlers were integrating with the local Gaelic population. Wales was not colonised by the Vikings as heavily as eastern England. The Vikings did, however, settle in the south around St. David's among other places .
*Ethelred the Unready and Danegeld – Of all the kings in English history, Ethelred II has perhaps the worst reputation. By the end of his reign , he'd managed to lose almost all of England to Viking Invaders. Ethelred was faced with a very large Viking fleet . This fleet was led by Olaf a Norwegian with ambitions to reclaim the Danelaw to his country. After military setbacks Ethelred was able to come to terms with Olaf, who returned to Norway. While this arrangement won him some respect , England faced further raids from Viking. Ethelred fought these off, but in many cases bought them off by payment of what was to become known as Danegeld.
*Canute/Cnut – Canute the Great, also known as Cnut was a Viking king of England and Denmark , Norway, and parts of Sweden . He was a son of a Danish king and became famous with his invasion of England. The kingdom fell quickly and Canute was held to be king . He successed as a statesman, politically and militarily. Canute held a considerable overlordship across other areas of the British Isles too. He divided his new kingdom into four parts and married the kings widow Emma in order to help legitimize his reign. By carefully selecting his advisors he became very well placed to command loyalty from both the Danish and the English.
*The Vikings of Normandy – Viking raids on England started in the late 8th century. Over-wintering in camps and the control of extensive areas of land became characteristic of Viking activity in England. English resistance was uncoordinated and often ineffective. 'England' was a region of several independent kingdoms - often at war with each other. Eventually, King Alfred was able to confront the Vikings at Edington. Alfred had to concede the northern and eastern counties to the Vikings, York became the capital of the Viking Kingdom of York. These areas were gradually reconquered and brought back under English control by Alfred's successors.
*Feudalism and the manor system – Manorialism, otherwise known as the Manorial System, is the political , economic , and social system by which peasants of medieval Europe were made dependent on their land and on their lord . The manorial system was the most convenient device for organizing the estates of the aristocracy and the clergy in the European Middle Ages. Feudalism is a hierarchical system in which a lord or king gives a gift or land to a vassal in exchange for protection . The decline of feudalism can be marked by the crusades .
*Edward the Confessor – was an Anglo-Saxon King of England and the last of the House of Wessex. His reign marked the continuing disintegration of royal power in England and the enlargement of the great territorial counts . Edward was canonized and is regarded as the patron saint of kings, difficult marriages, and separated spouses and the Royal Family. Edward's reign was marked by peace and prosperity. He married Edith , daughter of Earl Godwin of Wessex, but they were childless. It was during the reign of Edward that some features of the English monarchy familiar today were introduced. Edward is regarded as responsible for introducing the royal seal and coronation regalia.
* Harold Godwinson – was the last Anglo-Saxon King of England before the Norman Conquest. Harold was a strong political and military leader in his own right. Edward the Confessor, the old king evidently chose Harold on his deathbed to succeed him. Harold's reign was short and turbulent. He prepared for an invasion by William, but was sidetracked by an attack by the King of Norway. After defeating the invaders at, Harold took his army south to meet William and, after a long and fierce battle , died at Hastings along with two of his brothers .
*The Battle of Hastings 1066 – Harold claimed the throne of England for himself soon after the previous king had died. His cousin William thought that he would be the next king, so he took Harold's crowning as a declaration of war. William planned to invade England, and take the crown for himself. The Battle of Hastings was the decisive Norman victory in the Norman Conquest of England. The battle took place at Senlac Hill between the Norman army of Duke William, and the English army led by King Harold II. Harold was killed during the battle. Although there was further English resistance for some time to come, this battle is seen as the point at which William gained control of England.
*The Norman Conquest – The Norman conquest of England began with the invasion of William, Duke of Normandy and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. The Norman Conquest was an important event in English history. It replaced the native ruling class with a foreign , French -speaking monarchy, aristocracy and clerical hierarchy. This in turn brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England. As the rulers were from France, England linked more closely with continental Europe. It also paved the way for further Norman invasions in Wales and Ireland.
*The House of Normandy (kings, centuries ) – William I Conqueror ( 11th century), William II Rufus, Henry I (12th century). To claim the English crown, William I invaded England leading an army of Normans to victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces at the Battle of Hastings. His reign brought Norman culture to England and had an enormous impact on the course of England in the Middle Ages. William II was an effective soldier, but a ruthless ruler. Henry I had scholarly interests. His reign is noted for its political opportunism.
*The Bayeux Tapestry – It is a 50 cm by 70 m long cloth which explains the events leading up to the Norman invasion of England as well as the events of the invasion itself. The Tapestry is annotated in Latin. It is presently exhibited in a special museum in France. According to the legend, the tapestry was created by Queen Matilda , William the Conqueror's wife . The Bayeux tapestry is embroidered in wool yarn using two differeent methods of stitching. The main yarn colours are terracotta, blue - green , dull gold , olive green, and blue. Later repairs are worked in light yellow , orange, and light greens.
*The Domesday Book – It is one of Medieval England's greatest treasures. The Domesday Book is closely linked with William the Conqueror's attempt to dominate Medieval England. That book was to give William huge authority in England. William I ordered that a book be made containing information on who owned what throughout the country. This book would also tell him who owed him what in tax and because the information was on record , nobody could argue against a tax demand . William ordered the survey of England to take place about twenty years after the Battle of Hastings. The whole survey took less than a year to complete and the books can be found in the Public Records Office. The Domesday Book forms a remarkable record of the state of England in the mid- 1080 's.
*The House of Anjou /the Plantagenets/the Angevins (kings, centuries) – was a royal house founded by Henry II of England. The First Angevin Dynasty also called the House of Plantagenet, ruled England from the reign of Henry II, in the beginning 12th century, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field . Richard I Lionheart had a reputation as a great military leader and warrior. John I (13th century) is known for sealing Magna Carta , a document limiting his power. Henry III, Edward I (14th century), Edward II, Edward III, Richard II (14th century).
*Henry II and Thomas a Becket – Henry was a good administrator , but he had a terrible temper, which would get him into trouble. Becket was Henry's friend and chief administrator. Henry convinced Becket to become the new Archbishop as he thought Becket (as his friend) would be his ally. But instead, Thomas underwent a change of character and opposed Henry over the question of the supremacy of courts. Henry claimed that the clerks should be tried in royal courts. To his surprise , Becket refused to agree . Becket fled to France after defying Henry. Four foolish knights seeking to please the king, killed Becket in front of the altar, where he was praing. However, Henry was very sad to hear about his friends death.
*The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland, the Pale – King Henry II gained papal approval to invade Ireland. However, the invasion of Ireland was not motivated by religion. The invasion force captured Wexford on the Norsemen. Despite the ongoing negotiations Dublin fell and the establishment of a small Anglo-Norman colony , known as The Pale, marks the start point of foreign rule over Ireland. Without too much of a fight all Irish kings gave in to Henry II. The Anglo-Norman authority outside the protected colony, The pale, was non-existent. Henry II reached an agreement with the Irish and they signed the Treaty of Windsor . By this Treaty Rory O'Connor became the monarch of all the unconquered areas of Ireland and in return he recognised King Henry II as his overlord and was due to pay him an annual tribute. A period of eight centuries of foreign oppression had began for the Irish.
*Richard I and Minstrel Blondel – There is a legend that when King Richard the Lionheart disappeared his favourite trobadure Blondel the Minstrel went to search for him. As a wandering minstrel Blondel travelled for months over central Europe, seeking for news of his friend. At last one day, while singing one of Richard's favorite songs near the walls of the castle where the king was held, Blondel heard the song repeated from a window . Blondel the Minstrel recognized the voice of King Richard. From the window Richard told him to let the English people and the people of Europe know where he was prisoned, and Blondel the minstrel immediately went upon his mission.
