Inglise keele stilistika

Kakku, Elle-Riin

Inglise keele stilistika (0)

Tallinna Ülikool - Kultuur-Kunst - Stilistika (inglise)

1 Hindamata

Style
The term style is a polysemantic one. The latin word „stilus“ meant a writing instrument used by the ancients for writing on waxed tablets . Already , in classical latin the meaning of style was extended to denote the manner of expressing one’s ideas in written or oral form. One of the abts/the best was given by Jonathan Swift : „ Proper words in proper places .“ In present -day english , the world style is used in about half a dozen basic meanings.

the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his ideas. Some speak about the style of Hemingway , Dickens etc.

the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period . Style of symbolism, romanticism

the use of language to pick a literary genre - comedy , novel, drama , O.D (poetic form) etc.

the selective use of language that depends on spheres of human activity – fiction , scientific prose , newspapers, official documents , business correspondenc etc.
Style bears the stamp of indivual usage , that is every writer has a unique pattern/ habit and abilities that form his style.
This approach is best illustrated in the well- known victum of the french poet Georges-Louis de Buffon „Style is the man himself .“
Stylistics
English stylistics or the study of style has not been discussed on the same scale as french stylistics, german or russian. The very term stylistics came into more common use in english only some 30-40 years ago. It was however recorded much earlier that is in 1882 for the first time, meaning „The Study of literary style, the study of stylistic features .“
A short history of the development of stylistics
Stylistics is regarded a relatively new branch of philology, yet its roots go back as far as ancient Greece and Rome, where the rhetoricians (retoorikud) cultivated the art of clear and elegant use of language by developing and polishing stylistic devices .
In the 18th century , an individualistic-psychological view on style and stylistics emerges. The late 19th and and early 20th centuries witnessed a utilitarian approach to stylistics. The tendency to regard stylistics as an applied science has been particularly marked in english-speaking countries. It was believed here that the main aim of stylistics is to improve the style of the writer and of a textbook , that is to show how better to express one’s thoughts. Of foreign linguists, it is the french Ch.Balley, G.Marduzeon who in the 20th century made a definite contribution . This happened because of the centuries-old tradition in France of interest in style. The classical works on english stylistics are those by the german scholars: Ph.Aronstein, M.Deutschbein, I.Galperin. In the 50’s and 60’s of the previous century there was a rapid growth of interest in stylistics throughout the word. In the 70’s and 80’s, the methods of structural linguistics were very popular in stylistics. Present stylistic studies have become quite systematic. Computer-assisted stylistic analysis appears to be quite promising, e.g the study of cases of disputed authorship (I may claim I have written Othello) which may study the influence of one author to another . Although still somewhat chaotic stylistic is a vigorous, young science with vast prospects.
Stylistician- a scholar who studies style.
Stylist- a writer or speaker skilled in a literary style.
Linguistic style
Linguistic style is a variety of language with its peculiar vocabulary , phraseology, grammatical, phonetic features that are used selectively and purposefully to express ideas in a given situation.
Linguostylistics – or linguistic stylistics
Studies linguistic facts from the point of view of the ability to convey additional shades of meaning. Any act of speech that is both oral and written is meant to pass on information. There are 2 types :

