Stilistika materjalid

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Tallinna Ülikool - Kultuur-Kunst - Stilistika (inglise)

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STYLISTICS

Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies
The term „style” is polysemantic. Latin „stilus“—a writing instrument used by the ancients for writing on waxed tablets . Soon, the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one’s ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift said: „ Style is proper words in proper places “
Present day— half a dozen meanings:

the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his ideas (Style of Byron )
the manner of expressing ideas characteristic of a literary movement or period (symbolism, romanticism )
the use of lg. typical of a literary genre (comedy, drama , novel)
the selective use of lg that depends on spheres of human activity . These are called functional styles or registers ( fiction , newspaper)

Stylistics is the study of style. However , for some reason , English stylistics is less developed than French , German or Russian. The term „stylistics“ came into more common use in English only some 35 years ago. It was recorded much earlier; in 1882 as “the study of literary style, the study of stylistic features ” Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies principles of selecting different linguistic means for passing on thoughts and emotions .
It studies:

Different functional styles, styles of genres , individual styles
Expressive, emotional features of different language units

Stylist—a writer or a speaker skilled in a literary style
Stylistition—a scholar who studies stylistics
The word “style” is applied to many things. A linguistic style is a variety of subsystem of lg with its peculiar vocabulary , phraseology, grammatical and phonetic features that are used selectively and purposefully to express ideas in a given situation.
The stylistics of language studies different styles, including registers, stylistic devices and shades of meaning.
The stylistics of speech studies individual text, viewing the way the author ’s message is expressed.
Literary stylistics—analyzes means of artistic expressiveness, characteristics of a literary work , a writer, a literary trend or a whole epoch. It is part of literary criticism and poetics .
Poetics—studies the structure of a literary work and aesthetic means employed in it.
Linguistic stylistics—views linguistic facts from the point of view of their ability to convey additional shades of meaning.
Any act of speech passes on 2 types of information:

The content as such
Additional inf. which finds expression in all kinds of extra shades of meaning that are attached to the main content

The form of speech may vary depending on the speaker, the listener and the circumstances they both find themselves (to begin -to commence—to get going )
Stylistics studies everything that makes the text or the utterance special . It cuts across all the basic linguistic sciences :

Phonetics— silent , sleepy streets
Morphology— speak , spoke, spake
Syntax—he came in-in came he
Lexicology —finish-terminate (synonymic pairs )

A survey of the development of stylistic studies:
It is a relatively new branch in philology; yet, its roots go back as far as ancient Greek and Rome where the rhetoricians cultivated the art of clear and elegant use of language.
18th cent —emerged an individualistic-psychological view on style and stylistics. According to that, style bears the stamps of individual usage : every writer has a unique pattern of habits and abilities that form his style. Fr. Poet Buffon: “Style is the man himself .”
Late 19th , early 20th century — appeared a utilitarian approach to style remotely linked with ancient rhetoric. It became important to improve the style of a text and show the author how better express his thoughts. (Vallins, Lucas )
There was also another tendency in that time—to regard style as a study of form separated from content. (Saintsbury, Bally, Marouseau, Aronstein, Deutchbein)
50s, 60s— rapid growth of interest in stylistics. Various conferences—USA 1958, Poland 1960
70s, 80s—methods of structural linguistics became very popular ( counting words etc.)
Present day—the use of computers has given stylistics a more exact basis . It seems quite promising—it allows the scientists study the influence of one author on another.
Stylistics is a vigorous young science with a lot of prospect .

Inherent connotations. Phonesthemes
Denotation—proper meaning
Connotation—additional shade of meaning, also called overtone, colouring
Words may convey emotional or expressive overtones (gorgeous, okay), or tey may render evaluation ( famous , notorious)
Inherent connotation—we are dealing with inherent con. When the additional shade of meaning is always present when the word is used, it is a permanent part of the meaning of a word.
Inherent connotation may:

Be secured by the very object or notion that the word expresses. People appreciate certain notions as rather positive or negative

e.g. pos— pure , noble (adj.); love, beauty ( noun ); worship, adore ( verb )
e.g. neg— nasty , dirty; death , fool ; steal , destroy

Depend on the structure of the word, mainly on the presence of negative prefixes and suffixes. It is purely linguistic

e.g. heartless, impolite, abnormal

Be present in words in synonymic sets that occupy the so-called “ final places”

e.g. big—tremendous, like—worship

Depend on the stylistic colouring of the word. Literary, colloquial groups. Such words are firmly associated with that style. However, when a colloquial word appears in a literary speech, the result is humour or irony because of the clash in the stylistic colouring.

Phonesthemes—a subtype of inherent connotation—a recurrent combination of sounds, yet, not a morpheme, that has more or less clearly felt meaning.
e.g. flight, flimsy, flippant—suggest lightness, grace , insecurity
e.g. slow , sluggish, sloppy—suggest slowness, inactivity

Adherent connotations
Adherent connotation is the shade of meaning, that word acquires in a context and outside this context connotation is not present. AC may be positive or negative—any part of speech may acquire this connotation, the exact shade of meaning depending on the context.
Negative adherent connotation:

(Grammatical negation (science has no soul ))
The proximity of words carrying inherent negative connotations (vulgar and working - class )
The context of the sentence of the words that have a strong vulgar colouring (your bloody principles)
The use of certain intensifiers (too, too much, horribly, perfectly, so, only) (too clean , too new)
We may have a repetition of a word in a sentence (always preaching, preaching, quietly, quietly)
Graphical presentation: in the inverted commas (this “ sweet ” lady is a killer); uncommon use of punctuation.
Exclamatory and interrogative sentences ( women and votes!)
The writer indicating the quality of the characters voice (“Society,” he said grimly.