*John Lackland and Magna Carta 1215 – After king John surrendered to the Pope and was again defeated by France in the Battle of Bouvines, the disastrous failure of John’s foreign policies and military weaknesses became clear to all.  The powerful barons demanded a written guarantee of good law. After negotiations with the barons, King John came to terms and signed Magna Carta. Magna Carta is the charter of liberties granted by King John in 1215. It is considered as the earliest of the great constitutional documents and mapped the limits of royal and baronial authority more precisely than ever before. Magna Carte became a part of the common law.  In later centuries it came to be regarded as a document fundamental to the protection of individual liberty .
*Henry III and Westminister Abbey – Westminster Abbey was rebuilt by King Henry III in the new Gothic style, invented in northern France. Henry spent a lot of of his own money on the project . No other medieval monarch ever spent as much on a single church as Henry did at Westminster. The French churches inspired Henry to rebuild Westminster Abbey, as a way of rivalling the king of France and restoring the prestige of the English monarchy. He also built it to honour St Edward the Confessor and for his own tomb as well.
* Simon de Montfort’s Parliament of 1265 – De Montfort's Parliament was an English parliament of 1265, summoned by Simon de Montfort. His army had met and defeated the royal forces at the Battle of Lewes. The rebels captured Prince Edward, and the parliament had to agree to a constitution formulated by Simon. This was the first parliament at which both knights and burgesses were present. It was also the first time that commoners attending Parliament were required to be elected. After this Parliament it took some time for the knights and burgesses to become a regular part of the composition of Parliament.
*Model Parliament 1295 – English parliament set up in 1295 by Edward I. It was the first to include representatives from outside the clergy and aristocracy. This parliament was established because Edward needed the support of the whole country against his opponents: Wales, France, and Scotland. His sole aim was to raise money for military purposes, and the parliament did not pass any legislation . It is thougt to be the model for all parliaments since it was supposed to be truly representative of the people.
*The Welsh March – Wales was divided between regions still under native rule and the lordships controlled by the castles of the Normans - between Pura Wallia and Marchia Wallie. The Norman lords of the March, while subjects of the English king, were not subject to the law of England. Their lands were like independent kingdoms whose rulers could hold courts, build castles and wage war. As the March existed over 450 years, it became a major and lasting element in the history of Wales.
*Edward I’s conquest of North Wales – He was the King of England who achieved historical fame by conquering large parts of Wales and almost succeeding in doing the same to Scotland. Welsh king repeatedly refused to pay homage to Edward so he raised a huge army and began his first campaign against the Welsh prince. After this campaign, the Welsh prince was forced to pay homage to Edward and was stripped with a little territory. His brother started rebellion and was soon joined by the prince and many other Welshmen in a war of national liberation. The war was won by Edward. The Welsh wars damaged the English treasury due to the money spent on new troops and new castles to be built.
*Prince of Wales 1301 – Since 1301, the Prince of Wales has usually been the eldest living son of the King or Queen of England. Edward II became Prince of Wales in 1301. He was the first English prince to hold the title Prince of Wales. The Welsh are said to asked the King to give them a prince who spoke Welsh and he answered he would give them a prince that spoke no English at all. As a king, his tendency to ignore his nobility in favour of low-born favourites led to constant political unrest and his eventual deposition. Edward is perhaps best remembered for being the first monarch to establish colleges in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge .
*Fergus Mor Mac Earca and Dalriada – Fergus Mór mac Eirc was a legendary king of Dál Riata. He was the first king of the Scots in Scotland. He started a large- scale migration to Scotland which resulted in the establishment of a Scottish kingdom called Dalriada. Fergus was allowed to settle in Scotland as a federate of Arthur . Fergus brought the Stone of Scone with him from Ireland, that he was succeeded by a son named Dúngal.
* Kenneth MacAlpin and the unification of Scotland – The unification of Scotland began when Kenneth MacAlpin became king of the Picts and the Scots. Prior to this unification, Scotland had been a country divided between the Scots and the Picts. Kenneth MacAlpin, defeated the Picts. MacAlpin was not immediately recogninzed as the King of Scots and Picts for some years. Before defeating the Picts, he defeated the Vikings, driving them from the land. Once the warfare had ended between Scot and Pict, MacAlpin turned his attention to reforming laws, repressing and punishing crime, as well as improvements in the administration of justice. MacAlpin is credited with a code of laws known as "Code MacAlpin".
* Malcolm III Canmore and Queen Margaret – Malcolm married Margaret, who was his second wife, the great-niece of Edward the Confessor. Margaret's impact was dramatic. She favoured the Roman Catholic church to the Celtic Church. To allow her to feel more at home, Malcolm ordered that the language used at court should be Anglo-Saxon rather than Gaelic. As a result Malcolm III was the first to be called "King of Scotland" in his own time. Margaret also had built what is today called St Margaret's Chapel , in the highest part of Edinburgh Castle. He decided to invade England and was killed in battle against the English. His eldest son from his second marriage , Prince Edward of Scotland, died alongside him.
*The Anglo-Norman invasion of Scotland –The Anglo-Normans were mainly the descendants of the Normans who ruled England following the conquest by William of Normandy. Following the Battle of Hastings, the invading Normans and their descendants formed a distinct population in England. They later spoke what became the Anglo-Norman language. The Norman Conquest of England initiated a chain of events which started to move the Kingdom of Scotland away from its originally Gaelic cultural orientation. By the late 13th century, groups of Norman and Anglo-Norman families had been given Scottish lands. The invasion was peaceful.
*The Scottish Wars of Independence 1286-1371 – The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between Scotland and England. The First War began with the English invasion of Scotland and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton. The Second War began with the English-supported invasion of Edward Baliol and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most defining moments in the nation 's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent nation. The wars were important for the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in mediaeval warfare.
*John Balliol – He was a leading figure of Scottish and English life of his time, he was the Scottish king. Following the death of Margaret of Scotland John was a competitor for the Scottish crown. Edward I steadily undermined John's authority. He treated Scotland as a feudal vassal state, and repeatedly humiliated the new king. Tiring of their deeply compromised king, the direction of affairs was taken out of his hands by the leading men of the kingdom, who appointed a council of twelve. Edward I invaded, commencing the Wars of Scottish Independence. The Scots were defeated. John was imprisoned in the Tower of London briefly at first, but eventually released and allowed to go to France.
*William Wallace – was a Scottish patriot who lead a resistance during the Wars of Scottish Independence. Wallace enters history when he killed the English Sheriff of Lanark. Soon after that other men joined him to fight against the English. It was a remarkable achievement for a mere knight to hold power over the nobles of Scotland. Wallace’s extraordinary military success catapulted him to the top of the social ladder. He defeated an English army at Stirling, and became Guardian of Scotland, serving until his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk. After several years in hiding, Wallace was eventually found and captured and executed.
*Robert Bruce – He became one of Scotland's greatest kings, as well as one of the most famous warriors of his generation, eventually leading Scotland during the Wars of Scottish Independence against the Kingdom of England. He defeated the Scotts in many battles and became Guardian of Scotland after William Wallace. But eventually he surrendered to Edward I. Nevertheless, after several years he secured Scottish independence from England militarily at the Battle of Bannockburn. Freed from English threats, Scotland's armies could now invade northern England.
*The Hammer of the Scotts – Edward I was a King of England who almost succeeded in conquering Scotland and gained that name because of it. Edward insisted that he must be recognized as overlord of Scotland. Eventually, this was accepted, with the condition that Edward's overlordship would only be temporary. Edward named John Balliol the Scottish king. When he demanded Scottish military service against France, the Scots concluded a treaty with France and readied themselves for war with England. Edward's massive army killed many innosent citizens. Edward executed the focus of discontent, William Wallace, having earlier defeated him at the Battle of Falkirk. Although he won the battle, Edward lost many men in the battle and was forced to retreat back to England. Edward's plan to conquer Scotland ultimately failed.
* Eleanor Crosses – The Eleanor crosses were 12 lavishly decorated stone monuments. King Edward I had the crosses erected in memory of his wife Eleanor of Castile. These crosses marked the nightly resting-places along the route taken by her body as it was taken to London. Several artists worked on the crosses. There are three crosses that have survived today. Edward I and Eleanor loved each other very much and theire relationship is said to be very devoted.
