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Tallinna Ülikool - Kultuur-Kunst - Stilistika (inglise)
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1. STYLE
The term “style” is polysemantic (has many meanings): a Latin word “stilus” originally meant a writing instrument used by ancient people. Already in classical Latin the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one’s ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift defined style as “ proper words in proper places ”. In present day English the word “style” is used in about a dozen of principle meanings:
  • the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his/her ideas (e.g. style of Byron )
  • the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period
  • the use of language typical of a literary genre (e.g. the style of a comedy , drama , novel ).
  • the selective use of language that depends on spheres / areas of human activity (e.g. style of fiction , scientific prose , newspapers , business correspondence, etc.).
    STYLISTICS
    Stylistics – is the study of style. The very term “stylistics” came in more common use in English only some 45 years ago. Stylistics is a part of style; it studies principles of selecting and using different linguistic means (grammatical and phonetic ) that serve to render shades of meaning.
    The Stylistics of language studies stylistic devices and expressive shades of linguistic units ( words , construction of phrases ).
    The Stylistics of speech studies individual texts viewing the way the message or content is expressed.
    Literary Stylistics concentrates on artistic expressiveness that characterizes a literary work , a writer, or a whole time period.
    Linguistic Stylistics studies linguistic facts from the point of view of their ability to convey extra shades of meaning (connotations – we call them ).
    Stylistics has no fixed single unit of study. Stylistics studies everything that makes the utterance of the text expressive.
    STYLISTIC STUDIES
    Stylistics is regarded as a relatively new branch of philology, yet its roots go back as far as ancient Greece and Rome.
    In the 18th century there emerged an individualistic psychological view of style and stylistics. According to this view style bears the stamp of individual usage .
    The late 19th century and early 20th century saw the appearance of the pragmatic approach to stylistics: the tendency to regard stylistics as an applied science . It was believed that the chief aim of the stylistics is to improve the style of the reader, to teach him to express his thoughts better.
    In the 50s and 60s there was a rapid growth of interest in stylistics. The methods of structural linguistics were most popular in 70s and 80s.
    Present day stylistic studies have gradually taken a more systematic course . Computer assisted stylistic analysis seems quite promising (e.g. the study of cases of disputed authorship). Although still somewhat chaotic and unorganized stylistics is a vigorous young science with wide potential and prospects.

    2. INHERENT CONNOTATION


    Meaning of a word has: a denotation (meaning proper, we find it in dictionaries) and a connotation (an additional shade of meaning). Connotation may be a permanent part of word meaning – it is then called inherent connotation. Connotation is ever present when the word is used. Adherent connotation is the shade of meaning the word requires in a particular context only. Outside this context this shade of meaning is not present.

    INHERENT CONNOTATION (IC)


  • IC may be secured by the very object , quality or notion that word denotes. Positively charged words are: noble , manly, virtue , beauty , love, etc. Negatively charged words: nasty , vulgar, greedy, sin, death , fool , etc.). This connotation is called referential; it depends on the referent ( mean the thing the word stands for).
  • IC may depend on the structure of the word. Such words normally have a transparent structure and more often negative affixes are used (e.g. unkind, impolite, injustice, heartless, etc.). This kind of connotation is purely linguistic.
  • Emotional connotation characterizes words in synonymic sets that occupy the so-called final position (e.g. big – tremendous – “tremendous” has emotional colouring; interesting – amazing; good – marvelous, etc.). The expressive use of language depends on the ability to choose the proper word among those that denote the same thing .
  • IC may comprise the stylistic colouring of the word that is the word belonging to a certain style of language. Words are then either neutral – formal – informal (or: neutral – colloquial – literary). This colouring (formal – informal) is always present in a word (e.g. “ drink ” (neutral) – “beverage” (literary) – “ pull ” (colloquial); “home” (neutral) – “ residence ” (literary) – “digs” (colloquial).
    Phonestheme is a subtype of IC. This is a repeated combination of sounds that has a more or less clearly perceived meaning.
    E.g. “fl” combination of sounds conveys the idea of airiness, brightness with the implication of insecurity;
    “sl” has the meaning of slowness and inactivity;
    “spr” conveys the idea of energetic, risk, and lively motion .
    3. ADHERENT CONNOTATION
    Meaning of a word has: a denotation (meaning proper, we find it in dictionaries) and a connotation (an additional shade of meaning). Connotation may be a permanent part of word meaning – it is then called inherent connotation. Connotation is ever present when the word is used. Adherent connotation is the shade of meaning the word requires in a particular context only. Outside this context this shade of meaning is not present.
    ADHERENT CONNOTATION (AC)
    - is evoked only to create a particular context. AC may be positive or negative.
    Negative adherent connotation
  • Grammatical negation results in words becoming negatively charged (e.g. “Science has not got a soul . Cannot help itself.” – science here becomes negative).
  • The neighbourhood or closeness of words bearing adherent negative connotation.
  • Vulgar words in the context lend their negative charge normally to the following word.
  • The same do certain intensifiers, such as: merely, only, too, too much, horribly, perfectly, so, etc.
  • Repetition of a word in a sentence makes the negative charge stronger.
  • Graphic presentation – the inverted commas, quotation marks (e.g. “This ‘sweet’ lady has killed five husbands.”).
  • Uncommon use of punctuation.
  • Exclamatory and interrogatory sentences (e.g. “ Women and votes!).
  • The writer may indicate the quality of the character ’s voice (e.g. “Society,” she said blackly ( shows speaker’s negative attitude ). “Society” becomes negatively because of “blackly”).
    Positive adherent connotation
  • The closeness and neighbourhood of words with inherent positive overtones.
  • We may have comparison a part of which the word becomes.
  • Words “ hope ”, “ wish ”, etc. may affect a word in the context.
  • Repetition of a word.
  • Complementary words.
  • Character’s voice (e.g. “Hatred”, she said, her voice trembling with pleasure .” – “pleasure” turns “hatred” into positive).
    4. STYLISTIC MORPHOLOGY
    NOUNS : the expressive features of nouns are based on non-typical use of the number, the case , and pronoun substitution. On a transposition of nouns this is observed in personification, in which objects, natural phenomenon and animals are attributed with human feelings or speech (e.g. “The Wind laughed his evil laugh.” –“wind” is combined with typically human aspects). Another case of transposition is zoonymic metaphor. Names of animals, birds , fantastic beings when applied to people become emotionally coloured and often offensive: donkey, duck, mule , snake , wolf , angel, devil , etc. Negative colouring is made stronger by constant epithets and emphatic constructions (e.g. “You filthy swine”, “You lazy dog”). Adjectives when used as nouns become colloquial (e.g. “ come on, lovely ( noun )”). When abstract nouns begin to stand for people – they become emotional (metonymy) (e.g. “The little eccentricity.” – an eccentric child ). Possessive case – the suffix apostrophe “`s” may be added to a phrase or sentence and the result is humor or colloquial touch . The ending of the plural may be added to the sentence with the same effect . Abstract nouns when used with the plural become very expressive.
    ARTICLES : the article with a proper name ads a colloquial touch (e.g. “He was engaged to a Mrs. Haggard.”). Indefinite article:
    • with a family name creates evaluative meaning (e.g. “I do not claim to be a Caruso.”).
    • with names of common people suggests a contemptuous attitude toward them.
    • may convey a feeling of belonging to an aristocratic family (e.g. “Elisabeth was a Tudor .”).