Positive adherent connotation:

Proximity of words with pos AC (my hands “beautiful” “big, red and brutal”)
A comparison , a part of which the word becomes ( Youth is so much more valuable than experience: it is also far more intelligent)
Verbs — hope , wish , and want (clever people everywhere. I wish to goodness we had a few fools left )
Repeated words (German art, G science and G culture)
Character ’s voice may be specified (hatred, she said with he voice trembling with pleasure)
Words with inherent connotation may change it in context, that is, pos may become negative and vice versa

Stylistic morphology: articles , nouns , pronouns , adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals
Articles:

Article with proper names adds a colloquial touch (The Hardys, a Miss Smith)
The indefinite article (a) with a family name creates an evaluative meaning (a Caruso )
A+names of common, undistinguished names suggests contempt (a Malone, a Smith)
A may convey the meaning of belonging to a famous or aristocratic family (a Tudor)
In enumeration adj. require just one article, yet this article may be used with each of the adjectives (a pleasant, a kind) it makes the following adjectives more empathic.
The article in the singular or concrete nouns may be absent, it may be done for expressive purposes: to convey the idea of utmost generalization ( wife , child , house, dog--isn’t it too much?)

Nouns:
In case of nouns, the expressive features are based on the nontypical use of the forms of number, case and pronoun substitutionin transposition of nouns from one lexicosematic group to another.

Personification: inanimate objects are endowed with human feelings , thoughts, parts of the body , etc. Here , the noun changes its usual connections with pronouns and its lexical combinability. (The Wind laughed his evil laugh and ran away )
Zoonymic metaphor: names of animals or birds and fantastic creatures are used for people and show their characteristic features (donkey, snake, wolf , worm, angel , devil , and witch )
Connotations vary when names of animals have synonyms (pig-swine; monkey-ape)
Negative connotations are enhanced by constant epithets and empathic constructions (you filthy swine! You lazy dog!)
Transposition may occur within different parts of speech. Adjectives when used as nouns are expressive and often colloquial (my sweet, lovely)
Abstract nouns may start functioning as personal (old oddity—odd person , he’s a disgrace to his family)
The possessive case when applied to concrete object makes the noun more prominent (Hollywood’s studios)
The suffix ‘s may be added to a phrase or a sentence the result being humour or colloquial touch. (She is the boy I used to go with’s mother )
The ending of the plural may be added to a sentence with the same effect (one I’m- sorry -for-you is worse than twenty I- told -you-sos)
Abstract nouns when used in the plural become expressive (Life is full of the injustices, the incruelties and the meanesses)

Pronouns:

Speaker or writer: the use of “one” or “you” when the speaker means himself reveals him as a reserved person. “You” and “one” instead of “I” creates a close contact with a reader or listener. In colloquial speech, same function is performed by “a man, a chap , a fellow” (A man knows how much to pay)
The speaker or writer may use “he” or “she” meaning himself. Then the person views himself from the distance and, thus, focuses more attention on himself.
The archaic “thou” and its form “thy”, “thee” may be nowadays . In poetry , they create elevated overtones; in prose , they may convey geographical or historical background. ( Hemingway -Spaniard- foreign nationality)
“He” or “she” may be involved in personification (The moon smiled her faint smile )
“It” when applied to people, transfers them to a class of object, creating irony or humour or just negative evaluation.
“We”—used in the Modest plural—the speaker uses “we” out of modesty as if involving the audience as well. The Modest Plural in prose evokes associations with scientific prose and creates a true-to-life effect. ( Walter Scott uses “We” in his historical novels)
“They” becomes emotional when used independently. ( Kipling —all the people like us are We, and everyone else is They)
“This/that” may express irritation and anger (This house where we all study)
Combined with possessive pronouns in post position , they become very expressive (That idea of his—irritation)

Adverbs:

They become expressive when used as intensifiers. (Horribly smart , awfully pleased, to love fearfully) They give a colloquial touch and are expressive because of 2 notions that are incompatible (oxymoron).
Degrees of comparison may be violated (better—weller)

Verbs:

Historical Present—used in the author’s narrative in order to render past events creating the illusion of things happening at the present moment.
Continuous tenses may express surprise , disbelief and indignation.
Sometimes continuous tenses are more polite and mild (he’s not feeling so good today )
In the dialogue , we may come across some ungrammatical forms that speak of the education of the character, his origin or his excitement (I aint, He done me harm)
Archaic verbal forms may be used to create the historical background or make the narrative more elevated. On the other hand , they may suggest colloquial speech. These forms are preserved in dialect (thou knowest, he knoweth, I didst)

Numerals:

Usually numerals are not expressive, yet, when used in exaggeration (hyperbole) they may become expressive. (I was away for 768 years)
When numerals are used independently standing for a person then we speak of metonymy (she’s a beautiful 16)

Expressiveness on the level of word-building
Words may become expressive due to their morphological structure.