*Bannockburn 1314 – The Battle of Bannockburn was a significant Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish Independence. It was the decisive battle in the First War of Scottish Independence. Edward II borrowed considerable sums from his monasteries to assemble the most numerous army that had ever crossed the borders, composed of different nations. However, Scottish forces under King Bruce defeated King Edward II. The victory had the most important consequences . It established Robert firmly upon the throne, and settled throughout the kingdom a tranquillity formerly unknown. The crown had a greater power than it formerly had possessed.
*Edward II, Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer – Roger de Mortimer was an English nobleman, for three years also the ruler of England, after leading a successful rebellion against Edward II. He was himself overthrown by Edward's son, Edward III. Mortimer was also the lover of Edward II's wife, Isabella of France, who assisted him in the deposition of her husband. Edwars was prisoned, but not killed. The Parliament decided simply to remove him from the thrown. He was replaced with his son, who was under the influence of isabella and Mortimer. Edward himself remained imprisoned.
*The Hundred Yers War 1337 -1453 – was a prolonged conflict lasting between two royal houses for the French throne: the House of Valois and the House of Anjou. The House of Valois claimed the title of King of France, while the Anjou from England claimed to be Kings of France and England. The conflict lasted 116 years but was punctuated by several periods of peace. The war was in fact a series of conflicts and was fought for about 81 years. It was a tactical victory for the Anjou, who secured the succession of the French throne. In reality however, it was a strategic victory for the house of Valois, who succeeded in recovering the Anjou gains and expelling them from the majority of France. Militarily, the war saw the introduction of new weapons and tactics.
*Crecy 1346 , Poitiers 1356, Agincourt 1415 – The Battle of Crécy in 1346 near Crécy in northern France, and was one of the most important battles of the Hundred Years' War. The combination of new weapons and tactics made this battle the beginning of the end of chivalry. The Battle of Poitiers was fought between the Kingdoms of England and France on in 1356 near Poitiers, resulting in the second of the three great English victories of the Hundred Years' War: Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. The Battle of Agincourtwas an English victory against the French army in the Hundred Years' War. The battle occurred in northern France. The battle is notable for the use of the English longbow.
*Edward III and the Black Prince as paragons of chivarly – The Black Prince, Edward, was the eldest son of King Edward III of England. King Edward was very chivarly, somethimed even too much. A plan tobring the Round Table of King Arthur live again never happened , though. Edward the Black Prince lived in a century of decline for the knightly ideal of chivalry. After capturing John, king of France, he treated him with great respect and chivarly. On the other hand it was quite effective in accomplishing the goals of his campaigns. Moreover, he was exceptionally harsh toward lower classes in society, as indicated by the heavy taxes.
*The Order of the Garter – was an order of chivalry, or knighthood, originating in medieval England. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter as "a society, fellowship and college of knights." Its original statutes required that each member already be a knight. It initially included the monarch and 25 knights. Membership in the order was intended as a mark of royal favour and a reward for loyalty to the sovereign and for outstanding military service. At roughly the same time that the Order of the Garter was founded, Edward proclaimed Saint George as the patron saint of England and the Order. St. George's Chapel at was named the spiritual home of the Order.
*Black Death 1348 -1350 and the subsequent decline of the manor system – In Medieval England, the Black Death killed 1.5 million people. The Black Death is the name given to a disease called the plague . Its impact on English society from 1348 to 1350 was terrible. It was also to have a major impact on England’s social structure which lead to the Peasants Revolt. The effect of the Black Death on the Peasants' Revolt and the decline of the manor system cannot be denied. With the resulting labor shortage and wage increase, the peasants began to realize that they were important in society. The Black Death was caused by fleas carried by rats that were very common in towns and cities.
*The Peasants’ War 1381 –The peasants resented the continuous oppression of the poor and the restrictions they were forced to endure . Also, the Black Death effected the Peasants' Revolt. With the resulting labor shortage the peasants began to realize that they were important in society. The rebellion spred quickly and the houses of lords were attacked and documents of slavery and tax were burned. This is significant because these documents registered the rights of the serfs and obligations. King Richard promised them to easen theire situation but later declared the promises he made to be void. There were continued resistance, but the renewed confidence of the nobles proved to be too strong, especially when combined with superior military force. Consequently, the repression continued.
*Richard II and Henry Bolingbroke – King Richard had an on-again, off-again relationship with his cousin Henry. Henry was one of the Lords Appellant and one of the Richard's advisor-favorites. However, the increasingly suspicious Richard banished him for ten years. Henry invaded England while Richard was on campaign in Ireland, usurping the throne from the king. Richard lacked support and was quickly captured by Henry IV. Richard was murdered while in prison . There were constant rebellions along Henrys reign by Richards ’ supporters. Henry died in Westminster Abbey as an extremely unpopular king.
*The Wars of the Roses 1455-1485 – Series of civil wars in England fought between supporters of the Houses of Lancaster (King Henry VI, red rose) and York (Richard, white rose). They were marked by brutality that is practically unknown in the history of English wars before and since. The question was which dynasty should be given royal power. The most obvious effect was the collapse of the Plantagenet dynasty and its replacement with the new Tudor rulers who changed England dramatically over the following years. Henry Tudor was a Lancastrian, but when he became king he married Elizabeth of York, He thus reuniting the two royal houses and bringing peace.
*Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodwille – Edward IV was the king of England. He was a York and his claim to the crown was very important in the Wars of the Roses. When his father was killed Edward inherited his claim. With the support of his cousin Richard, Edward defeated the Lancastrians and became the king. His cousin believing that he could continue to rule through Edward, pressed him to enter into a marital alliance with a major European power. Edward then secretly married Elizabeth Woodville, who had a large group of relatively poor but very ambitious Lancastrian relations .
*Richard III and the ’Princes in the Tower’ – The Princes in the Tower were Edward V and his brother Richard. They were the sons of Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. Both princes were declared illegitimate by Parliament. Their uncle, Richard III, placed them both in the Tower of London. Their fate remains unknown, and it is presumed that they either died or were killed there. They were put to prison because Richard III wanted to eliminate the princes from the succession. However, his hold on the monarchy was not secure, and the existence of the princes remained a threat as long as they were alive .
*The House of Tudor (kings, centuries) – The House of Tudor was an English royal dynasty that lasted 118 years, from 15.- 17. century. The Tudors emerged from the Wars of the Roses as England's rulers. There were 6 Tudor monarchs: Henry VII: He was a Lancastrian, but marrying a York he reunited the two royal houses, ended the War of Roses and started the House of Tudor. After him came: Henry VIII , Edward VI, Jane , Mary I, Elizabeth I. The Tudor dynasty ended, for Elizabeth had no children and there was no heir.
*Henry VIII and the English Reformation – Henry VIII was King of England and the second monarch of the House of Tudor. He was a significant figure in the history of the English monarchy and is known for his six marriages. The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th century by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Many factors contributed to the process : the decline of feudalism and the rise of nationalism, the rise of the common law, the invention of the printing press. Ofcourse, as Henry VIII desired for an annulment he was strongly in favour of and influenced the reformation. He broke with Rome and established himself as head of the Church of England.
*Fidei Defensor – It is an originally Latin title which translates to Defender of the Faith . The phrase has been used as part of the full style of many monarchs since the early 16th century. It has been one of the titles of the English and later British and Commonwealth monarchs since it was granted by Pope Leo X to King Henry VIII of England. The title was given in recognition of Henry's book, “Defence of the Seven Sacraments”. It defended the sacramental nature of marriage and the supremacy of the Pope.
*Cardinal Wolsey – He was Henry VIII's most important government minister and the position of a cardinal gave him almost daily contact with the king who rewarded him with huge power. Wolsey was, at times, the government of the country. He did a great deal to reform the legal system in England. It was modernised and the power of the Church courts was reduced as the power of the common law courts was increased. Wolsey’s fall from grace was because of his inability to persuade the pope that Henry should have a divorce from Catherine of Aragon . When Wolsey failed to do this, his position at court was doomed and he was to be imprisoned. However, he died during the journey from York to London.