the content as such

additional information
The second one is expressed by emotional, emphatic shades of meaning that are attached to the main content. Stylistics studies this latter information type. Every speaker has experienced that the form of speech may vary depending on a speaker, the listener and the circumstances in which both find themselves.
Separate words
neutral
literary
colloquial
eat
partake
gobble
die
expired
go west
kill
slay
Do in, make away
begin
commence
Get going
Stylistics is a very special signs because it has no fixed , single unit of study. Stylistics studies everything that makes the text expressive. Stylistics cuts right across all the basic linguistic sciences .e.g silent, sleepy streets. Stylistic point of view – „s“ – sound , alliteration, drowsyness’ effect .
Morphology – spoke and spake the truth . From the point of view of morphology, these are 2 variants of the past- tense . From the point of view of stylistics, they are 2 different modes of expression, because they carry different stylistic overtones. Spoke is archaic and so used either in elevated style or sometimes in everyday’s speech for the sake of humour. Spoke is just the ordinary way of expressing this meaning.
The structure of words
e.g endlessnessnessness –the very notion of endlessness ( Irish writer somebody)
Syntax
e.g neutral one: He came in
inversion: In came he, in he came
Lexicology
Many pairs of synonyms, the borrowed word (french, latin, etc) is bookish, literary and native one is neutral.
e.g finish (B) – terminate (N), understand –comprehend, heavenly-selestial, think-cogitate.
e.g He came home drunk.
He returned to his residence in a state of intoxication (number of bookish words) Irony!
My parent has passed away (literary)
My old man has kicked the bucket (disrespect)
In written or oral speech, the choice of words may be peculiar, individual, so unexpected word-combinations may appear and these are of interest in stylistics!
e.g word combinations
usual
unusual
A week ago
A grief ago, a smile ago, a cigarette ago
A delicious meal
A delicious murder
Ungrammatical sentence
Ungrammatical house
A crooked street
Crooked hopes
e.g Colourless, green ideas sleep furiously.
The stylistics of lg, the stylistics of speech
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies the principals of selecting and using linguistic means (lexical, grammatical, phonetic) intended to pass on shades of meaning and emotions . We must keep apart the stylistics of language and the stylistics of speech. Stylistics of language studies different styles, including registers, stylistic devices and expressive features of linguistic units . The stylistics of speech studies individual texts or particular texts viewing the way the author’s message is expressed.
Literary stylistics
Literary stylistics – means of artistic expressiveness, that characterises a literary work , a writer, a literary trend or a home epoch.
Denotation, Connotation
Meaning has two vital elements , one is denotation (a direct reference , meaning proper) and the other , connotation (additional shade of meaning). Synonyms for connotation (overtone, colouring, charge). The majority of words have denotation only e.g tree, stone , to take, bag, window , etc. Connotation may be permanent part of the meaning of the word. Then it is called inherent (ever-present). Adherent (a shade of meaning the word acquires, develops in a particular context only), and outside this context this is not present. Is not uniform , on the one hand , words may carry emotional or expressive overtones e.g gorgeous = good where gorgeous is more emotional. On the other hand, words may contain evaluation (speaker’s positive or negative attitude ), e.g famous (pos.) = notorious (neg.)
Järgnev on pikk näide erinevatest naise kohta käivatest väljenditest (girl, maiden , lass, lassy, baby, young lady), arvan et pole nii oluline, kuna näiteid on konspektis niigi palju, ei hakka üle pakkuma.
Inherent connotation
1 IC may be secured by the very object, quality or notion that the word stands for. People appreciate certain notions, as either positive or negative.
Negative notions
Adj: dirty , nasty, vulgar, obscene, greedy
Nouns : sin, fool , death , tragedy
Verbs : destroy , offend, steal , ploth (sepitsema)
Positive notions
Adj: polite , refine, pure , noble, manly
Nouns: virtue , beauty , love, bliss
Verbs: worship, save, protect
2 This connotation depends on the thing the word stands by. IC may also depend on the structure of the words. Such words usually contain negative affixes, e.g abnormal, heartless, unpopular, illegal , injustice.
3 Inherent connotation in synonymic sets that occupy „The final places“.
e.g big vs tremendeous (emotional difference ), interesting vs amazing , good vs marvellous