    While listing adjectives normally one article is enough, however the author may use an article with each of adjectives in order to emphasize every word. Absence of the article in the singular of concrete nouns is violation of the norm, yet is used for expressive purposes.
    PRONOUNS : instead of “I” the speaker may use: “one”, “you” to create a close contact with the reader or listener. In colloquial speech the same effect is achieved by “man”, “ chap ”, “fellow”. The speaker may use pronouns “he / she” meaning himself as if viewing himself from the distance and focusing more attention on the speaker. The archaic second personal pronoun “thou” and its forms may be used to create an elevated mood in poetry . In prose they may convey historical background. “It”, “he”, “she” may be involved in personification (e.g. “The Moon smiled her smile .”). “We” may be used to denote only a speaker. “We” – the Majestic Plural – that is used in king or queen ’s orders or manifesto. The Modest Plural – is when “we” is used out of modesty as if involving the audience , and it creates a true to life effect. “They” becomes emotional when used independently. “This / that” may express anger or irritation (“ These people!”). In certain constructions pronouns stand in the end and the phrase becomes very expressive (e.g. ”This idea of his!”).
    ADJECTIVES: expressing features of adjectives concern the degrees of comparison, especially when rules or norms are violated. We do not apply to relative adjectives a comparison, yet it is done for the sake of expressiveness. The ending –er or –est added to longer adjectives violates the norm and has different functions : to suggest excitement , humor, poor education (“She was the beautifulest woman .”). For the sake of humor or for efficient advertising the endings –er and –est are added to “bad”, “good”, “many”. Sometimes even double forms are used.
    VERBS : the Historical Present (present tense ) in the author’s narrative is used to render past events, creating the illusion of things happening at the present moment. Continuous tenses may express surprise , disbelief, indignation. Sometimes continuous tenses are more polite and mild . In the dialogue we may come across ungrammatical instances: I says ; we says; times has changed. These cases reflect ungrammatical, uneducated, original , or excited state of mind. Archaic verbal forms may be used to create the historical background or make the narrative more elevated. On the other hand they may suggest the colloquial speech, because these forms are preserved in dialects (e.g. ending –st (you live – you livest (second person Singular).
    ADVERBS : are expressive when used as intensifiers (e.g. terribly smart , horribly polite, awfully pleased, etc.). Such adverbs give a colloquial touch and their expressiveness depends on 2 incompatible clashing notions put together (oxymoron case). Also degrees of comparison may be involved (e.g. better – weller).
    NUMERALS: on the whole numerals are not expressive but become emphatic when used in exaggeration or hyperbole or when used independently standing for a person (metonymy) (e.g. “You are a beautiful 20.”).
    5. EXPRESSIVENESS ON THE LEVEL OF WORD BUILDING (WB)
    Words may acquire expressiveness due to their structure.
    Affixation: suffix –ish- with the adjective stem denotes a small degree of some quality (e.g. brownish). Together with nouns – ish – forms adjectives that are negative: doggish, sheepish, childish, etc. The negative colouring is even greater with compound stems (e.g. honeymoonish, etc.). Exception: the words “boyish” and “girlish” do not have negative evaluation. Suffixes may be added to proper names. The suffix –ish- adds a negative colouring.
    The suffixes –ien – and –ean – render the name as lofty (e.g. Shakespearean); suffix –esque- possesses positive connotation.
    The main noun forming suffixes that render negative evaluation are:
    -ard- (e.g. coward, drunkard, etc.),
    - ster - (e.g. gangster, hipster, oldster, etc.),
    -eer- (e.g. rocketeer, profiteer, blackmarketeer, etc.),
    semi affix: -monger (e.g. war-monger, panic-monger, etc.),
    Suffixes of young people slang are: -o- (e.g. kiddo (kid), oldo (old), coppo (cop), etc.); other:
    - happy (e.g. car-happy),
    -dog (e.g. handsome -dog),
    -ola (e.g. chair  chairola). Their effect is often irony or contempt.
    There are affixes that are negative, indicating the absence of some quality, they are very expressive (e.g. “motherless / fatherless” – are more expressive than “orphan”). Their expressiveness is based on the fact that negation shows that ties between elements are possible yet do not exist .
    Diminutive suffixes either express the small size or add a positive, humorous and sometimes a contemptuous colouring:
    -let- (e.g. starlet, chicklet, etc.);
    -kin- (e.g. lambkin, etc.);
    - ling - (e.g. weakling, etc.);
    -ette- (e.g. kitchenette, etc.);
    -y / ie-(e.g. daddy , etc.).
    Proceeding with composition we may say that unexpected models of compound words are humorous due to unusual combination of elements (e.g. chief: boy- friend -in-chief ). Words standing for people may be coined out of a phrase ( usually they are negative) (e.g. “Ms. what-her-name”). This type of word building – compression – is often used to coin new words (nonce words): nouns (e.g. “She greeted me with a pleasant-day-don’t-you-think-so smile.”)
    adjectives (e.g. “Move- away -or-I-will-kick-you attitude”)
    In general, nonce words are very expressive, because they are fresh , strikingly new and unexpected.
    Words based on repetition and rhyme (e.g. helter – skelter, riff – raff, etc.) possess humorous and / or ironic overtones. The same applies to rhyming slang, which originates from Cockney (e.g. “joy of my life – wife ”). The expressiveness of the distorted words is humorous and proper understanding of these words is based on the fixed context (e.g. “I beg your pudding”). The same holds true for unusual shortenings (e.g. “ bacon and e.”).
    Phrasal verbs are more expressive than their one-word counterparts and they are colloquial. Nouns converted from such verbs are even more colloquial (e.g. “a car was in a smash -up”, “a pick -up”, etc.).
    6. PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
    We distinguish between prosodic means and orchestration of sounds.
    Prosodic means include such elements of speech as loudness, pitch , acceleration or slowing down the tempo, pauses, stress , etc. In this respect the written text is far from perfect . Much of it can be pronounced differently and therefore understood differently.
    LOUDNESS: Depends on many factors. Diminished loudness expresses intimacy, mildness, shyness, but also threat and warning. A loud voice may express familiarity, good heartedness, excitement, etc.
    PITCH: Depends on a state of excitement. It is high when a person is angry/excited; low when disappointed, desperate, sorrowful.
    TEMPO: The tempo of speech is normally slow with depression or sadness , but anger, fear, joy and other momentary feelings accelerate it.
    PAUSES: Pauses are chief means of making one’s speech emotional. Logical pauses divide the sentence into meaningful parts, which correspond to sense groups and are often marked in text by punctuation. Emotional pauses are introduced to draw attention to the word or phrase that follows and thus emphasize this word or phrase. The emotional pause corresponds to a dash and strengthen the speaker’s disbelief. Such pauses may be marked in a text and may be introduced by a speaker.
    STRESS: We can speak about logical stress – it singles out words that are primary in the context. Stress that is used to single out words that are emotionally important or to point out their hidden or specific meaning is called emphatic. Emphatic stress may be signaled graphically by the Italics , dots , exclamation marks, etc.
    Accompany means of emphasis may be prolongation of vowels and consonants. Vowels are usually prolonged to express positive feelings. Consonants become longer to express negative emotions .
    ORCHESTRATION: Both oral and written speech may possess orchestration – the choice of words with respect to acoustic properties of sounds, their sequence, and repetition. Due to their acoustic features sounds may create certain feelings, ideas or images. This is called euphony (from Greek – “pleasant to the ear”).
    7. PHONETIC STYLISTIC DEVICES
    ONOMATOPOEIA – is sound imitation, echo writing. It is a combination of sounds suggesting the typical sounds the object makes. Traditional cases are: buzz, roar, whisper, ding - dong , splash, squeak, giggle, whistle, etc. More original and more expressive examples comprise nonce-coinages (e.g. “the train choo- chood to the station ”).
    ALLITERATION - alliteration is the repetition of single sounds or groups of sounds (usually word-initial sounds, esp. consonants). Alliteration goes back to Anglo-Saxon poetry that knew no rhyme and did not yet rely on metre. The complete alliteration of Anglo-Saxon poetry is sometimes used for humorous purposes. Alliteration may have its share in producing an ironic effect. Alliteration may convey various shades of meaning. Another function of alliteration lies in connecting words by similarity of sound. The function of alliteration depends on the particular context; its rhythmical value goes hand in hand with the connotations it evokes.
    The expressive value of separate sounds - it has been noted that the sounds [l, m, n] suggest slowness and peacefulness (M. Boulton): b and p - suggest quickness, movement, triviality, scorn; m, n, ng - provide various effects of humming , singing, music, occasionally sinister ; l - suggests liquids in motion, streams, water, rest , peace , luxury , voluptuousness; f and w - and to a lesser extent v, suggest wind and any motion of a light kind; th - tends to be quiet and soothing (успокаивающий).