-ish+ adjective stem may give an emotionally neutral effect (brownish—a small quantity of brown)
-ish may form “tactful” words that are formed as nonce words if the speaker does not want to sound too categorical (dullish lecture, lateish)
Together with noun stems –ish forms adjectives with negative, contemptuous colouring (doggish, womanish)
Negative colouring becomes stronger with compound stems (honeymoonish) (boyish, girlish have no negative evaluation)

Suffixes may be added to proper names:

-ish adds a derogatory colouring (Dickensish)
-ien with names gives a high flown style (dickensien)
-esque has positive connotation and it forms an element of refine style (dantesque)
The main noun forming suffixes with negative evaluation are:-ard, - ster , -monger, -eer
On the slang , -o shows contemptuous attitude (kiddo, coppo)
- happy , -dog show irony, contempt (car-happy, handsome-dog)
Negative affixes that show absence of some quality are rather expressive (unmask vs. reveal, motherless vs. orphan)
The romantic writers tend to bring together such adjectives and the text becomes very emotional ( Milton )
Diminutive suffixes imply small size or humoruous or contemptuous colouring (daddy, starlet, lambkin, weakling)

Compounds:

Unexpected models for compounds may create humour due to unusual combinations (in- chief boy- friend -in-chief)
Compound nouns standing for people may form out of a phrase (sound contemptuous) (miss what’s-her-name)
This type of word building is popular for coining nonce words (adjectives, nouns) (a move-away-or-I’ll-kick-you attitude)

In general, nonce words are very expressive, strikingly new, unexpected.

This is true for words with uncommon structure and those built according to conventional patterns (to eyebrow)
Words based on repetition and rhyme (hoity-toity, riff-raff)
Rhymy slang (wife-joy of life)
Distorted words are humorous. Proper understanding is based on fixed context (I beg your pudding)
Unusual shortenings are also humorous ( bacon and e [ eggs ])
Phrasal verbs being colloquial become even more expressive and colloquial when they appear as nouns (a walk -up—house with no elevator)

Phonetic expressive means
Every work of literature is a certain sequence of sounds. Phonostylistics studies phonetic features at the speaker’s or writer’s disposal to emphasize words. The phonetic arrangement is inseparably linked with the meaning and message. Phonetically we distinguish between prosodic means and orchestration of sounds.
Prosodic means include such phenomena of speech as loudness, pitch , acceleration or slowing down the tempo, pausation, stress and intonation . In this respect , the written text is far from perfect . Much of it can be pronounced differently and so understood differently.
The pitch depends on the state of excitement. It is high when one is angry and low when one is disappointed, sorrowful or desperate.
The tempo is slow when we feel sadness and it’s fast when we feel anger, fear , joy and other momentary feelings.
Loudness depends on many factors. Diminished loudness expresses intimacy, shyness, mildness but also threat and warning. A loud voice shows familiarity, a fear to be misunderstood, etc.
Stress:

Logical stress—singles out words that are primary in the given context (I didn’t mean you, I meant everybody )
Emphatic Stress—stress that singles out words as emotionally important or points out their hidden or specific meaning. (I told you, he is unwell—meaning drunk or high). Emphatic stress is suggested graphically by the Italics , exclamation marks , dots and dashes.
Accompanying means of emphasis can be the prolongation of vowels . Vowels are prolonged to express positive emotions (glad). Consonants are prolonged to express negative feelings (lousy, monotonous)

Pauses:

Logical pauses divide the utterance into meaningful parts— sense groups—and are marked by punctuation. (I didn’t know him then, but I do now.)
Emotional pauses are introduced to draw attention to the words or phrases that follow , and thus, emphasize this word or phrase. (She is so gentle, so / gently cruel (pause is acted). Pauses may be marked in a text and may be introduced by the speaker.

Both, oral and written speech are characterized by orchestration—the choice of words with respect to the acoustic properties of sound. Due to their acoustic features sound may evoke certain feelings or images. Euphony (Greek—pleasant for the ear). It can be said that evaluation of the sound is rather subjective. There was en experiment to prove the contrary. (kig, keg, kag, kog, kug) which was has the greatest and which has the smallest illumination. All the people guessed the same way.

Phonetic stylistic devices
Onomatopoeia— echo writing. It is a combination of sound, which suggests acoustic features of objects or actions . There are traditional cases that are registered in dictionaries (buzz, rattle, splash , squeak) More original , expressive cases combine nonce coinages (the train choo-chooed to the station , Prr-umph! A devastating crush was heard)
Alliteration—the use of words that begin with the same sound in order to make a special effect, especially in poetry. It goes back to Anglo-Saxon poetry. It may convey various shades of meaning.
F at the beginning may imitate blowing wind. In that case alliteration becomes onomatopoeic in quality.
The function of alliteration depends on the peculiar context; its rhythmical value goes hand in hand with the connotations it evokes.
According to Boulton:

B and p—quickness, movement, scorn
M, n, ng—humming, singing
l—liquids in motion , water
k, g, st, ts, ch—harshness, cruelty
s, sh—hissing, also soft and soothing sounds

Assonance—vocalic alliteration, repetition of stressed vowels. It has melodious and emphatic patterns. (Forgive what seemed my sin in me—Tennyson)
Normally it does not appear alone: it is accompanied by other means of sound orchestration.
There have also been attempts to relate vowel sounds to the meaning they convey.

The sound [I] is said to produce the impression of lightness, airiness, brightness.
The length of vowels is also relevant—long vowels tend to sound more peaceful and solemn than short ones .