*Catherine of Aragon – was the Queen of England as the first wife of Henry VIII of England. Henry's attempt to have their 24-year marriage annulled set in motion a chain of events that led to England's break with the Roman Catholic Church. Henry was dissatisfied with the marriage because all their sons had died in childhood, leaving only Princess Mary as an heiress. Despite of the Pope’s refusal to annulment of theire marrige , Henry did it himself and married another . Until the end of her life Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only wife. She was forbidden to see her daughter Mary, but they wrote to each other secretly.
*Anne Boleyn – She was the Queen of England, the second wife of Henry VIII. She refused to marry Henry before annulment of his marriage to Catherine. When the Pope refused to grant the annulment, the argument between King Henry and the Roman Catholic Church began. Anne gave in to Henry and soon became pregnant and the two were secretly married. However, because the child was conceived before Anne and Henry were legitimately wed it was considered a bastard. To make its birth legitimate, theire marriage was declared valid. Anne gave birth to a girl, the future Queen Elizabeth I of England. She failed to produce a surviving male heir. She was beheaded as guilty of adultery and high treason.
*Jane Seymour – She was Queen Consort of England and the third wife of Henry VIII. Henry VIII married her ten days after Anne’s execution. Seymour was said to be strict and formal , she was close only to her female relations. The glittering social life and extravagance of the Queen's Household was replaced by a strict and concervitive one. She gave birth to a son, the future King Edward VI of England. She herself died giving birth. It is said that Henry recognised her as his true wife, for she gave birth to a male heir. Henry was buried next to her.
*Anne of Cleives - She was the Queen of England and the fourth wife of Henry VIII. Anne lacked education in her upbringing , but she was skilled in needlework, and was quite good at card games. Nevertheless, Anne was considered gentle, virtuous. However, Henry disliked from the moment they met and in a short time, Anne was asked for her consent to an annulment, to which she agreed. The marriage was annulled and she received a generous settlement. Henry and Anne became good friends and he later made her a Princess of England. Anne remained in England for the rest of her life.
*Catherine Howord – was the fifth wife of Henry VIII and sometimes known by his reference to her as "the rose without a thorn". Catherine married Henry VIII almost immediately after the annulment of his marriage to Anne of Cleves was arranged. However, Catherine's past history and, eventually, her marital conduct were known to be unvirtuous. She was beheaded after less than two years of marriage to Henry on the grounds of treason, meaning adultery committed while married to the King.
*Catherine Parr – was Queen of England and the last of the six wives of Henry VIII of England. She was the most-married English Queen, with four husbands. It was in the household of Mary I that Catherine Parr caught the attention of the King. After the death of Catherine's second husband the king took a liking to her and she was obliged to accept his proposal . As Queen, Catherine was partially responsible for reconciling Henry with his daughters from his first two marriages. She also developed a good relationship with Henry's son Edward. After Henry's death Catherine was able to marry Thomas Seyemor.
*Thomas Cromwell and the dissolution of the monasteries – was an English statesman who served as King Henry VIII's chief minister. Cromwell supported Henry VIII to make himself head of the English Church. Henry had him, to " visit " all the monasteries, ostensibly to make sure their members were instructed in the new rules for their supervision by the King instead of the Pope, but in reality to inventory their assets. He encouraged the king to re-marry after Jane's premature death. The marriage to Anne of Cleves, however, was a disaster , and this set Cromwell in a bad light. He was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. He was privately executed at the Tower.
*The Protestantism of Edward VI’s reign – The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first Protestant ruler. Although Edward reigned for only six years, his reign made a lasting contribution to the English Reformation and the structure of the Church of England. Edward's reign saw radical progress in the Reformation. In those six years, the Church transferred from an essentially Roman Catholic structure to Protestant. Edward himself fully approved these changes . The English Reformation resumed its course, and most of the reforms established during Edward’s reign were reestablished in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.
* Lady Jane Grey – was a claimant to the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Ireland. She was a grand -niece of Henry VIII. Edward VI of England gave the crown to Jane. When Edward VI died, Jane was proclaimed Queen. However, Mary Tudor managed to find sufficient support for her claim to the throne, Parliament declared Mary the rightful Queen and revoked Jane's proclamation. Mary imprisoned Jane and her husband at the Tower of London. They were both charged with high treason and sentenced to death. Lady Jane Grey's rule is the shortest rule of England in its history.
*The restored Catholicism of Mary I/Bloody Mary – She was the daughter of King Henry VIII. She reigned as Queen of England. Mary had always resented the break with Rome that her father had instituted and she tried to turn England back to Roman Catholicism. This effort was carried out by force, and hundreds of Protestant leaders were executed. This earned the queen the title of “Bloody Mary”. Her catholicisming was not very popular, however. She was succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth I, who quickly undid many of Mary's changes, and returned England to its former Protestant- friendly environment.
*Elizabeth I and the Church of England/Anglican Church, The 39 Articles – She was Queen of England and sometimes called The Virgin Queen, she was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The Thirty -Nine Articles of Religion are the historic defining statements of Anglican doctrine. They were passed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The Articles highlight the Anglican positions with regards to the corruption of Catholic doctrine, to orthodox Roman Catholic teachings, to Puritanism, and to Anabaptist thought. They are divided, per the command of Queen Elizabeth I, into four sections.
*John Knox – He was a Scottish clergyman and leader of the Protestant Reformation and is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination. He led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility. The movement may be seen as a revolution , since it led to the ousting of the queen, Mary of Guise, who governed the country in the name of her young daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots. Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk . He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants throughout Mary's reign.
*The Scottish Reformed Church/the Kirk – It is the national church of Scotland. It is a Presbyterian church, decisively shaped by the Scottish Reformation. The Church of Scotland traces its roots back to the beginnings of Christianity in Scotland, but its identity was shaped by the Reformation. At that point, the church in Scotland broke with Rome, in a process of Protestant reform led, among others , by John Knox.
*Mary Queen of Scotts – She was the queen of Scots and also the queen consort of France. After a long period of custody in England, she was tried and executed for treason following her involvement in three plots to assassinate Elizabeth I of England and place herself on the English throne. She was seen as an instrument of removing Elizabeth I. Elizabeth was afraid to kill her, so she kept her in England for 18 years shut up in a castle. The spies working for Elizabeth made up a plot and Mary was executed. She died as a catholic marter.
*The defeat of the Invincible Armada 1588 – In 1588, King Philip II of Spain sent the Great Armada, an armed fleet, to conquer England. Henry VIII rejected the power of the Pope but Spain remained Catholic and religious and Philip wanted to make England return to the old faith. The second important reason was competition for supremacy in trade and sea power. The Armada anchored at the coastal border area between France and the Spanish Netherlands . While awaiting communications from Parma 's army, it was driven from the bay by an English fire ship attack. The English fleet followed them and the fleet sailed into the Atlantic , past Ireland. 50 vessels failed to make it back to Spain.
*The House of Stuart (kings, centuries) – Founded by Robert II of Scotland, the Stewarts first became monarchs of the Kingdom of Scotland during the late 14th century. During the reign of the Stewarts, Scotland developed from a poor and backwards country into a more prosperous one. There were five Stuart monarchs who ruled both England and Scotland as well as Ireland: James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II, William III and Mary, Anne, Anne of Great Britain died without an heire and all the crown passed to the House of Hanover.
*The Stuart ’divine right of kings’ –It was during the Early Modern period that the divine right of kings emerged as a political theory in England. Emergency powers, such as jailing without trial , were universally held to be within the monarch’s power. However the Stuart kings stretched every letter of these prerogatives and had a different opinion of these “absolute powers.” James Stuart was a Scottish Catholic who believed in the "Divine Right" to rule as he pleased. In the Trew Law, he sets out the divine right of kings, explaining that for Biblical reasons kings are higher beings than other men. The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative.
*Charles I’s ’tyranny’ – The Personal Rule (also known as the Eleven Years' Tyranny) was the period when King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland ruled without recourse to Parliament. He was entitled to do this under the Royal Prerogative, but his actions caused discontent among those who provided the ruling classes. Parliament began to criticise the king more harshly than before. Charles then realised that, as long as he could avoid war, he could rule without parliament. The term Eleven Years' Tyranny is indicative of the partisan nature of activities at the time, which would eventually result in the English Civil War. Charles was executed for high treason.