    ASSONANCE - it is resemblance or similarity in sound between vowels followed by different consonants in two or more stressed syllables. Assonance differs from RHYME in that RHYME is a similarity of vowel and consonant . "Lake" and " fake " demonstrate RHYME; "lake" and " fate " assonance. Assonance or vocalic alliteration enhances (усиливать) the rhythmical pattern. It has melodious and emphatic qualities . Normally, assonance does not appear alone : it is accompanied by other means of sound orchestration, i.e. alliteration, rhyme , etc. There have been attempts to relate vowel sounds to the meaning they convey. The sound [i], for example, either alone or in diphthongs , is said to produce the impression of lightness, airiness, and brightness. The length of vowels is also relevant . "... Long vowels tend to sound more peaceful than short ones , which tend to give an impression of quick movement" (M. Boulton). The predominance of long vowels and diphthongs is said to render the sense of slow pace or slowness, heaviness.
    RHYME - is a special kind of regular sound repetition occurring at the end of poetic lines or at other, symmetrically placed stretches of a poem . Rhyming words are often situated at a regular distance from each other. Rhyme has a twofold nature , it plays an important role in sound orchestration. Rhyme is the most obvious regular sound pattern in poetry that helps to structure ideas by linking lines together through similarities in the sounds of correlated words. The rhyming words have either identical or similar sound combinations. Identity of sounds results in full rhymes, comprising the repetition of the last stressed vowel and the following consonant: tide - side, gold - cold , land - hand, miss - kiss .
    Incomplete rhymes derive from certain modifications of full rhymes. Incomplete Vowel rhymes require identical vowels, whereas consonants are different: world - serve, bulb - skull , pen - best . The same principle is observed in Consonant rhymes consisting of identical consonants and dissimilar vowels: blood - blade, love - live, crisp – grasp. These rhymes are sometimes referred to as partial rhymes or pararhymes.
    Compound rhymes are made up of two or more words, united by a single stress, that reproduce the sound form of a correlated word: women - two men, adorer - before her. Compound rhymes are mainly employed to evoke a humourous response. They also add a colloquial touch to the text.
    A peculiar property of English rhymes is eye-rhyme. It contains identical letters while vowel sounds are pronounced differently: love - grove, farm - warm , flames - Thames . Eye-rhyme is appreciated by the eye rather than by the ear. Thus, it is a property of the written poem.
    Internal rhymes occur within a poetic line. Head rhyme is rather uncommon. It connects the end of a line with the beginning of the next one by similar sound combinations. Head rhyme may appear in the form of stringing together lines beginning with the same sound, or syllable , or word.
    According to the arrangement of rhymes in stanzas, rhymes fall into:
  • couplets - when two lines are rhythmically linked by the final rhyme (marked a a);
  • triple rhymes or triplets (a a a);
  • cross rhymes – (a b a b);
    4. framing rhymes – (a b b a);
    5. monorhymes – (a a a a ...)
    8. LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES (LSD)
    I. LSD based on the interaction of lexical contextual and meaning
  • Metaphor – here lexical and contextual meaning is based on the similarity of two notions and thus metaphor is hidden comparison: one word is used instead of another because objects or things have something in common. A metaphor is powerful to create images. The image may have faded due to long usage and such words are known as linguistic (dead) metaphors (e.g. “the mouth of a bottle”).
    Stylistic metaphors fall into trite (overused) and original metaphors (genuine and individual). A trite metaphor is commonly used in speech (e.g. “a ray of hope”). A trite metaphor may become original if the writer prolongs it. Genuine metaphors are the fruit of author’s imagination. Simple metaphors are based on a single image (e.g. “He felt ice water flowing in his veins”). A sustained ( developed ) metaphor – is when you have several metaphors contributing to the same image (rivulet - streams - river ). The function of metaphor is to stress an important feature in an imaginative (!) way.
  • Metonymy – lexical and contextual meanings are based on the contiguity (близость): one word is used instead of some other word because the thing they stand for occurs very closely in reality . In metonymy transfer of meaning is very logical (!) (e.g. “a cup” – means ‘to drink’; “a hand” – a worker; “the grave ” – death; etc.). Types of association :
    • a characteristic feature standing instead of his possessor (e.g. “petticoats in business”)
    • the container standing for the thing it contains (e.g. “ earning the weekly envelope.” ( money )
    • the instrument standing for the action (e.g. “ stick will do him good.”)
    • the office may stand for employees (e.g. “The factory went on strike ”)
    • the effect may stand for the course (e.g. “She is the pride of our school.”)
    These were cases of trite metonymy (often used).
    Genuine (original) metonymy is created by unexpected accessions (e.g. “ asked the moustache to show the way.”). Metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals (e.g. “She was a pale eighteen.”).
    Synecdoche – is a subtype of metonymy. Synecdoche is a part that stands for a whole or vice versa; the singular for the plural or vice versa (e.g. “I am all ears .”).
  • Antonomasia –from Greek “name instead”. It is the use of proper name instead of the general idea (e.g. “He is a Napoleon of crime .”). In the book a word or phrase may be spelled with the capital initial letters, which resembles a proper name - the effect is often irony. The use of meaningful names, which serve the writer to characterize a person (e.g. Snearwell, Mr. Snake, Mr. Blackbite, Mr. Boastall, etc.).
  • Irony – is a figure of speech where the literal meaning of a word is opposite of what intended, often a positive word is used in negative sense (“I hope he brakes his neck. –That is dear of you.”).
    (8) II. Interaction of denotational and emotional meaning (Lexical Stylistic Devices)
  • Epithet – indicates an individual emotional evaluation of an object or state of action. It is basically subjective and evaluative (e.g. “melodramatic hand”). The logical attribute is non-evaluative (e.g. “ green grass ”, “white snow ” – these are just adjectives and not epithets). Through constant use epithets may become trite word combinations and their predictability is great (e.g. “true love”, “sweat smile”, “rosy lips ”).
  • Syntactic epithets have the pattern: a + N + of + a + N (e.g. “a brute of a boy“, “a devil of a time”).
  • Phrase epithets: adjective deriving from a phrase or sentence ( contain hyphens) (e.g. “an I- could -not-care-less attitude”).
  • Sentence epithets are expressed by one word sentence containing a noun and exclamation mark (e.g. “Fool!”, “Pig!” etc.).
  • String epithet involves several epithets used side by side (e.g. “A nice , mild, kind, pleasant gentleman”).
    Semantically epithets are classified into:
    metaphorical (based on metaphor: e.g. “soft smile”) and
    transferred elements (the quality of one thing is transferred to its nearest neighbour (e.g. “He was tossing on the sleepless pillow .” – actually he was sleepless and not the pillow).
  • Oxymoron – is a combination of 2 words (attributive and adverbial), the meaning of which clash (e.g.: living corpse, shout silently ). If repeated frequently, an oxymoron may lose its stylistic quality and become a colloquial phrase (e.g. awfully nice). The function of oxymoron is to stress, to bring out contradictory notions (e.g. an old young man).
  • Hyperbole – is used to evoke an emotional response, irony, humor. Hyperbole is an exaggeration not to be taken literally. Through frequent repetition hyperbole becomes trite: “scared to death”, “a thousand pardons” etc. Hyperbole is often combined with metaphor. Round numerals used in hyperbole seem rather trite (e.g. “I feel a hundred years old.” – trite. “I feel ninety-seven years old.” – original hyperbole).
  • Understatement
  • it is deliberately lessening the size or significance of something
  • it is expressing an affirmation through the denial of its contrary.
    Understatement is an essential part of English humor (e.g. “He was just five words in his vocabulary .” Affirming by denying: not bad = good.). The function of understatement apart from humor is not to sound too categorical.
    (8) III. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of primary and secondary meaning (Lexical Stylistic Devices)
  • Zeugma (from Greek “to join ”) - a word stands in the same grammatical relation to 2 words in the context (e.g. “He opened the window ( direct ) and his heart to me (figurative metaphorical)”). When it applies to the first word it has direct meaning, when to the other – metaphorical.
  • Pun (play on words) – the humorous use of a word in two meanings (polysemantic words) or the words that sound alike but have different meanings (homonyms) (e.g. “What makes the tower of Pisa lean (переводится:1.наклонятся, 2. стройный) – It never eats).
  • Semantically false chain – enumerating objects without logical connections (words here are used in the direct meaning) (e.g. “She was talking of Picasso, rain, cats, being pregnant , and her husband ’s mistress.”). The function of such sentence is to render chaotic description .
    (8) IV. Stylistic devices based on circumlocution.
  • Periphrasis – is the use of the longer and differently worded description instead of plain and short expression (a roundabout way to name objects). Traditional periphrasis are not specific (e.g. “one’s better half ” = wife). In original periphrasis the author expresses his ideas in a new unexpected way. Periphrasis was an important part of the Bible , also of Latin poetry ( 16th century) to create elevated style. The excessive use of periphrasis should not be favoured.
  • Simile – (Lat. “like”) – is a figure of speech that draws comparison between 2 different things (e.g. “ strange the moon seems: like a woman rising from a tomb .” – pale and quiet). When objects belonging to the same class are compared then we have comparison, not simile. Similes appear in the following forms (apart from “like / as / as if”):
    • in negative forms (e.g. “You are not so unkind as man’s ingratitude.”)
    • degrees of comparison (e.g. “He had no more idea of money than a cow.”)
    • adverbial phrase containing (e.g. “With the quickness of a long cat she climbed up”)
    • lexically expressed reference to the fact of comparison (resemble, seem, remind)