Such words are emotionally coloured/ charged. The expressive use of language depends on the ability to choose the proper word among those that mean the same thing. The scholar R.M.Eastman illustrates this point : „You might speak of a fragrance of a certain perfume if you liked it, of it’s reek ( hais ) if you didn’t or simply odor if you didn’t care.“
Phonesthemes
A type of inherent connotation. A repeatedly used combination of sound that has more or less clearly perceived meaning, but it’s not a morpheme, such as filite , flimsy, flippant. These words have suggested the idea of lightness, airyness, even grace with the implication of insecurity, instability e.g slow, slubbish, sloppy. The phonestheme here is sl – meaning of inactivity, slowness. Spry, sprag..(ei loe välja), springy. Spr suggests the idea of energetic brisk , lively motion .
Adherent connotation
The kind that words may acquire in a certain context and outside it is not present.
e.g 1 Oscar Wilde „I tell you what, you are very rude ; and, after all, what are you? Only a student.“
2 Oscar Wilde „He is some brainless, beautiful creature who should be in here in winter when we have no flowers.“
3 „They are worse than schoolteachers“
These examples show that adherent connotation may be positive (brainless) or negative (students, schoolteachers).
The type of context is important for creating adherent connotations.
Negative connotation
1 The sentence may contain grammatical negotiation (has not)
e.g science (neg.meaning) hasn’t got a soul . Can’t help itself.
2 The closeness of words with inherent negative connotations.
Adj: obscene, corrupt, filthy , vulgar, ignorant
Verbs: hate, opress, loath
Nouns: stupidity, vice , fool, etc
e.g I saw myself as Hummy would see me, uneducated and vulgar and working -class. (neutral)
3 The neighbourhood of vulgar words: e.g And you couldn’t forget your bloody principles for one night .
4 With the use of certain intensifiers: merely, only, too, too much, horribly, perfectly, even, so. e.g They were too clean , too neatly arranged, too new.
5 Repetition of a word in a sentence, e.g You are sitting here, comfortably preaching about it – everlasting preaching, preaching, words, words, words.
6 Graphic presentation
„This sweet (negative meaning) lady has killed five husbands.“
Punctuation used uncommonly
„But I have alwyas had to fight for my children while he sat over his books – and played.“ (uncommon dash )
7 Exclamatory and interrogative sentences
e.g Women and votes! It’s the last stage of decomposition of the world! The writer indicating the quality of the character ’s voice , then the writer may add „he add“ in remarks .
e.g And in twenty years do you know what those people will be? Society, she said blackly.
Positive adherent connotation
This type of connotation is used less frequently than negative connotation.
1 The neighbourhood of close words with inherent positive connotation (delightful, exciting , marvellous, splendid)
e.g She kissed my hands . „They are beautiful“, she said, „big and red and brutal.“
2 Comparison which includes the given word (like, more, land)
e.g Youth is so much more valuable than experiences. It is also far more intelligent.
3 If a word is combined words with pope, wish , want etc.
e.g „You can’t go anywhere without meeting clever people.The thing has become absolute public nuisance. I wish to goodness we had a few fools left.“ Oscar Wilde
4 Repetition of a word
e.g Her ideal was a german word in which the rest of the nations should enjoy the benefits of german science and german art and german culture.
5 Indicating the features of the charater’s voice
e.g „What do you feel now?“ „Hatred,“ she said, her voice trembling with pleasure.
6 Inherent connotations may become different in the context, that is positive words may become negative and vice versa.
e.g „What attracts me to him is his unique dishonesty. Honest people are so boring.“ Oscar Wilde
Expressive features of separate parts of speech
1 Nouns –are based on the unusual use of the number, case , and pronoun substitions. In other words, on a transfer of nouns from one lexico-semantic group to another. This is found in personification. Observing parts in which objects, animals are endowed (given) with human feelings , actions, the ability to think or speech. In this case, the noun that is personified, changes its usual connections with other words. e.g The wind laughed his evil laugh and ran away.
Another case of transfer is zoonymic metaphors, that is names of animals, fantastic beings when applied to people become emotional and often offensive.
e.g as an animal , donkey, mule , snake, tod, wolf , angel , devil , witch. Connotations vary when names of animals have synonyms.