*Archbishop William Laud’s controversial church reforms – Laud was one of the senior advisors to Charles I. Laud brought an end to reforms within the Church which he believed had already gone too far. Laud’s instruction that wooden communion tables should be replaced with stone altars infuriated Puritans . Laud wanted strict uniformity within the Church and no deviation from what he wanted. Laud’s main priority was “decent order” and unity within the Church. He attempted to get stained glass windows back in churches and he wanted the altar moved from the centre of a church to the east end.
*The Long Parliament 1640-1653 – is the name of the English Parliament called by Charles I following the Bishops' Wars. It received its name from the fact that through a unique Act of Parliament, it could only be dissolved with the agreement of the members, and those members did not agree to its dissolution until after the English Civil War. It was dominated by puritans and they were intent on establishingtheir control over the rule of the King. Its first session abolished all prerogative courts.
*The Civil War – was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory. The Civil War led to the execution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II, and replacement of English monarchy with first, the Commonwealth of England and then with a Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule.
*The Cavaliers – (In Italian: knights) They were long-haired members of the loyalist country gentry who fought for the King Charles I and later supported the Tory party . They came from among the old aristrocracy in the North and West, country squires, cathedral and small towns. They were all Roman Catholics and theire headquarters was at Oxford. Their cavalry was under the leadership of Prince Rupert . He was Charles’s 22-year-old nephew of some military experience.
*The Roundheads – Theire name comes from the closely cropped hair of the followers of the Parliamentary party. They came from among the newly rich in the East and London, the merchant class and new lanowners, most towns (ecpecially with sea and cloth trade connection ). They were Puritans and they eventually won the Second Civil War and Charles I was executed. Their opponents were The Cavaliers, who supported King Charles I.
*Oliver Cromwell - was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth. He was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector until his death. Cromwell has been a very controversial figure in the history of the British Isles – a regicidal dictator to some historians and a hero of liberty to others.
*The New Model Army - was created by Parliament as it felt that a professional army would be more successful against the King’s army. It was a military unit that was to transform the English Civil War.  Oliver Cromwell was put in charge of the cavalry. It was a military force based on a person ’s ability rather than on your position within society. If you were good enough, you could be an officer in it. This removal of this social obstacle meant that the New Model Army was open to new ideas and social class meant nothing. The horses were the key to the success of the Army as an attack by an unit of them was based on speed. Discipline was strict and the training was thorough.
*Marston Moor 1644, Naseby 1645 – The Battle of Marston Moor was fought during the First English Civil War. The combined forces of the Scotts and the Parliamentarians defeated the Royalists. After their defeat the Royalists effectively abandoned the north of England. Not only did they lose much of the manpower from the counties but they were then restricted to Wales and the southwest of England. The Battle of Naseby was the key battle of the first English Civil War. The main army of King Charles I was destroyed by the Parliamentarian New Model Army under Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell. It marked the destruction of the Royalists army.
*The Independents – The New Model Army grew out of and around Oliver Cromwell’s regiments and developed into a political force- the Independents. It set the tone in the soldiers ’ councils which in their preyer meetings discussed political and religious affairs. Thus, they were shaping the Army’s theories about Church and State which included demands for religious toleration except for Roman Catholics and High Anglicans on the Right and Freethinkers and Unitarians on the Left.
* Pride ’s Purge and the Rump – Pride’s Purge took place when troops under the command of Colonel Pride forcibly removed from the House of Commons all the Presbyterians and left less than 100 Independent members to represent the Commons- the Rump. The Rump abolished the House of Lords, passed a resolution that stated that the Commons of England in Parliament assembled have the supreme power in this nation. They also confiscated the Crown, Church, Royalists’ lands and sold the outright.
*Regicide 1649 – The broad definition of regicide is the deliberate killing of a monarch, it refers to the judicial execution of a king after alleged due process of law. King Charles I was executed after losing The Second Civil War to the Parliamentarists. He was a prisoner of the Parliamentarians. When it became obvious to the leaders of the Parliamentarians that they could not negotiate a settlement with him and they could not trust him to refrain from raising an army against them, they came to the conclusion that they would have to kill him. He was found guilty and his death warrant was signed by 59 Commissioners.
*The Commonwealth 1649-1660 – Was the government for the common good, the government consisted partly of army officers and partly of members of the „Rump“. It was the republican government which ruled first England and then Ireland and Scotland. After the English Civil War its existence was initially declared in An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth by the Rump Parliament. The government was properly called The Protectorate, and took the form of direct personal rule by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.
*General Monk – He was the commander of the garrison in Scotland. He entered London and forced the „Rump“ into dissolving itself, after having made the arrangements for a new election. Monk also began negotiations with the exiled Charles II which culminated into Declaration of Breda in which Charles promised several things in order to return. In Restoration a newly assembled Parliament invited Charles on the strenght of the Declaration of Breda to return.
*Restoration 1660 – began when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchy were restored under Charles II after the Interregnum that followed the English Civil War. The “Rump” was forced into dissolving itself and arrangements of a new election were made by General Monk. Soon, newly assembled Parliament invited Charles II back to the throne on the strenght of the Declaration of Breda. According to it, Charles had promised religious toleration, liberty of conscience, general amnesty and respect for existing prperty relations.
*The Clarendon Code – It was a series of four legal statutes which effectively re-established the supremacy of the Anglican Church after the interlude of Cromwell's Commonwealth, and ended toleration for dissenting religions. The Code was named for Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, who was Charles II's Lord Chancellor. Clarendon enforced the laws despite his personal opposition to many of the provisions of the Code. The Clarendon Code effectively ended any possibility of the Anglican Church and Nonconformists coming together under one religious and social banner.
*The emergence of the two-party system, the Whigs and the Tories (the cabinet system) – The emergence of the two-party system resulted partly from the controversy surrounding the succession of James Duke of York. The Whigs wanted to exclude James from the succession of the throne, the tories were in favour of it. The Whigs and Tories were the world's first political parties and over the years to come they were to share government and opposition in a dual party system. The Whigs became the Liberal Party and the Tories became the Conservative Party.
*The Glorious Revolution 1688 – was the overthrow of King James II of England by a union of Parliamentarians with an invading army led by William of Orange. The Glorious Revolution is also sometimes called the Bloodless Revolution, but it was not completely bloodless. In England there were two significant clashes between the two armies. The revolution led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England and the overthrow of the Maryland's government. James's overthrow began modern English parliamentary democracy : never again would the monarch hold absolute power, and the Bill of Rights became one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain.
*The Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 – Bill of Rights registered the struggle between the Stuart kings and Parliament. It stated that no Roman Catholic would rule England. It also gave civil and political rights to the people and political supremacy to Parliament. It was completed by the Act of Settlement. It stated that should William III and Princess (Later Queen) Anne die without heirs, succession should pass to Sophia and to her Protestant heirs.
*The War of the Spanish Succession/the Marlborough Wars 1071-1714 – In this war several European powers combined to stop a possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France, upsetting the European balance of power. The war began as the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I fought to protect his own dynasty's claim to the Spanish inheritance. As Louis XIV began to expand his territories more aggressively, however, other European nations entered on Leopold’s. Spain was divided over the issue of succession, and fell into a civil war. As a resultof the war, Philip V remained King of Spain but was removed from the French line of succession. France's hegemony over continental Europe was ended, and the idea of a balance of power became a part of the international order.
*The Act of Union with Scotland 1707 – Uniting the kingdoms of Scotland and England had been proposed for a hundred years before it actually happened in 1707. In a poorly attended Scottish Parliament the MPs voted to agree the Union and so the Act of Union was signed. The Scottish parliament was dissolved and England and Scotland became one country. Scotland kept its independence with respect to its legal and religious systems, but taxation , trade, parliament and flag became one. England opened its home and colonial markets to Scotland.