    Many similes have become clichés (e.g. “ blind as a bat”, “fresh like a rose ”)
  • Euphemism – is a variety of periphrasis. It is a mild, vague expression for a harsh, rude one (e.g. “death” – “ sleep ”). Many euphemisms have become phraseological units: “a gentleman of fortune” (adventurer). More original cases are of greater interest to stylistics.
  • Personification – is a figure of speech that presents inanimate things as human beings. The signs of personification are the pronouns (he / she), capital letters, verbs of thinking , speaking, and any qualities typical of humans (e.g. “Then the Moon held a finger to her lips.”). Personification can be regarded as a kind of metaphor (if we can visualize something – it is personification; if not – then it is metaphor).
    If personification is associated with symbolic or didactic tendencies, it becomes allegory - a figurative presentation of an abstract meaning. In allegory the actions are usually symbolic while the characters are expressed by personification (in fables), an abstract idea rendered through a concrete image (e.g. “It is time to turn ploughs into swords.”).
    (8) V. Other cases (Lexical Stylistic Devices)
  • Bathos – spoiling the lofty effect, bringing something down to earth. The usual function is irony or humour.
    • The author may mention elevated things side by side with down-to-earth objects.
    • Words belonging to different stylistic layers brought together are also bathos (colloquial + formal vocabulary).
    • Applying colloquial words to distinguished people (e.g. “That Shakespeare chap most likely had written countless books of poetry.”).