Rhyme—is a special kind of regular sound repetition occurring at the end of poetic lines or at other, symmetrically placed stretches of a poem . Rhyming words are often situated at a regular distance from each other. Rhyme is the most obvious regular sound pattern in poetry that helps to structure ideas by linking lines together through similarities in the sounds of correlated words. Rhyming words have either similar or identical sound combinations.
Full rhymes—repetition of the last stressed vowel and the following consonant (miss- kiss , mellow-yellow)
Incomplete rhymes—require identical vowels, whereas consonants are different (pen- best , balm- path )
Consonant rhymes—consist of identical consonants and dissimilar vowels ( live -love, crisp -grasp)
Compound rhymes—made up of two or more words, united by a single stress, that reproduce the sound form of a correlated word (women-two men, bottom - forget ’em). These rhymes evoke a humorous response and add colloquial touch to the text.
Eye-rhyme (sight-rhyme)—contains identical letters while vowel sounds are pronounced differently (love-grove, farm -warm). It is a property of the written poem.
Internal or inner rhymes occur within a poetic line (I am the daughter of earth and water… Byron)
Head rhymes are rather uncommon. It connects the end of a line with the beginning of the next one by similar sound combinations (The sunlight on the garden hardens and grows cold…MacNiece). It may also appear in the form of stringing together lines beginning with the same sound, or syllable , or word (He the strongest of all mortals, he the mightiest among many… Longfellow)
According to the arrangement of rhymes in stanzas, rhymes fall into:

Couplets—when two lines are rhythmically linked by the final rhyme (a a)
Cross rhymes—a b a b
Frame rhymes—a b b a
Monorhymes—a a a a a a

Blank verse —no rhyme

Lexical stylistic devices
Lexical stylistic devices are structures in which the meaning becomes primary.
1) SD-s based on the interaction of lexical and contextual meaning.
Metaphor—a hidden comparison, achieved by likening one object to another. The word is used in a figurative meaning. Some metaphors are dead because the image has faded because of long usage and they are not stylistic devices. (the neck of a bottle; face freezes)

Trite metaphor is commonly used in speech (a ray of hope)
If some changes are introduced, a trite metaphor may become original or genuine (the radio vomited)
Sustained metaphor is the one that is made up by several metaphors that cluster round the same image (stuffed blackbird singing a soundless lyric on a lifeless reed )

The function of metaphor is to stress an important feature in an imaginative way.
Metonymy—(Greek- Changing of names) one word is used instead of other because the things they denote are closely connected in reality . It is fairly logical.

Transferring meaning is logical. (The Crown , Cradle)
In metonymy, a characteristical feature can be used instead of its owner (petticoat-women)
The container may stand for the thing it contains (the room -people in it)
The instrument may stand for the action (the whip)
The office may stand for the employees (the factory )
The feeling may stand for the person who excites the feeling (he is the pride of our family)
Nouns or substanitvized numerals express metonymy (she is a pale 16)

Synecdoche is a subtype of metonymy. It is a figure of speech used for the whole ore the whole for a part; single for the plural or vice versa (I’m all ears , she was nothing but legs , I’ll never let a man into my life)
Antonomasia—(Greek for name instead) use of names

The use of the proper name instead of a general idea (Don Juan )
Spelling a word or phrase with a capital letter as if it were a proper name. It can be perceived only in writing (our Little Group of Serious Thinkers)—irony
A meaningful name, especially family names which characterize a personage (Little Miss Rich Bitch )

Irony—use of the word in its opposite meaning (He is a nice , kind family man who killed his wife with an ax)
2) Stylistic devices based on the interaction of denotational and emotional meaning
Epithet—a figure of speech denoting some quality through expressing an individual appraisement of a state, action and object. It’s mainly subjective and evaluative (dry tailored voice, very dead, stony silence)
Trite epithets are highly predictable (sweet smile, rosy lips )
Compound epithets are compound adjectives (a cloud -shaped man)
Syntactic epithet has a structure: A+NOUN/ADJECTIVE+A+NOUN (a devil of a time)
Phrase epithets are hyphened words built out of a phrase or a whole sentence (an I-couldn’t-care-less attitude)
Sentence epithet is a one word sentence. Here a noun is used with an exclamation mark. (Fool! Thief! Idiot !)
String epithet occurs in strings (a nice kind dear fellow)
From the point of view of meaning epithets may me:

Metaphorical epithets are based on a metaphor—soft smile, whispering trees
Transferred epithet transfers the quality of one object to its nearest neighbour He was tossing his head on a sleepless pillow , She shrugged her indifferent shoulders)

Oxymoron is a combination of 2 words with clashing meaning. ( Living corpse, calm nervous laughter) In colloquial speech such phrases have become clichés (terribly sorry, awfully nice). Function: to stress contradictory nature of something .
Hyperbole—a transfer of meaning based on exaggeration. It should not be taken literary. Function: usually it evokes an emotional response (irony, humour)
Trite hyperboles are seen in everyday speech (I’m dying to see you, he was scared to death)
Understatement—typical of the English language, important part of British humour.

Understatement which deliberately lessens the size or significance of something (he has just 5 words in his vocabulary)
Understatement which affirms something through denying its contrary. It is used when a person does not want to sound too categorical (He isn’t very honest)

3) Stylistic devices based on the interaction of primary and secondary meaning
Zeugma—a word (often a verb) stands in the same grammatical relation to 2 words or more. When applying to one of them, it has the direct meaning and when applying to the other word, it has figurative meaning (he opened the window and his heart to me). The effect is irony and humour.
Pun—a play of words. The humorous use in 2 or more meanings or of words that sound alike but have different meaning [homonyms, polysemantic words] (What makes the tower of Pisa lean ? It never eats.)
Semantically false chain —it is enumerating objects without logical connections. The words are used in their direct meaning and it is partly humorous. (I like reading books , young men and bananas) Function: to render a chaotic picture or bring out controversial nature of what is described.
4) Stylistic devices based on Circumlocution (a roundabout way to describe sth)
Periphrasis—the use of a longer and differently worded description instead of a short, plain one (the fair sex--women)
In original periphrasis, the writer expresses his subjective attitude in a new unexpected way ( since the day I didn’t have any front teeth yet)
A periphrasis was an important feature of the Bible and Latin poetry to create elevated style.
Simile —a figure of speech that draws comparison between 2 different things in 1 or more aspects. If two similar things are compared, it is not a simile (The moon is like a woman rising from a tomb).
Similes have following elements :

like, as, as if (traditional)
negative forms (you are not so unkind as man’s ingratitude)
degrees of comparison (he has no more idea of money than a cow)
an adverbial phrase containing prepositional phrase, answering question how (with the quickness of a cat she climbed up)
Certain verbs that imply comparison (he reminded me of a lonely cat, he resembles a hungry lion )