*The House of Hanover (kings, centuries) – It is a Germanic royal dynasty which has ruled the Kingdom of Hanover, Great Britain and Ireland. It succeeded the House of Stuart as monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland and held that office until the death of Victoria. Queen Victoria was the granddaughter of George III, and was a descendant of most major European royal houses. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover. George I, George II, George III (in the 18th century), George IV, William IV, Victoria (in the 19th century).
*Robert Walpole and the Cabinet System – He was a British statesman who was the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Walpole is acknowledged for his influence within the Cabinet. Walpole served during the reigns of George I and George II. He became the sole and undisputed leader of the Cabinet. Walpole's influence on the politics of his day was tremendous. The Tories became a minor , insignificant faction, and the Whigs became a dominant and largely unopposed party. Walpole's strategy of keeping Great Britain at peace contributed greatly to the country's prosperity. Walpole also managed to secure the position of the Hanoverian Dynasty, and effectively countervailed Jacobitism.
*The Jackobite Rebellions of 1708, 1715, 1745 – They were a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. The uprisings were aimed at returning James VII of Scotland and II of England, and later his descendants of the House of Stuart, to the throne. Although each Jacobite Rising has unique features, they all formed part of a larger series of military campaigns by Jacobites attempting to restore the Stuart kings to the thrones of Scotland and England. The risings continued, and even intensified, after the House of Hanover succeeded to the British Throne. They continued until the last Jacobite Rebellion led by Charles Stuart was defeated, ending any realistic hope of a Stuart restoration.
*The Old Pretender/ the Chevalier St George – The Two Pretenders were James Edward Stuart, known as the Old Pretender, and his son Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender.  Both were determined to take their place on the British throne. James Edward Stuart was a devout Catholic, and his unwillingness to compromise on religion turned many potential allies away from him. He attempted an invasion of Scotland with French fleet, but failed. He was never recognized as a king of Great Britain.
*The Young Pretender/ Bonnie Prince Charlie - The Two Pretenders were James Edward Stuart, known as the Old Pretender, and his son Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender.  Both were determined to take their place on the British throne. The Jacobite movement tried to restore the family to the throne. After his father's death Charles was recognised as Charles III by his supporters; his opponents referred to him as The Young Pretender. He failed to become the king of Great Britain as he was defeated by the Duke of Cumberland.
*The War of the Austrian Succession 1740 - 1748 – The war began under the pretext that Maria Theresa of Austria was ineligible to succeed to the throne, because the law precluded royal inheritance by a woman. Prussia and Austria fought for the German states . Austria was supported by Great Britain, Kingdom of Sardinia and Saxony. Prussia joined Franze, Spain and Bavaria. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle , which left the balance of the ppower undecided between England and France undecided.
*The Seven Years War 1756-1763 – It was a continuation of the War of the Austrian Succession. The war began with Frederick of Prussia's invasion of Saxony. The British entered two years after the start of the war, later calling it the "Seven Year's War", although it was really nine years. Prussia, Electorate Brunswick-Lüneburg, and Great Britain were against Austria, France, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Saxony. The war ended France's position as a major colonial power in the Americas and its position as the leading power in Europe. Great Britain emerged as the dominant colonial power in the world. The war was the first conflict in human history to be fought around the globe , although most of the combatants were either European nations or their overseas colonies .
*The British East India Company and the British expanision in India – It established its first factory in India at Surat. The British traded in coffee , textiles, tea. England and France fought for supremacy in India in the Seven Years’ War. The war made England the world’s chief colonial power. An East India Company officer Robert Clive won a series of battles against france and brought Bengal under British control. Financial indiscipline led to the loss of independence of the company and its powers were handed over to the Briish crown.
*The American War of Independence 1775-1783 – began as a war between Great Britain and thirteen united former British colonies on the North American continent and ended in a global war between several European great powers. The war was the culmination of the political American Revolution. In 1775, Revolutionaries gained control of each of the thirteen colonial governments, set up the Second Continental Congress , and formed a Continental Army. The following year, they formally declared their independence as a new nation, the United States of America. Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside largely failed due to their relatively small land army. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States.
* Canada as a British colony – It was discovered by John Cabot . With the union of three British North American colonies Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom culminating in the Canada Act. The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland and colonized the Thirteen Colonies to the south. The Treaty of Paris ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain following the Seven Years' War.
* Australia as a British colony – In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia and separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales. The Northern Territory was founded when it was excised from South Australia. South Australia was founded as a "free province " — that is, it was never a penal colony. The United Kingdom's Statute of Westminster formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States.
*New- Zealand as a British colony – New Zealand is one of the most recently settled major landmasses. The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were the Dutch , after them British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. The British government claimed a treaty with Māori. The Treaty is regarded as New Zealand's foundation as a nation and is revered by Māori as a guarantee of their rights. Under British rule New Zealand had been part of the colony of New South Wales. New Zealand became an independent Dominion and a fully independent nation when the Statute of Westminster was ratified, although in practice Britain had ceased to play any real role in the government of New Zealand much earlier than this.
*The British expansion in South Africa – When Dutch mercantile power began to fade, the British moved in to fill the vacuum. They seized the Cape to prevent it from falling into the hands of Napoleonic France. British sovereignty of the area was recognized at the Congress of Vienna. A pattern soon emerged whereby English-speakers became highly urbanised, and dominated politics and trade while the largely uneducated Boers were relegated to their farms. The gap between the British settlers and the Boers further widened with the abolition of slavery. South African Wars between the British and the Boers concluded in the Treaty of Vereeniging. Under its terms, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control.
*The Great Trek and the foundation of the two independent Boer republics – The Great Trek was an eastward and north-eastward migration over the Orange River of the Boers, who descended from settlers from western mainland Europe, most notably from the Netherlands. They wanted to establish an independent Boer republic . The Natalia Republic was established by the local Boers after Pretorius entered into an alliance with the new Zulu king. The Orange Free State was recognized as independent by Great Britain and it became officially independent with the signing of the Bloemfontein or Orange River Convention. The Orange Free State was nicknamed the model republic.
*The Napoleonic Wars 1793-1815 – were a series of conflicts involving Napoleon 's French Empire. After the end of the French Revolutionary Wars, Britain declaired war on France. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe, but collapsed rapidly after France's disastrous invasion of Russia. The Napoleonic Wars ended following Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo and the Second Treaty of Paris. The United Kingdom emerged as the most powerful country in the world. Britain's Royal Navy held unquestioned naval superiority throughout the world and her industrial economy made it the most powerful commercial country as well.
*Viscount Nelson and Trafalgar 1805 – He was a British flag officer famous for his participation in the Napoleonic Wars. He served in the Royal Navy for most of his life and won a number of significant victories, most notably at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, during which he lost his life. The Battle of Trafalgar was a sea battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the French Navy and Spanish Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. The battle was the most decisive British victory of the war. The British victory spectacularly confirmed the naval supremacy of Britain. Nelson was mortally wounded during the battle, becoming and remaining Britain's greatest naval war hero.
*The Duke of Wellington and Waterloo 1815 – He was one of the leading military and political figures of the nineteenth century. In the Battle of Waterloo forces of Napoleon were defeated by those of the Seventh Coalition, including a Prussian army and an army under the command of the Duke of Wellington. It was the decisive battle of the Waterloo Campaign and Bonaparte 's last. The defeat at Waterloo put an end to Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French, and marked the end of Napoleon's Hundred Days of return from exile.
*The Congress of Vienna 1815 – was a conference of ambassadors of European states, held in Vienna. Its objective was to redraw the continent's political map and settle many other issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The immediate background was France's defeat and surrender which brought an end to twenty-five years of almost continuous war. The negotiations continued despite a final outburst of fighting triggered by ex-Emperor Napoleon's dramatic return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days. The Congress of Vienna formed the framework for European international politics.
*Regency – The Regency period in the UK is the period when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son, later George IV, was named Prince Regent . It can be considered to be a transitional period between "Georgian" and "Victorian" eras. The era was distinctive for its architecture , literature, fashions, and politics. It was a period of excess for the aristocracy: for example, it was during this time that the Prince Regent built the Brighton Pavilion. However, it was also an era of uncertainty caused by the Napoleonic wars.