  • Allusion – a reference to something known to the reader, frequently to the literature , history, facts of everyday life. Usually no source indicated. Allusions create new associations in a new context, because they call forth compression. Usually they create festive overtones, also humor (when used “inappropriately”) (e.g. “Death may be knocking at the door like the Commandor’s statue.”)
  • Quotation – is a phrase, passage from a literary source marked by inverted commas. Usually the author’s name is supplied unless he is widely known. Quotations often assume a new meaning .
  • Epigram – short, compact statement , which stresses an idea. Epigrams are independent when taken out of context. Coined by well-known people (e.g. “The child is father of a man” Wordsworth ).
  • Proverbs and idioms – make the text emphatic and colloquial due to their ever-fresh qualities. They may appear in their traditional form or they might be violated or deformed (by adding new words, replacing or changing word order, reviving (оживлять; возрождать) the meaning of certain words). DEFORMED: “the winner takes all” → “the looser takes all” (G. Greene). REVIVED: “to have something up one’s sleeve”→ “I had so many new schemes up my sleeve that I had to wear kimonos to keep them.” Deformation is usually funny, ironic.
  • Lexical repetition – repeating a word, phrase or sentence without any definite regularity. The function is to emphasize the repeated unit (e.g. Dickens “Scrooge went to bed again and thought , and thought, and thought it over, and over, and over.”)
  • Synonymic repetition – two or more synonyms placed together to explain the notion more fully. The second, and other synonyms express an additional shade of meaning (e.g. “Joe was a mild, good-tempered, easy - going , sweet-tempered fellow.”)
  • Contextual synonyms – “She told his name to the trees . She whispered it to the … …”
    9. SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES
    They are based on a specific place of a word or phrase in the sentence or utterance, which creates emphasis irrespective of the lexical meaning of the word or phrase.
    I. Absence of logically required elements of speech
  • Ellipsis – (elliptical sentence) – is the omission of one or both principle members of the sentence ( subject , predicate). Ellipsis in the dialogue contributes to the colloquial tone . In the author’s narrative it makes the utterance tense, emotional; or helps to stress the most important elements.
  • Aposiopesis – (from Gr. “silence”) – it is break-in-the-narrative – an unfinished sentence in which the speaker suddenly breaks off in the middle as if unable or unwilling to proceed. It suggests strong emotions paralyzing the speaker or his deliberate stop to conceal the meaning.
  • Nominative sentence – it is the sentence containing a noun or a noun phrase. Such sentences evoke an isolated idea of an object without any relations with other objects. Such sentences appeal to the reader’s imagination, it is a kind of kaleidoscope (e.g. “London. Parks. Streets. Noisy traffic .”). Such sentences strengthen the dynamic nature of the narrative.
  • Asyndeton – is deliberate omission of conjunctions , which disregard norms of literary language. Asyndeton is used mostly to render energetic organized activity; or to show the succession of minute immediately following each other actions (e.g. “People sang . People cried. People fought. People laughed. People hated . Others were sad. Others gay.”). The sentences become more rhythmical.
  • Apokoinu constructions – is a blend of 2 clauses into 1 at the expense of omitting the connecting word (normally “who” or “that”). It is ungrammatical, it is characteristic of irregular, excited, careless or uneducated character of somebody’s speech.
  • Gap-sentence link – is seemingly illogical construction of the sentence in which parts are connected so that the reader himself must reconstruct the gap between them. This device is signaled by “and” and “but”. The function is to introduce the interior monologue , to give a subjective evaluation, to introduce an effect of some course. The gap-sentence link makes the reader very active .
    (9) II. Devices based on the redundancy of elements of speech (Syntactic Stylistic Devices)
    Types of REPETITION:
    • Framing – is repeating the same word, phrase, sentence at the beginning and at the end of the sentence or passage. Function is to make the repeated part stronger, to emphasize it (e.g. “The street (word), so soft and sunny , the street (word).”).