Some similes have turned into set expressions (as blind as a bat, to smoke like a chimney )
Euphemism—a variety of periphrasis (a mild expression for a harsh one). It describes an offensive notion by and inoffensive one. (Death—the journey ’s end, dream - sleep , crossing the bar)
Many euphemisms have also became set expressions (Little Mary -stomach, a gentleman in brown- flea )
Personification is ascribing life and any property of life to inanimate objects making them emotional. It is recognized by capital letters, the pronouns (he, she), the possessive case, and words like think, speak, etc. (The Moon was floating on her back, sadly combing her silver hair)
It is important that the reader can visualize the object, either man or a woman. In poetry, personification is achieved also by addressing the object.
If personification is associated with symbolic or didactic tendencies, it becomes allegory. It can be found in fables in which animals portrait human beings.
5) Other cases
Bathos is ruining a solemn effect by bringing together unrelated elements. The later are:

Words belonging to different stylistic groups--colloquial and literary words together (I aint discussing it with my parent )
Using colloquial words when speaking about famous people (That Shakespeare chap)
Mentioning a down-to-earth object side by side with something lofty (they were kissing passionately. The pigs were grunting loudly)

Bathos adds humor and irony.
Allusion is a reference to something presumably known to the reader—to literature, history, mythology, facts of everyday life, etc. Usually, no indication of source is given. Normally they create festive, solemn implications, but many also result humour if used inappropriately. Often allusions are lost in a text, they are not supplied with the quotation marks. (Mary’s lamb— nursery rhyme, Commander Statue—Don Juan)
Quotation is a phrase or passage from a literary source often marked by inverted commas. The quotation goes together with a reference to the author unless he is widely known (Shakespeare Hamlet)
Epigram is short compact statement, which stresses an idea. Individuals whose names we know coin epigrams. Epigrams are independent if taken out of the context. The last 2 lines of sonnets are called epigrammatic. (A favourite has no friend—Gray)
Phraseological units make the text emphatic and colloquial. They may appear in the original form and maybe deformed (here belong proverbs, idioms , and sayings)

The word order may change (too true to be good)
Substituting words (the loser takes it all)
Reviving meaning of words (I have so many new schemes up my sleeve that I have to wear kimono to hold them)
New words may be added (he knows all the official ropes)

Paradox is a statement that seems impossible because it contains two opposing ideas that are both true (The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. O. Wilde )
Synonymic repetition is using 2 or more synonymic expressions in order to express the notion more fully. Each synonym adds a different shade of meaning. (evil and vicious and rotten; strange, queer , curious, unusual, bizarre)
Contextual synonyms are synonyms only in context (told-whispered-breathed)
Lexical repetition is repeating a word or a phrase or a sentence in close succession to make the repeated words stronger ( Gold , gold, gold.)

Syntactic stylistic devices
SSD are based on a specific syntactic arrangement of the utterance, which creates emphasis irrespective f the meaning of the word.
1) Syntactic Stylistic Devices based on absence of logically Acquired Elements
Ellipsis or elliptical sentences—the omission of one or both principal members of the sentence ( subject or the predicate are missing ). In the dialogue, ellipsis creates a colloquial tone . In the author’s narrative it makes the utterance tense, emotional, or helps to stress the most important elements. (Out in the garden. Annoying father )
Aposiopesis (Greek—silence) also called a break in the narrative. It is an unfinished sentence in which the speaker breaks off in the middle as if unable or unwilling to proceed. It implies strong emotion.
Nominative sentence is nouns or noun phrases appearing as a separate sentence naming someting. They evoke more or less isolated idea of an object without any relation with other objects. They appeal to the reader’s imagination. Hence , they ate frequent use in the exposition. Nominative sentences make the narrative dynamic . ( Paris . Broad avenues. Lighthouses. People. Cafes.)
Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of conjunctions between sentences disregarding the norms of literary language. It is used to describe energetic actions or to show a suggestion of minutes/actions immediately following each other. It makes the activities dynamic (verbs) and descriptions abrupt (nouns)
Apokoinu construction is a blend of 2 clauses into one, plus omitting a connecting word (who, that). This is ungrammatical, characteristics of an oral speech, dialogue. (I’m the first one saw her)
Function: to suggest careless speech or poor education.
The gap sentence link is a seemingly illogical construction of a sentence which connects its parts in such a way that the reader himself must reconstruct the missing link between them. Often dots used there. The function: to introduce the interior monologue, to give a subjective evaluation of facts. To introduce an effect of some cause .
2) SSD-s based on the redundancy of elements of speech
Here belong different kinds of repetition.
Framing—repeating the same word, phrase or sentence at the beginning and at the end of a sentence or a paragraph. Function is to stress. (The street , so soft and sunny , the street)
Anadiplosis-- catch repetition--repeating the same w or a phrase at the end of a sentence or at the beginning of the next one. (Such was her life—life without hope.)
Anaphora—repeating aw or a phrase at the beginning of several clauses, sentences or paragraphs in succession (Heroes come and go. Heroes eat and drink . Heroes kiss women and enjoy life)
Epiphora—repetition at the end of clauses, sentences, paragraphs.
Tautology—it is produced by us not thinking . It is redundancy in words which is objectionable in literary speech.