*The Peterloo Massacre 1819 – occurred at St Peter's Field, England. The end of the Napoleonic Wars had resulted in periods of famine and unemployment . It had enhanced the appeal of political Radicalism. In response, a group agitating for parliamentary reform, organised a demonstration to be addressed by Henry Hunt. Shortly after the meeting began, local magistrates called on the military authorities to arrest Hunt and to disperse the crowd. Cavalry charged into the crowd and 15 people were killed, 400–700 were injured. Peterloo's immediate effect was to cause the government to crack down on reform, with the passing of what became known as the Six Acts .
*The campaign for parliamentary reform from mid C18 into the C20 – The idea for reform was a slow process. The reformers caused those in power some concern and were repressed by a series of measures . The Great Reform Act abolished many small towns - their seats being redistributed to form new towns. The Second Reform Act extended suffrage to all borough householders. Corrupt practices were eventually stopped by the Corrupt Practices Act, which was established as a result of public outcry from the findings of a Royal Commission. The Act imposed penalties for bribery and set maximums levels to be spent on electoral campaigns. The Third Reform Act gave votes to householders in counties. In the end of 19th century, women were drawn into a more active involvement of political arena . The Equal Franchise Act gave vote to all women over 21.
*The Free Trade and Corn Law debates – The Corn Law artificially raised the price of imported corn to keep it out of the British market. Various other corn laws had been imposed since the 12th century to regulate the export of grain. Britain's repeal of the Corn Laws was a significant event in the rise of a global economy in the second half of the 19th century. Free trade is a system in which the trade of goods and services between or within countries flows unhindered by government-imposed restrictions. It is known that various prosperous world civilizations have engaged in trade. These theories were developed in its sense from the commercial culture of England, and more broadly Europe.
*The Industrial Revolution – It was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing , production , and transportation had a profound effect in Britain. There occurred a transition previously manual- labour -based economy towards machine -based manufacturing. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The impact of this change on society was enormous. The First Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways and electricity. The Industrial Revolution began an era of per- capita economic growth in capitalist economies .
*The emergence of the Conservative Party – is the successor of the Tory Party, it was created by Sir Robert Peel after the Reform Bill. It continued the Tory policy of the protection of the agricultural interests and tghe defence of the Church of England against Dissent. The repeal of the Corn Laws under Peel caused a split in the party and resulted in its loss of power for some time. It was lead by Sir Winston Churchill during II World War. Later it returned to power under Margaret Thatcher.
*The emergence of the Liberal Party – It grew out of the Whig Party after the Reformation Bill as a representative of industrial and business classes. Under W. Gladstone it accepted electoral and social reforms. After World War I the party went into decline, a process fastened by the rise of the labour Party. By the 1930s the liberals had become a small third party, a status which endured in the postwar era. It finally merged with the Social Democrats, creating the alliance of Social and Liberal Democrats.
*The emergence of the Labour Party – It grew out of the Labour Representative Committee . It rose to official opposition status and formed minority governments, both under rule of R. MacDonald. After serving in the all-party wartime coalition, the Party won overwhelming victory under the leadership of C. Attlee. His government instituted extensive nationalization and welfare state measures, including the creation of the national health service.
*The Great Exhibition 1851 – also known as Crystal Palace , was an international exhibition that was held in Hyde Park and the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry. The Great Exhibition was organized by members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts as a celebration of modern industrial technology and design. A special building , The Crystal Palace, was designed to house the show. Six million people visited the Exhibition. The Great Exhibition made a surplus of £186,000 which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Natural History Museum.
*The Crimean War 1854-1856 – was fought between the Russian Empire on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire on the other. The war was part of a long- running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean War is sometimes considered to be the first modern conflict and introduced technical changes which affected the future course of warfare. During peace negotiations the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast. Still, Russia once again established a fleet in the Black Sea.
*Pax Britannica – was the period of relative peace in Europe when the British Empire controlled most naval trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. Britain dominated overseas markets. The Empire's strength was guaranteed by Europes lack in strong nation states, and the presence of the Royal Navy on all of the world's oceans and seas. This led to the spread of the English language and the British Imperial system of measures. The Pax Britannica was weakened by the breakdown of the continental order established by the Congress of Vienna. The industrialization of Germany , the Empire of Japan , and the United States of America further contributed to the decline of British industrial supremacy.
*The British expansion in the Pacific area – In the early 19th century the London Missionary Society sent missionaries to Tahiti and Tonga , years later the Church Missionary Society undertook the conversion of Melanesia. In the late 19th century High Commissioner for the Western Pasific claimed jurisdiction over all the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia, which were not yet annexed by other powers and took up residence in Fiji . Years later the High Commission authority extended to many other islands in the Pasific area and organized a new colony of Southern Oceania.
*The British presence in Egypt and Sudan – Ismail of Egypt was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British government. This led to the establishments of British and French controllers who were the real power in the government. Fearing a diminishment of their control, they bombarded Alexandria and crushed the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people led Great Britain to sign a declaration of Egypt's independence. Tewfik of Sudan and his mismanagement resulted in revolt, which threatened his survival . He appealed for help to the British. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedivial government. Eventually, a revolt broke out in Sudan, which culminated in the fall of Khartoum and the death of the British governor General Gordon . The Egyptian and British forces withdrew from Sudan.
*General Gordon and Khartoum 1885 – was a British army officer and administrator. He is remembered for his campaigns in China and northern Africa. The khedive asked for Gordon to succeed Baker as governor of the region. After a short stay in Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartoum. He ignored the orders to evaquate the area as soon as possible and he found himself surrounded in Khartoum in 1885. He was killed fighting the warriors of the Mahdi and died a martyr’s death.
*The British expansion in East Africa – The Sultan of Zanzibar received, in exhange of some of his terriories in the north, a land along the coast which the british East Africa Company leased. Zanzibar was annexed and recognized as a British protectorate. A protectorate was also established over the Republic of Uganda. A year later British East Africa became a protectorate.
*The British expansion in West Africa – The unprofitable coastal stations in Sierra Leone had provided useful bases for the campaign against the slave trade. When the Dutch government sold their Gold Coast forts to UK, Britain controlled the entire coast. The island of Lagos proved a useful commercial port and the gateway to the rich palm-oil regions. The Berlin Conference opened the continent to European invaders. The territories of the Royal Niger Company were taken over by the crown and recognized as the protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria.
* Cecil Rhodes and the British expansion into the southern African interior – Rhodes went to South Africa at the age of 17 and gained a huge fortune . He founded the De Beers company, gained the monopoly of mineral rights in the Southern Rhodesia. He was also the prime minister of the Cape Colony. Rhodes was given free hands in his project, the ’Cape to Cairo’ railway. Britain refused to grant Southern Rhoesia independence. But as the blacks forced the white government to make concessions, the terms were negotiated in London and Rhodesia became an independent republic with a black government.
*The Boer Wars 1880-1881, 1899-1902 – were fought between the British empire and the two independent Boer republics, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic. The First Boer War was a relatively brief conflict in which Boer settlers successfully resisted a British attempt to annex the Transvaal, and re-established an independent republic. The Second Boer War was a lengthy war which ended with the conversion of the Boer republics into British colonies, with a promise of limited self-government. The Second Boer War was a major turning point in British history, since the war led to a change in approach to foreign policy from Britain who now set about looking for more allies.
*The Indian Mutiny 1857-1858 – Revoly of the Indian soldiers in the British army in Bengal. It developed into a wide-spread uprising against British rule in India. The Indian soldiers recented British annexion of Oudh. Fighting quickly spread and the civil population were involved in the rising. Various reforms resulted, the most important being the transfer of rule from the east India Company to the British crown.
*The British Raj in India – refers to the British rule in the Indian subcontinent. The region included areas directly administered by the United Kingdom. The resulting political union was called the Indian Empire. The system of governance was instituted when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria and lasted until when the British Indian Empire was partioned into two sovereign dominion states, the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. Other parts of the Indian Empire became the independent states of Burma and Sri Lanka .