    • Anadiplosis – ( catch repetition) – is repeating a word or a phrase at the end of a clause , or sentence, and at the beginning of the following one (e.g. “Such was his life – life without hope.”).

    • Anaphora – repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several clauses or sentences in succession (e.g. “Supposing she does come, supposing the darkness lift , supposing”). Anaphora involves notional parts of speech - usually nouns, adjectives, or verbs are repeated.

    • Epiphora – repetition of a word or phrase at the end (e.g. “She is mad, unhappy and mad, cheerful and mad.”).

    • Tautology – redundancy in words which is objectional in literary speech. There is:

  • grammatical tautology - using the double subject, predicate in a sentence (e.g. “Miss Webster, she slept forty days before waking up.” (double subject). Occurs in dialogues. The one who uses it shows carelessness (part of colloquial speech).
  • lexical tautology – saying the same by rephrasing it. It also serves to characterize the person negatively (e.g. “He is leaving now. I mean, he is going.”).
    • Polysyndeton – is deliberate repetition of conjunctions in close succession. It slows down the utterance on the one hand, but on the other it makes the utterance more rhythmical. “or” stresses equal importance of the listed items ; “and” gives energetic impact .

    (9) III. Unusual position of elements
  • Inversion – is violation of the accepted rules of word order. Its function is to emphasize part of a sentence that is inverted. Types:
  • complete inversion –the subject is proceeded by the predicate or part of it (e.g. “Beautiful she is.”; “Go I must.”; “Nice she was.”)
  • partial inversion – when the direct object is coming before the subject (e.g. “Her love letters I returned to the detective.”), or adjectives coming after the noun (e.g. “ Spring begins with the first flowers, cold, and shy, and wintry.”), or the subordinate clause coming before the main clause, the subject becoming emphatic (e.g. “Whether she changes or does not change , I do not care.”).
    (9) IV. Syntactic structures beyond one sentence
  • Syntactic parallelism – is repeating word order to enhance the semantic and rhythmic effectiveness.
  • complete parallelism – the word order is completely the same (e.g. “In the beginning, blankness. In the end, voidness.”)
  • partial parallelism – some deviations from the pattern.
  • Antithesis – is the opposition of 2 strongly contrasted ideas combined with syntactic parallelism (e.g. “I am the poet of the body / I am the poet of the soul.”). The function of antithesis is to strengthen a controversial nature of things. Antonyms are used.
  • Chiasmus – is reverse parallelism – the word order of the second sentence is inverted compared to the first sentence.
  • lexical chiasmus – words change their places, but the word order remains the same (e.g. “I love my dog and my dog loves me.”).
  • grammatical chiasmus – the word order of the second part is inverted (e.g. “Up went the curtain , the curtain went up.”).
  • Climax – gradation; constructing the sentence so that each new part grows in intensity (e.g. “It was a mistake, a blunder, lunacy.”). The function of climax is to show the significance of things as the author sees them.
  • quantitative climax – is based on words whose choice is logical (e.g. “An hour , a day, a week, a month , a year passed .”). Numerals appear here.
  • qualitative climax – reflects the individual way the author views an event happening, etc. (e.g. “He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die.”).
  • Anticlimax – creates a comic, satiric effect by arranging sentence so that the aroused expectations are disappointed. Paradoxes are often based on anticlimax.
  • Suspense – is a specific structure of the longer sentence that keeps the reader in tense participation, because the important part of information comes last. Less important descriptive parts are introduced in the beginning. Information is withheld and only later we have a subject and a predicate, or they are separated and predicate comes last.
  • Detachment – is the separation of secondary members of the sentence from the rest of it, in order to stress the isolated part. The effect is stronger when the full stop is used (e.g. “I saw him. In his car.”). If we remove the punctuation mark then these parts will form a nice sentence. When this cannot find place – then it is not a detachment.
    (9) V. Syntactic structures used in a new function
    • Rhetorical question – requires no answer ; it is used to emphasize the point. In public speeches it expresses sarcasm, indignation (негодование); in colloquial speech it conveys irony. It is the means of making the reader more active (e.g. “Who can stop me?”)

    • Exclamatory sentence – used as an intensifier or interjection to make stronger the expression of a sudden emotion (e.g. “She was so happy!”).