Grammatical tautology— having double subject, predicate or both (Mary, she slept all time) Creates a colloquial touch.
Lexical tautology—exactly the same idea is repeated by using different words (he is leaving now. I mean, he is going.) It characterizes the character negatively.

Polysyndeton is intentional repetition of conjunctions in close succession in order to slow down the utterance or to add weight to its rhythmical arrangement. And—suggests energetic activity. Or—stresses equal importance of the enumerated things. Comes from the Bible (and, and, and, and…)
3) SSD-s based on the unusual position of elements
Inversion—traditional word order is violated. It emphasizes the misplaced word or phrase.

Complete inversion—the predicate or part of it preceding the subject (Go I must)
Partial inversion—subject and the predicate have normal position but

1) The direct object may occupy the initial position (the letters I returned to the detective)
2) Adjective standing right after the noun (spring begins with the first flowers— rather cold and shy)
3) Postpositional adverbs shifted to the front (up you go)
4) Complex sentence—the usual order is the main clausethe subordinate one. If the later comes first, then the whole clause becomes stressed. (Where you are I don’t care)
Syntactic parallelism (also called syntactic repetition) is repeating the same syntactic structure to make stronger the emotional colouring of the sentence.

Complete parallelism—the pattern is exactly the same (The boy is sitting, the girl is singing)
Partial parallelism—there are some differences in the pattern ( nobody thinks nowadays, nobody gives a damn )

Antithesis is the opposition of 2 strongly contrasted ideas combined with syntactic parallelism (I’m your friend. I’m your enemy)
Function: to stress the controversial nature of feelings, etc.
Chiasmus (also called reversed parallelism)—the word order of one sentence is inverted compared to that of the other.

Syntactic (that’s an evil laugh of yours , that laugh of yours is evil)
Lexical—there is no inversion, the words just switch their places (I know the world and the world knows me)

It is an empathic construction. Emphasis is on the 2nd part.
Detachment is a syntactic separation of secondary members of the sentence by using punctuation marks, starting with comma, the dash , etc. in order to emphasize the isolated part. The strongest is the full stop. (I saw him. In the garden.)
Climax (gradation) is arranging the sentence so that each following part is emotionally stronger than the previous one.

Quantitative—logical (Minutes, hours , days , weeks, months, years passed .)
Qualitative—fairly individual, it suggests the way the author sees the significance of things. (he wanted to weep, to vomit, to die)

Anticlimax—creates a comic effect by arranging sentences in such a way that the reader’s expectations are disappointed. (Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything—except the obvious.)
Suspense is a peculiar construction of the sentence which withholds the basic parts of the information till the very end of the sentence. This is achieved by either separating the subject from the predicate or by amassing the less important descriptive subordinate parts at the beginning of the sentence. Function is to make the reader active , to make him wait .
4) Syntactic structures used in a new function
Rhetorical questions are used to emphasize the point. In public speeches they sound sarcastic, indignant. In colloquial speech they are ironical. The reader becomes active as if he himself came to certain conclusions. (Who can stop me?)
Exclamatory sentences—sentence is used as an interjection to suggest strong emotion. (She was so happy!)

Graphical means and devices
The outward shape of the printed page is of great importance. There are various types of prints and their interrelation. In poetry, the author attaches importance to stanza division , the arrangement of lines and the end of line. All these graphical means are very important
Stylistically in order to pass over to the reader the features that in oral presentation are rendered by the voice.
Punctuation has an important place among graphical means. It points out many elements important from the expressive point of view. Most prominent punctuation are the dash, exclamation mark and question mark. Their frequent use makes the text very emotional.
The exclamation mark is often used in sentences that are not exclamatory in form. In such cases, it expresses a specific, mostly ironic attitude or indignation. Sentences that are interrogative in structure may end in ! to express strong surprise or distrust.
The dash and suspension marks create emotional pauses to signal indecision, uncertainty, embarrassment, nervousness. They are used in break in the narrative—aposiopesis.
In the dialogue, the dash and suspension marks render the speech realistically, showing that people do not listen to one another, interrupt, leave sentences unfinished. These punctuation marks may mark a long pause before an important word, to draw attention to it. They may be combined with the “time fillers ” (aa.., well, so) (And then she saw a--- ghost )
The full stop may have different functions .

Overstopping—using the full stop very often. Full stop may separate words and phrases that normally do not form a sentence (I wouldn’t call her beautiful. Or clever.) In the description of a single episode or a rapid succession of events, overstopping creates a peculiar, abrupt rhythm —jerky rhythm.
Understopping—too few full stops, it also renders the dynamic qualities of a large scene.

Modernist writers use both devices very often. Good example—J. Joyce “Ulysses” with its 40 pages without a single full stop.
Quotation marks may imply that these words belong to other characters and the author feels ironic about these words or indicates that these words are used in some special, narrow meaning.
The indented line also belongs to punctuation marks. In fiction, the indented line influences the reader, adding extra shades of meaning. If the writer presents his description as 1 very long paragraph, it means that he attaches equal importance to every sentence. If a separate sentence is patterned as one paragraph, it stands out as an emotionally prominent piece of information. From the rhythmical point of view, the alteration of long and short paragraphs adds to the rhythmical effect. Long paragraphs coming in succession create a monotonous rhythm. A sequence of short paragraphs creates a jerky rhythm.
Capitalization is often used in personification and antonomasia. Words may also contain only capital letters, which adds emphasis to these words. (He is DEAD)
It is a poetic tradition to begin each verse line with the capital letter. Nowadays it is often rejected. Even in titles. It adds intimacy.
The arrangement of lines has become a significant feature of modern literature, particularly in poetry. Figure poems , for example, appeal more to the eye than to the ear. They have often the shapes of cross, heart, bird, etc.
Multiplication of letters—letters are doubled to reflect the way they are pronounced. This is mostly used in dialogues. (laaarge)
Hyphenation is used when a word is split up into syllables or even letters to indicate additional stress on the word (des-pise)
The Italics show that the words are important in the present context and should be pronounced accordingly.
Graphon means distorting the spelling of the words. It is characteristics of prose only. It occurres in dialogue. It is used to suggest that the person is drunk, very young or ignorant of the discussed topic (temporary things) Permanent are educational and social factors. (Fella, helluva, don’t cha, gimme etc.)
Spelling in Graphon usually reproduces the correct pronunciation of the word.