*The British expansion in Asia – Following the end of the Seven Years' War, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the British East India Company as the most important political force on the Indian Subcontinent. The beginning of World War I, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, and South East Asia. None of the colonial powers possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both world wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of the Asia's remaining colonies, decolonisation was intercepted by the Cold War.
*The House of Wettin (kings, centuries) – was a dynasty of German counts, dukes, and kings that ruled the area of today's German states for more than 800 years. As Queen Victoria married Prince Albert from the house of Wettin, her descendants were members of the house name of Wettin. Victoria's son, Edward VII, and, in turn, his son, George V, reigned as members of this house. However, high anti-German sentiment amongst the people of the British Empire during World War I prompted the King to abandon all titles held under the German Crown, and to change German sounding titles and house names to English sounding versions. Hence , all descendants of Victoria would be members of the House of Windsor, with the personal surname Windsor.
*The movement for women’s emancipation and suffrage in the C19 and C20 – A series of Married Women’s property Acts were passed, giving all women the right to retain a separate income after marriage. Other changes in the law further strenghtened the rights of women. Matrimonial Causes Act set up civil courts for devorce proceedings. In the end of 19th century, women were drawn into a more active involvement of political arena. The Manchester Women’s Suffrage Committee maintained a steady level of propaganda to win converts to theire cause. The Equal Franchise Act gave vote to all women over 21.
*The House of Widsor (kings, centuries) – is the current Royal House of the United Kingdom and each of the other Commonwealth realms. The royal house was founded by George V. The House of Windsor remains one of the only dynasties to have ruled over lands on all continents of the world simultaneously. The current head of the House of Windsor is Elizabeth II. George V ( 20th century), Edward VIII abdicated throne in favour of George VI. His daughter Elizabeth II is the current queen of England. His son Charles is next to inherit the throne and after him his son William.
*World War I 1914-1918 – The assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne set into motion a series of events that eventually led into a war. The war was fought between the Entente Powers consisted of France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, Italy and USA. The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria- Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The War was one of the crucial events in the history of the 20th century. The War resulted in the collapse of the Empires of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Ottoman Turks. The Treaty of Versailles, which Germany was kept under blockade until she signed, ended the war. It declared Germany responsible for the war and required Germany to pay enormous war reparations and award territory to the victors.
*The Gallipoli campaign – It took place in Turkey during the First World War. A joined British Empire and French operation had to capture the Ottoman capital of Constantinople and secure a sea route to Russia. The attempt failed, with heavy casualties on both sides . In Turkey, the battle is thought at as a defining moment in the history of the Turkish people—a final surge in the defense of the motherland as the centuries-old Ottoman Empire was crumbling. In Australia and New Zealand, the campaign was the first major battle undertaken by a joined military formation , the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and is often considered to mark the birth of national consciousness in both of these countries.
*The Mesopotamian campaign – was a campaign in Middle East during the I World War. It was a British campaign in the present-day Iraq . Britain’s aim was to secure access to vital Persian oil supplies. The advance towards Bagdad was slow but successful. The campaign received a severe setback when 10 000 allied soldiers were captured by Turks. Still, Bagdad fell and the Turks were defeated. The British and the British Indian Army forces lost many soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. The vast majority of the British empire forces in this campaign were recruited from India
*The campaign of the Western Front – Following the outbreak of World War I the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium . This line remained essentially unchanged for most of the war. There were several major offensives along this front. In an effort to break the deadlock , this front saw the introduction of new military technology, including poison gas, aircraft, and tanks. In spite of the generally stagnant nature of this front, this theater would prove decisive. The advance of the Allied armies persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable, and the government was forced to ask for conditions of an armistice (relvarahu).
*The campaign for the Irish Home Rule in the C19 and C20 – The Irish Home Rule were bills introduced in the British House of Commons during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, intended to grant self-government and national autonomy to the whole of Ireland. There were four such Home Rule bills. Third Home Rule Act was a British Act of Parliament intended to provide self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Act was the first law ever passed by the British parliament that established devolved government in a part of the United Kingdom. The Act never took effect, but was finally replaced by a fourth Act.
*The problem of Ulster in C20 – After World War II  large groups of young people began to demonstrate and demand their rights.  The new generation of IRA leaders welcomed and aided the violent youngsters.  The violence created a situation of terrorism, fear and greater support for radical groups.  Gradually the presence was "normalized". A regional diplomatic breakthrough between the UK government and the Republic of Ireland united the two governments north and south of the border in the Anglo-Irish Agreement.  The use of concerned third parties also played an important part.  The wider political trends of the European Union also undercut the conflict. 
*Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson – He was King of the United Kingdom until his abdication. Only months into his reign, Edward caused a constitutional crisis by proposing marriage to the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. Although legally Edward could have married Mrs. Simpson and remained king, the prime ministers opposed the marriage, arguing that the people would never accept her as queen. Rather than give up Mrs. Simpson, Edward chose to abdicate, making him the only monarch of Britain to have voluntarily relinquished the throne. After the World War II they moved to France.
*World War II 1939-1945 – was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies (UK, USA and the Soviet Union) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan). Over 70 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history. The starting date of the war is generally held to be September 1939 with the German invasion of Poland and declarations of war on Germany by the United Kingdom, France and the British Dominions. The Allies won the war, but suffered great loss. The United Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict.
*The ’phoney war’ – It is the name given to the period of time in World War Two when, after the attack on Poland seemingly nothing happened. Many in Great Britain expected a major calamity – but the title ‘Phoney War’ summarises what happened in Western Europe – near enough nothing. In Western Europe very little of military importance did take place. In fact, so little occurred that many of the children who had been evacuated at the start of the war, had returned to their families. In fact, things were happening but the public in Britain were not aware of them.
*Battle of Britain 1940, El Alamein 1942, Singapore 1942 – Battle of Britain is the name given to the sustained strategic effort by the German Air Force during the summer and autumn of 1940 to gain air superiority over the Royal Air Force. The Battle of Britain was the first major campaign to be fought entirely by air forces. It marked the first defeat of Hitler 's military forces. The First Battle of El Alamein was a battle of the Western Desert Campaign of World War II, fought between Axis forces and Allied forces. The battle stopped the second (and final) advance by the Axis forces into Egypt. The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian area in World War II when Japan invaded Singapore. It resulted in the fall of Singapore—the major British military base in South East Asia—to the Japanese , and the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history.
*D-Day 1944, Operation Overlord – was the code name for the invasion of northwest Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation began with the Normandy Landings on June 6, 1944, commonly known as D-Day. Allied land forces that saw combat in Normandy on D-Day itself came from Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Other Allied nations participated in the naval and air forces. A three-week military buildup occurred on the beaches before Operation Cobra, the operation to break out from the Normandy beachhead began. The German retreat across the Seine was completed on 30 August 1944.
*Winston Churchill – He was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He also served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice. During his army career, Churchill saw combat in India, in the Sudan and the Second Boer War. He gained fame and notoriety as a war correspondent and through contemporary books he wrote describing the campaigns. After the outbreak of the Second World War, Churchill became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and led Britain to victory against the Axis powers. Churchill was always noted for his speeches, which became a great inspiration to the British people and embattled Allied forces.
*The establishment and breakdown of the welfare state – A series of changes were put in place by government to deal with the Evils in the society after the Second World War. Modern, complex industry had more need for a healthy and educated workforce than older industries had. A centralised welfare state was an attractive way to ensure the dominance of the self-confident bureaucratic class. The Welfare State was a commitment to health, education, employment and social security. It was believed that the overall cost of medical care would decrease, as people became more healthy. Instead the cost increased dramatically, leading to severe financial problems. However, since the 1980s the British government has begun to reduce some provisions in England: for example, free eye tests for all have now been stopped and prescription charges for drugs have constantly risen.
*Margaret Thatcher – She was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party, she is the only woman to hold either post. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised reduced state intervention, free markets, and entrepreneurialism. Thatcher took a hard line against trade unions, survived an assassination attempt, and defiantly opposed the Soviet Union. She was the first woman to lead a major political party in the UK, and the first of only three women to hold any of the four great offices of state. She had a nickname ‘The Iron Lady’.