    10. GRAPHICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND DEVICES
    The outward shape of the printed page is very important. The author is conscious of various types of prints , the division of text into paragraphs, italics, punctuation marks. In poetry the author attaches great importance to the division of stanzas, arrangement of lines. The peculiar feature of poetry is the combination of graphical means and sound form. Graphical means are indispensable (важный), in order to pass over to the reader the features that in oral speech are rendered by stress, the tone of the voice, pauses, intonation , the length of sounds. The stylistic loading of the stylistic marks is unequal – the more prominent ones are exclamation and interrogation marks. They suggest high emotionality (e.g. “ Winter ! So cold! White snow!).
  • The exclamation mark is often used with sentences that are not exclamatory in form. In these cases it shows mostly ironic attitude or indignation. Sentences that are interrogative in structure may have the exclamation mark to express strong surprise or distrust.
  • The dash and dots create emotional pauses to suggest indecision, uncertainty, embarrassment, nervousness – device is aposiopesis. In the dialogue dash and dots are used to render the speech realistically. These 2 punctuation marks indicate a longer pause before an important word to draw attention to it (the shortest pause goes with the comma - one beat; dash, dots, full stop – 2 beats; end of the paragraph – 3 beats).
  • The stylistic function of the full stop may be different: over-stopping and under-stopping. In the over-stopping the full stop is used abundantly, separating words or phrases that normally do not form a sentence. Over-stopping creates a peculiar abrupt rhythm . Under-stopping - too few full stops – may also reflect the dynamic, rhythmical features of the text.
  • The inverted commas for quotation marks may signal the unuttered thoughts of characters or they may suggest that these words or phrases belong to other characters and the author feels ironic about these words, or these words or phrases are used in a specific narrowed meaning.
  • The indented line also belongs to punctuation marks. In scientific the new paragraph is developing a new idea. In fiction paragraph division influences the reader, it adds connotations (подтекст). If the writer presents his description as one unbroken paragraph – it means he attaches equal importance to every sentence. If a separate sentence is patterned as a paragraph – it stands out as emotionally very prominent.
    From the rhythmical point of view alternation of long and short paragraphs adds to the rhythmical effect of the text. Long paragraphs in succession create a monotonous rhythmical effect. A sequence of very short paragraphs creates a jerky rhythm.
  • Capital letters – are involved in antonomasia and personification. Words may contain capital letters only for emphasis or to suggest that they are pronounced loudly. In poetry it is a tradition to start every line with the capital letter .
  • The arrangement of lines on a page is a significant feature of modern poetry. The, so called, figure poems have appeared (e.g. poem has a shape of a star , a leaf , etc.) – the shape depends on the poem’s content.
  • Multiplication of letters – letters are doubled or multiplied suggesting the way they are pronounced (e.g. “lllarge”, “rrrrruin”).
  • Hyphenation – splitting up the word into syllables or letters to suggest additional stress on the word (e.g. “He was s-l-a-i-e-d.”).
  • Italics – shows that the word is important in this context and should be pronounced accordingly. Traditionally foreign words are italicized.
  • Graphon – is distorted (искаженный) spelling. It occurs in prose only (in dialogues). It suggests careless, incoherent pronunciation caused by young age, intoxication, or ignorance of the discussed topic. There appear also social and educational factors. There is permanent graphon – used by many writers (e.g. “fellow” → “fella”; “ tomorrow ” → “tomorra”; “don’t know ” → “dunno”; “give me” → “gimme”). This spelling is very close to how we pronounce words. Rendering them in Russian or Estonian is rather difficult.
    11. Common Literary and Colloquial vocabulary
    Common literary words are those that are more lofty than their neutral counterparts (here belong also borrowings) (e.g. yearly – annual; begin – commence; smell – aroma; true – authentic). How these words function in fiction: literary words have elevated overtones (it is their function), when used in inappropriate situations or to describe a trivial incident or object – their result is humour.
    Common colloquial vocabulary comprises familiar words that occur in everyday familiar talk and are not used in literary speech (when used then their function is irony and humour). Here belong:
  • Colloquial synonyms of neutral words (e.g. “ clever ” – “smart”, “man” – “chap”/”guy”).
  • Interjections – introduce colloquial touch (e.g. gosh, gee).
  • Neutral words used figuratively (e.g. “windbag” – talkative person, “juicy” – good or fine, “a big gun” – important person).
  • Diminutive forms – e.g. “daddy”, “sweetie”, “lambkin”.
  • Special forms of address (e.g. “ Hello , old thing!”, “sweet heart”, “ honey ”).
  • Abbreviations (e.g. “op.” – operation, “sis” – sister , “mo” – moment).
  • Compound w-s, ablaut combinations, rhyming w-s, and w-s based on reduplication are colloquial (e.g. “hoity-toity”, “helter-skelter”, “riff-raff”, “chit- chat ”).
  • Intensifying adverbs (intensifiers) (e.g. “terribly healthy”, “perfectly terrible”, “foolishly smart” – cases of trite oxymoron).
  • There are words with a wide range of application (e.g. thing, stuff , job – these words may stand for nearly everything and when they are used a text has a colloquial touch).
  • Phrasal verbs are more colloquial than their one-word counterparts (e.g. “to make up” – comprise, “to take up” – occupy).
  • Nouns converted from these phrasal verbs are strikingly colloquial (e.g. “a getaway”, “a breakoff”)
  • Idioms + proverbs + sayings – they normally sound quite colloquial.
  • There are ‘schwa’ words (sound fillers) (e.g. “you see”, “I mean”, “well”, “ie...”, “eh” – pauses in speech filled with sounds).
    12. SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY
    It comprises words that are associated with more or less definite spheres of use:
  • Terms – part of scientific discourse (речи) and are indispensable (необходимый) in developing a science (e.g. “molecule”, “ atom ”, “syntax”, etc.).
  • Outside their direct application the function of term changes (e.g. in fiction they may be used to reflect the true to life atmosphere of some professionals).
  • They may suggest character’s educational status or social background.
  • Their effect may be irony (e.g. R. Aldington’s “Death of a Hero ”).
  • Their effect may be humour, when applied to everyday concepts.
  • Foreign words and barbarisms (barbarisms are borrowed foreign words that are not assimilated but are still English and are registered in dictionaries: “bizarre”, “stiletto”, “vacuum”, saga”). Foreign words are facts of other languages and not belong to English: “ Mein Gott!” ( German ). Such words appear in Italics. In fiction they are used:
    • to supply local colouring (usually a couple of such words is enough)
    • to suggest the speaker’s or character’s nationality
    • to render the speaker’s or character’s social status
    • to convey character’s desire to be above the average (to show off)
    • to soften the utterance (e.g. “love – amore”).
    • because of humour – when these words are used out of place.