Common literary and common colloquial vocabulary
Neutral words are used in any style of language and are natural under any circumstances (man, walk, room, etc.)
In contrast to neutral words, there are those that possess fixed stylistic colouring. Standing alone, they are felt as elements of style. (Homicide, murder ; kid, child)
Common literary words are loftier than their neutral or colloquial counterparts. Borrowed words are mainly literary ( depart , aroma, authentic, annual, commence, physician.) They are used in public performances, official intercourse. When used in everyday situation or to describe a trivial object, the effect is humourus.
Common colloquial vocabulary comprises familiar words that occur in everyday speech, they have more intimate tone. They are not used in literary speech.

Colloquial synonyms of neutral words (hang out, smart, get going)
Interjections (Gosh! Gee! By golly!)
Figuratively used neutral words (half- baked —silly; juicy-good; a wind bag-a talkative person
Diminutive form (sweetie, fatty, piggy)
Special forms of address (dear heart, honey ; precious
Abbreviations (Mo—moment; posish)
Compounds based on repetition (hoity-toity; chit -chat)
Intensifiers (horribly smart) the result is often an oxymoron.
Words with a wide range of application (thing, stuff.)
Phrasal verbs—nouns converted from phrasal verbs (a show-off, a break-through)
Proverbs, sayings, idioms
Time fillers (you see; I mean

Special literary vocabulary
Terms —belong to scientific discourse ( spinal chord; syntax, Semantic) Outside their direct application the function of terms changes. In fiction terms are used in order to:

Reflect a true-to-life atmosphere of some profession
Indicate the character’s educational status and background.
Create irony and humour. It happens when the terms are used in everyday context.

Foreign words do not belong to English vocabulary; they are parts of another language. ( Mein Gott , interessant, soleil )
Barbarism belong to English vocabulary but they are nor assimilated (vacuum, stiletto , saga etc)
Function:

To supply local colour
To suggest the person’s nationality
To render the social status of the character
To convey the character’s desire to be above the average (to show off)
To soften the utterances (understatement)
For the sake of humour, esp. when these words clash with colloquial ones.

Archaic words are not used any more. They are also called out- dated , cave words (timepiece, wot—know)
We should distinguish between natural versus deliberate use of such words. Contemporary writers use Shakespeare’s words often intentionally.
Function:

To recreate truthful atmosphere of the certain period (used in historic novels)
To stress the character’s fondness of the past
To parody the historical novels, these words are used in exaggeration.
To bring humour and irony when used in everyday speech
To suggest the speech of a foreigner
To bring more elevated colouring to the poem

Poetic vocabulary (diction) is a set of words that are traditionally used in poetry, they partly overlap with archaic words (hapless, naught—nothing, aught— anything .)
The function is satire, irony, humour.
Neologisms are highly bookish until they become ordinary words in time (Bushes—mistakes)
Nonce words are less literary because they are unexpected and very expressive (sleepable pillow, walkable, oneness—feeling of belonging together)

Special colloquial vocabulary
Slang consists of very colorful units belonging to low colloquial speech. They are coined and used by people to show that they are one of the gang . Slang is used as a protest against the standard or because of the desire to be original. If a word is widely used, it ceases to be slang and becomes a neutral word. (Skyscraper, taxi, photo) (But booze created by Chaucer remained a slang word for centuries .
Slang is formed by word building and also by figures of speech (metaphorupper storey —head; bread —money; metonymyskirt—woman; hyperbolekilling—astonishing; ironyas clear as mud; shortening biz—business)

There is also back slang—a word is written backwards (mur, yob, top o’ reeb)
Rhyming slang (trouble and strife—wife)
Slang is noted for a great number of synonyms (excellent—old, elegant, fruity, nasty, tops, wicked; money—bacon, beans, cheese , dirt, dust , oil, snow , tomatoes, potatoes, etc; drunk—blued, boiled, all wet, fried, pie-eye)

American slang is much more colourful.
Jargon is a special slang used in certain spheres, like army , university etc.
Student ’s slang: to fail-ship, hit the ceiling , pip; crib in cheating—a horde, cabbage, mule , pony; exam — river ; difficult exam— screw
Slang in fiction has the stylistic function in the author’s narrative to give emotional characterization of something, often off-hand ridicule. Slang words appear more often in dialogue. The function of slang is to individualize the character by the vocabulary he uses.
Cant is the language of the underworld (criminals, homeless , prostitutes). Words of neutral style are often used in specific meaning. This is a secret language, in fiction it serves to convey the atmosphere of the social group.
(mill-prison; plant —theft; money—jack; to arrest—to land, shop , run in; to betray—to grass, to stool.
Professional words are coined and used by professional groups. They are not secret and are easily understood. They are simpler words for established terms. They are used not to sound too business-like or official (huntingbuff- buffalo ; medicineneedle-interjection; universityfresher-freshman, lit-literature)
In literature, professional vocabulary is used to characterize the person socially.
Dialectal words are used colloquially by a person belonging to a certain geographical area; they may also suggest their education or breeding. Some dialectical words have become colloquial (lad, lass , dart)
In dialects, some archaic words are preserved (thou). In fiction these words go side by side with faulty grammar ( strike a daisy-surprise; a tell - gossip )
Vulgar words are the words and expressions too rude to be widely used.

Lexical vulgarisms are usually replaced by euphemisms abd by scientific terms by polite persons (certain parts of the body and physiological acts)
Stylistic vulgarisms do not express vulgar objects, yet they are inappropriate due to their stylistic colouring (contemptuous) (smeller-nose; to plant-to bury; flathead-fool; pay dirt-money)
Curses were not printed until the WWI. (Damn and its substitutes : dashed, darned. Bloody and its substitutes: bloomy, blasted, blamed)
Shortenings (sob-son of a bitch, B-blighter)
4-letter words( shit , fuck, cunt)

Vulgar words are usually used in dialogue. It suggests lack of education. The author uses them in order to add irony, sarcasm, humour to his narrative.

Metre in English poetry. Modifications of metre
Metre (Greek metron—measure) forms the structural background of classical poetry, it is also called measured speech. English metre is a combination of the number of syllables and the number of stresses regularly occurring throughout poetic lines. It depends on 2 factors:

The stressing of syllables
The number of stressed syllables to a line

English metre us nothing more than rhythmic parallelism: a patterning of the succession of stressed and unstressed syllables with greater regularity than is necessary for spoken English in general.
Prosody is the science of versification that studies the laws of metre.
Foot is a combination of one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables. The number of syllables to a foot may be either 2 or 3 and one of them must be stressed.
Monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter, octameter (a line of … feet )
5 major kinds of feet in English poetry:

Iambus (iambic)—1 unstressed and one stressed syllable ( )
Trochee (trochaic)--1 stressed and one unstressed syllable ( )
Dactyl (dactylic)—1 stressed, 2 unstressed ( )
Amphibrach (amphibrachic)—1 unstressed, 1 stressed, 1 unstressed ( )
Anapaest (anapaestic)—unstressed, unstressed, stressed ( ) not common

Modifications of metrical patterns:

Pyrrhic foot—2 unstressed syllables (natural, no emphasis)
Spondee—2 stressed syllables (used deliberately, to add emphasis)
Rhythmic inversion—inverting the order of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line in the iambic or trochaic pattern. It serves as a means of rendering strong emotions.
Hypermetric line (very last line!)—occurs when there is an extra or overflowing syllable. Stress is missing.
Catalectic line—one or 2 stressed syllables are missing.
Mixed metrical patterns—the 5 basic kinds of metre may also appear in a mixed form. In a vast number of cases poetic lines present a blend of several metrical patterns.

Typically English stanzas
These are poetic forms that evolved during the centuries and a part and parcel of classical English versification. They have a fixed number of lines, a certain pattern of metre and rhyme, and the length of lines.
The main stanza patterns are:

The heroic couplet—a stanza containing two iambic pentameters rhyming in pairs (aa bb cc) It is called “heroic” because it has been much used in translating epic or Heroic poetry. This verse form may assume the shape of triplet, in which the third, called Alexandrine, has six iambic feet instead of five .
The ballad stanza comprises four lines consisting of alternate iambic tetrameters and trimesters and rhyming a b a b. It must be distinguished from the ballade , a verse form consisting of 3 eight -lined stanzas and a four-lined stanza of dedication.
The Spenserian stanza consists of 9 lines: eight iambic pentameters followed by one iambic hexameter. Its rhyming scheme is a b a b b c b c c. E. Spenser used in his “the Faerie Queen ”
Ottava rima is a stanza of 8 iambic pentameters rhyming a b a b a b c c. It is borrowed from Italian poetry in the 16th century.
Rhyme Royal is a stanza of seven iambic pentameters rhyming a b a b b c c. James U of Scotland used it in his “ King ’s Quair”
Terza rima is a verse written in triplets, lines being iambic pentameters with the rhyme scheme a b a b c b c d c and so on ending with a couplet to avoid one word unrhymed ( Shelley ’s “Ode to the West Wind”
Sonnet is a poem that originated in Italy and was adopted in England in the 16th century. There are 2 types of English sonnets—Petrarchan (Italian) and Shakespearean (English). Both contain fourteen iambic pentameters. The difference is in the rhyme.
Italian sonnet falls into the octave (a b b a a b b a) and the sestette (2 or 3 rhymes, their order is various- c d e d e c, c d c d c d, c c d e e d, etc.
Shakespearean sonnet consists of 2 quatrains, followed by a rhyming couplet. The rhyming scheme is a b a b c d c d e f e f g g . Usually the last 2 lines are epigrammatic in character.

Limerick- a funny poem of nonsense comprising 5 anapaestic lines rhyming a a b b a, with the third and fourth lines shorter than the other three. Sometimes, the number of lines is 4, the 3rd one being longer than the rest with inner rhyme in it.
Blank verse-no rhyme

A limerick is a five-line poem written with one couplet and one triplet. If a couplet is a two-line rhymed poem, then a triplet would be a three-line rhymed poem. The pattern of the rhyme is a - a - b - b - a with lines 1, 2 and 5 containing 3 beats and rhyming, and lines 3 and 4 having two beats and rhyming. Limericks are meant to be funny. They often contain hyperbole, onomatopoeia, idioms, puns, and other figurative devices. The last line of a good limerick contains the ' punch line' or 'heart' of the joke.
There once was a slimmer named Steen
Who grew so phenomenally lean
And flat , and compressed,
That his back touched his chest ,
So that sideways he couldn't be seen.

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Stilistika materjalid (ingllise keeles)

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