  • Archaic words – are no longer used in everyday speech, words that are outdated (e.g. thou – you, timepiece – clock ). We should distinguish between natural and deliberate use of archaic words (e.g. many of the words Shakespeare used are archaic today but then they were ordinary). Contemporary writers use them deliberately; the function of such words is:
  • in historical novels to recreate truthfully the atmosphere of the certain period
  • to parody historical novels (the number of archaic words here is great)
  • to stress the character’s fondness of the past.
  • in everyday conversation (dialogues) for satirical and humorous purposes
  • to suggest a foreign nationality of the character (which is uncommon).
  • in poetry theses words are employed just because they sound more elevated.
  • Poetic diction – w-s traditionally used in poetry and they overlap with archaic w-s (e.g. steed – horse , hapless – unhappy). Their function is:
  • to uphold (сохранять) lofty (возвышенный) poetic overtones, when they are used in poetry
  • in prose or in trivial conversation the result is irony, humour, or satire
  • these words may suggest the character’s education or social status.
  • Neologisms and nonce words – neologisms are bookish words as they appear but soon become just ordinary (e.g. computer, shuttle ). Nonce words are less bookish but because they are unexpected they are very expressive (are usually coined by author) (e.g. creaturehood, betweennes,)
    13. Special Colloquial vocabulary
    Special colloquial vocabulary falls into several groups:
  • Slang belongs to low colloquial vocabulary. Slang words are very colourful units that sound quite rude or coarse, and are used by different social groups. Slang words do not live for a long time; often they loose their colloquial colouring and become just standard words (e.g. skyscraper, taxi, photo ). Slang is coined by Word Building and by transfer of meaning (e.g. “ bread ” – money (metaphor), “skirt” – woman (metonymy), “ killing ” – astonishing (hyperbole), “as clear as mud” – mud is never clear (irony). Cockney rhyming slang – e.g. “trouble & strife” – wife). Slang has a great number of synonyms, especially for topics or things that are popular (e.g. “excellent” – elegant, fruity, hot-stuff). Slang is divided into general (used in all fields of life) and special slang (used in special spheres of life – e.g. army slang, students ’ slang, stock exchange slang), which is called jargon. In fiction slang is used:
  • to give an emotional description by off hand (без подготовки) ridicule (насмешка). Such words appear in quotation marks to stress their highly colloquial nature.
  • in a dialogue it individualizes the characters by the vocabulary they use; + some additional information may be gained about characters’ nature.
  • Cant – the lng. of the underworld (lng. of criminals , prostitutes). It is secret language, where the most important words are disguised. Often neutral words are used in a special meaning. In fiction cant serves to convey the atmosphere of the social group.
  • Professional lexis (professionalisms) – are words coined by a professional group (e.g. doctors ). These words stand for concepts and objects typical of this profession, are new names for established terms. The established terms may be too long or difficult to pronounce and other words are used not to sound too official (e.g. “neutron” – neut). Often shortenings take place (e.g. in university : “lit” – literature).
  • Dialectical words - are used locally, they characterize a personage and belonging to a certain geographical area, their education. Some dialectical words have become common colloquial words. In some dialects “thou” is used instead of “you”, “a tell ” – gossip. Rendering dialectical speech the author combines such words with cases of faulty grammar .
  • Vulgarisms – are words or expressions that are too rude or offensive to be used widely. There are 2 types of vulgarisms:
  • Lexical vulgarisms – words replaced by euphemisms, by scientific terms – some physiological acts , parts of the body.
  • Stylistic vulgarisms – do not stand for the vulgar objects, yet, they are inappropriate due to highly contemptuous colour (e.g. “a smeller” – a nose ).
    Curses - were not printed until World War 1 (e.g. “ damn ”, “deuced”: starting with letter “d” – they are equally offensive. “Bloody”, “blessed”, “blamed” – with letters “bl”). Some shortenings: “Sob” – son of a bitch , “F***” words. Vulgarisms are used in direct speech as a means of speech portrayal of a person’s lack of education or social status. In the author’s narrative they rather suggest humour or irony.
    14. Metre in English poetry
    Metre (from Greek “ measure ”) – forms the structural backbone of classical poetry. The laws of metre are studied by prosody (science of versification). English metre is a combination of the number of syllables and the number of stresses regularly occurring throughout poetic lines.
    Metrical patterns : in a line stressed and unstressed syllables cling to each other forming a foot (the number of syllables can be 2 or 3, but not less than 2 or more than 3; and the one syllable must be stressed). There are 5 kinds of feet in English verse :
  • iambic – iambus (1 unstressed and 1 stressed syllable),
  • trochaic – trochee (the stressed syllable is followed by the unstressed one),
  • dactylic – dactyl (1 stressed syllable is followed by 2 unstressed),
  • amphibrachic – amphibrach (1 stressed syllable between 2 unstressed ones),
  • anapaestic – anapaest (2 unstressed syllables followed by 1 stressed).
    Monometer - 1 foot; dimetre - 2 feet; trimetre - 3 feet; tetrametre - 4 feet; pentametre - 5 feet; hexametre - 6 feet; septametre -7 feet; octametre - 8 feet.
    Modifications of metre
    Changes in the metrical pattern may be unintentional and deliberate. There are classes of words (articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, link verbs) that are normally unstressed.
  • Unstressed syllables may result in a pyrrhic foot (containing 2 unstressed syllables). Pyrrhics are very typical and natural modifications in English poetry. They are common substitutes of an iambic or a trochaic foot.
  • Another kind of modification involves a spondee (a foot of 2 stressed syllables). The poet uses spondees deliberately for the purpose of strong emphasis or solemnity. Spondees slow down the pace of the rhythm and make it jerky.
  • The third modification of metre is rhythmic inversion. It consists in inverting the order of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line in the iambic or trochaic pattern. The function is to accentuate the semantic importance of the word or phrase and to add variety to the predominant measure.
  • The fourth modification involves the number of syllables in the line. There may be an extra syllable, in which case the line (or the syllable) is called hypermetric. When there is a missing syllable at the end of the line, the latter is called catalectic (common for dactyl and trochee).
    * pyrrhic foot v v
    * spondee / /
    * rhythmic inversion / v | v / | v / (trochee in iambic line or vise versa)
    *catalectic line – the last syllable is stressed, unstressed id missing
    *hypermetric line – the last syllable is unstressed, stressed is missing
    15. Typically English stanzas
    Stanzas are the compositional pattern of the poem (usually there are 4-line stanzas). While reading out the poem we must observe a 3-unit pause (corresponding to 3 beats) at the end of every stanza . This pause reflects graphical division and creates an additional rhythmical impact. The student of language must be aware of typically English stanzas – poetic forms that have evolved during the centuries , and are part and parcel of classical English versification. They have a fixed number of lines, a certain pattern of metre and rhyme, and the length of lines. The main stanza patterns in English poetry are:
  • The heroic couplet – a stanza containing 2 iambic pentametres (5 feet) rhyming: aa bb cc.
  • The ballad stanza – has 4 lines consisting of alternate iambic tetrametres (4 feet) and trimetres, rhyming: a b c b. NB! The ballad stanza is to be distinguished from the ballade , a verse form consisting of three 8-lined stanzas and a 4-lined envoy (stanza of dedication).
  • The Spenserian stanza – consists of 9 lines: 8 iambic pentametres (5 feet) followed by 1 iambic hexametre (6 feet), rhyming: a b a b b c b c c.
  • Ottava rima – is a stanza of 8 iambic pentametres (5 feet), rhyming: a b a b a b c c. It is borrowed from the Italian poetry in the 16th century.
  • Rhyme Royal – is a stanza of 7 iambic pentametres (5 feet), rhyming: a b a b b c c. The name comes from the use of this stanza by the king James I of Scotland .
  • Terza rima – a verse written in triplets, lines being iambic pentametres (5 feet), rhyming: aba bcb cdc, etc. – ending with a couplet to avoid 1 word unrhymed.
  • Sonnet – is a poem that originated in Italy and was adopted in England in the 16th century. There are 2 types of English sonnets – Petrarchan (Italian) and Shakespearean (English). Both contain 14 iambic pentameters. The difference between the 2 is mainly a matter of rhyme.
  • Limerick – is a funny poem of nonsense comprising 5 anapaestic lines, rhyming: a a b b a; with the 3rd and 4th lines shorter than the other 3.
    16. Rhythm in poetry and in prose
    Rhythm is a concept that applies to any phenomenon or process that is characterized by orderly sequences, by harmonic coordination of different elements. In prose rhythm is defined as “the regular alternation of acceleration and slowing down, of length and brevity, of similar and dissimilar elements”. Any written text is rhythmically organized. Rhythm helps to convey a certain mood; it is a potent means of signaling heightened emotions, increased excitement, speed or slowness. Rhythmical parameters do not usually occur together in one poem.
    There are optional rhythmical elements, which may or may not be resorted to by the author. And there are also obligatory parameters in classical versification, without which no poem exists.
    Obligatory are: final pauses, anacruses, clausulae, lines, metre, and rhyme (except for blank verse).
    Optional are: framing, epiphora, stanza, syntactic parallelism, anadiplosis, etc.
    Rhythm is closely linked with the message of a poem. It is the latter that determines this or that choice of rhythmical elements. And it is rhythm that assists us to bring out this message.
    17. Varieties of language
    The differentiation of the literary language is predominated by 2 factors:
    the actual situation in which the language is being used, and the aim of the communication .
    The actual situation of the communication has evolved 2 varieties of language – the spoken and the written. Of the 2 varieties of language the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used can be described as the presence of an interlocutor (собеседник). The written variety presupposes the absence of an interlocutor. The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written in the form of a monologue.
    The spoken language has an advantage over the written because in spoken the human voice comes into play, and this powerful means of modulating the utterance, as all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation, give additional information. Written language has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to be explicit (подробный) enough. But it is the written variety of language with its careful organization and deliberate choice of words and constructions that can have political , cultural , and educational influence on a wide public.
    The gap between the spoken and written varieties of language will always remain apparent (несомненный) due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are used. The spoken language is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting (мимолетный, скоротечный). It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate a thought. The idea remains, the language dissolves in it. The written language, on the contrary, lives together with the idea it expresses.
    The spoken variety differs from the written language phonetically, morphologically, lexically and syntactically (e.g. spoken language: “he’d”, “she’s”, “I’d’ve” ↔ written language: “he would”, “she is”, “I would have”).
    Difference between spoken and written language lies also in the vocabulary used (e.g. phrases may be typically colloquial or typically bookish). The spoken variety of language is far more emotional than written.
    18. EMOTIVE PROSE
    The imagery (речевые образы, фигуры речи) here is not so rich as in poetry and the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high as in poetry. All that distinguishes emotive prose from the poetic style is the combination of the literary variant of the language with the colloquial variant.
    The language of the writer is expected to conform to the literary norms of the English language. The language of the hero of a novel is chosen in order to characterize the man himself. Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles (e.g. the newspaper style, the official style, the style of scientific prose).
    Emotive prose as a separate form of imaginative literature, that is fiction, came into being rather late in the history of the English literary language (e.g. in early Anglo-Saxon literature there was no emotive prose). The first emotive prose, which appeared, were translations from Latin of the Bible stories .
    Middle English prose literature was mostly educational, represented mostly by translations of religious works from Latin. In the 12th and 13th centuries appeared “Tales of King Arthur and his Round Table”, some of which were written in verse and others in prose.
    Emotive prose began to assume a life of its own in the second half of the 15th century, when romances and chronicles describing the life and adventures of kings and knights began to appear (e.g. “The Death of Arthur”).
    In the 16th century English emotive prose progressed rapidly (mostly it influenced the translations from Greek, Latin, also Italian and French ). But on the whole the emotive prose of the 16th century had not yet shaped itself as a separate style.
    The 17th century saw a considerable development in emotive prose (were introduced not only lexical but also syntactical innovations ). It was puritan time, when simplicity in choice of words was predominant, another peculiarity of this period was a rather poorly developed system of connectives (e.g. “and”, “so”, “then”).
    18th century emotive prose is characterized by the predominance of the realistic style. This century is regarded as the century which formed emotive prose. In the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th certain stylistic devices had been refined and continue to be further developed and perfected.
    Present-day emotive prose is characterized by the breaking of traditional syntactical designs of the preceding periods.
    19. SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE
    The language of science is governed by the aim to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. This language tends to be objective, precise, and unemotional, devoid (лишенный) of any individuality. Its features:
      • The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances.
      • A second feature is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. The general vocabulary used in scientific prose bears its direct meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. The possibility of ambiguity is avoided. Terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But in spite of this a new term in scientific prose is generally followed by an explanation.
      • A third characteristic feature of scientific style is sentence-patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative (дискуссионный), and formulative.
      • A fourth feature of scientific prose is the use of quotations (кавычки) and references (ссылки).
      • A fifth feature of scientific style is the frequent use of foot- notes (сноски), not of the reference kind, but digressive (отвлекающийся от темы) in character.
      • A sixth feature of scientific style is the impersonality (frequent use of passive constructions). Impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with such verbs as: suppose, assume, presume, conclude, point out.
    The characteristic features enumerated above do not cover all the peculiarities of scientific prose, but they are the most essential ones.
    20. LANGUAGE OF THE DRAMA
    The language of plays is entirely dialogue. It is not the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language, although the playwright seeks to reproduce actual conversation as far as the norms of the written language will allow . Here the author’s speech is almost entirely excluded (исключена), except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions.
    The language is usually stylized (художественный), that is, it strives to retain the modus of literary English, unless the playwright has a particular aim which requires the use of non-literary forms and expressions.
    The 16th century plays are mostly written in iambic pentameter, rhymed or unrhymed. The plays of this period were justly called dramatic poetry. The performance kept close to the norms of colloquial language and that tendency affected the verse and resulted in breaking the regular rhythm of the metre. This breaking became one of the characteristic features of the language of dramatic poetry. The great playwrights of this period modulated the rhythmical pattern of blank verse. A popular form of entertainment at the courts of Elizabeth and the Stuarts was the masque (театр масок). These masques are believed to be the earliest forms of what is now known as “spoken drama”. But the drama of the 17th century itself still holds fast to poetic diction up to the decline of the theatre . The revival of drama began only in the second half of the 18th century, but the ultimate shaping of the play as an independent form of literary work with its own laws of functioning and of language features was actually completed only at the end of the 19th century.
    The language of plays is a stylized type of the spoken variety of language. In plays the “ signals of attention” (such words as: I see, good, yes, oh, well) are irrelevant. The monologue is never interrupted by any such exclamatory words. The monological character of the dialogue in plays becomes apparent (очевидный) by the fact that two or more questions may be asked one after another. The sequence of sentences reflecting the sequence of thought will not allow any digressions (отклонения от темы) from the course taken, unless this was the deliberate intention of the playwright. The language of plays is already purposeful.
    21. Publicistic Style
    Unlike other styles, the publicistic style has a spoken variety, namely:
  • The oratorical substyle.
  • The development of radio and television has brought into being another spoken variety – the radio and TV commentary .
  • The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical , literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic ) in newspapers, journals and magazines. Book reviews and pamphlets are generally included among essays .
    The general aim of publicistic style is to exert (оказывать влияние на) a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one.
    Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose and emotive prose. Its coherent and logical syntactical structure makes its similar to scientific prose. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning; the use of imagery and other stylistic devices makes it similar to emotive prose.
    22. The Style of Official Documents
    The style of official documents includes the language of business, legal , military and diplomatic documents. It has a definite communicative aim and its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement between two contracting parties (the state and the citizen , or citizen and citizen, etc.). The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style.
    The most striking is the system of clichés, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized (e.g. Dear Sir, we remain; I be to inform you). There is also a common feature – the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions (M.P. = Member of Parliament ; ltd. = limited, gvt = government ). Abbreviations are particularly abundant in military documents and used as signs of the military code .
    Another feature is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. Words with emotive meaning are not to be bound in the style of official documents either except those which are used in business letters as conventional phrases of greeting or close (e.g. dear sir, yours faithfully).
    The most noticeable of all syntactical features are the compositional patterns of the variants of this style. Thus, business letters have a definite compositional pattern. Almost every official document has its own compositional design.
    23. Newspaper Style
    It is only by the 19th century that newspaper English may be said to have developed into a system of language media, forming a separate functional style. English newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived (воспринимаемый) by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader.
    Information and evaluation co-exist in the modern English newspapers. Information in the English newspapers is conveyed through the medium of brief news items, press reports, articles purely informational in character, and advertisements and announcements. The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters. Elements of appraisal (оценка) may be observed in the very selection and the way of presentation of news, in the use of specific vocabulary, such as “allege” (ссылаться), “claim” (заявлять, утверждать), and syntactic constructions indicating a lack of assurance on the part of the reporter to avoid responsibility (e.g. Mr. X was said to have opposed ….).
    The headlines of news items also carry some amount of appraisal. Editorials (передовицы) are characterized by a subjective handling of facts, political or otherwise.
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