e.g pig (swine), donkey (ass), monkey (ape) –these words have some positive yet ironic connotations. And there are synonyms which have a rude and negative connotations.
Negative connotation becomes stronger in the following emphatic instruction.
e.g You impudent pup!, You filthy swine!, You lazy dog!
Sometimes, adjectives are used as nouns and then they become expressive and often colloquial.
e.g Listen , my sweet, come on, lovely.
Abstract nouns may be used for concrete objects and then these nouns become emotional.
e.g the old oddity instead of an odd old person , the litte eccentricity =>eccentric child
The possessive case may be added to a phrase or sentence, the result is quite humorous.
e.g She is the best boy I used to go to with’s mother . Who is she? He is the niece I told you about’s husband.
The ending of the plural (’s) may be added to a sentence and the effect is colloquial.
e.g „I’m sorry for you“ is worse twenty – I told you so’s.
Abstract nouns used in the plural
They become expressive when used. E.g She confronted the injustices, the meanness of our company.
2 Article
The article with proper names adds a colloquial touch .
e.g The Hardy ’s were rather late (the family)
He was introduced a Ms.Hubbard
Have you A. Turner ? (art)
The article „a“, „an“ before a familyname creates evaluative meaning.
e.g I do not claim to be a Rousseau . I don’t claim I sing well.
In numeration, adjectives require grammatically just one article.
e.g He was a nice , pleasant man.
We may have an article with every adjective .
e.g It was a brilliant , an excellent, a breath-taking idea. The second and third articles are uncommon and thus they emphasize the words that follow .
Absence of the article in the singular of countable nouns is violation of the norm, however it is used for the sake of greater expressiveness, also to express the idea of generalization.
e.g Wife , child, house, dog –isn’t it too much?
Absence becomes rather abstract.
3 Pronoun
The pronoun I in the prose may be intentionally repeated in the dialogue /direct speech to imply, to suggest the character’s selfish. The use of „one, you“ whe the speaker means himself, reveals him as a reserved person. You and one instead of „I“ creates a close contact with the reader or listener. In colloquial speech, the same function is performed by a man, a chap , a fellow, a girl. (A man knows how much to pay). The speaker/writer may use the pronoun she/he meaning herself or himself. In this case, the speaker/writer kind of used himself from the distance and thus is focusing more attention on herself/himself. In other words, a device to draw attention to oneself.
e.g C.Mansfield: „I do not want to write: I want to live .“ What does she mean by that?
Nowadays , the archaic second person singular „thou“ and its forms such as (thee, thy, thine, thyself) may be used in poetry where they create elevated high-flow colouring.
In prose, they may may create geographical or historical background. Geographical background: Hemingway render the speeech of a spanyard ( spanish ) by using thou in his dialogue to imply his non-english nationality. Strangely, he doesn’t make speaker use spanish words, in fact .
Third person singular he/she may be used in personification (The moon smiled her faint smile.). It, when used about people, turns them into a class of objects. The result is usually irony, humor, contempt or negative attitude.
e.g The woman went a longer road . Then it (ought to be she) stopped and grinned.
The pronoun „we“, according to the english norm, may imply only the speaker. We have 2 kinds of uses:
1 The Majestic Plural ( kings , queens, manifestos)
2 The Modest Plural (author, speaker writes we out of modesty, as if in involving the audience as well). E.g Lost time we were discussing. The Modest Plural in prose evokes or creates association with scientific prose and creates the true –to –life effect. E.g Walter Scott , in historical novels used we. The reader, feeling his dealing with popular science – literature .
The pronoun „they“ becomes emotional when used independently. E.g R.Kipling: „All the people like us are We, and everyone else is They.“
Pronouns „this and that“ may express anger or irritation , e.g these people, these books, this university . In the following construction , they become very expressive e.g that friend of yours , (where is he), this idea of his (I hate it).
4 Adjectives
Peculiarities concern mainly the degrees of comparison. Some adjectives are not used in comparisons. For expressing purposes, comparison may be used with relative adjectives –those that do not take forms of comparison. This bad grammar . E.g „You cannot be deader than the dead“ (death is the final stage)
„The house looked more stony (against english grammar) than ever“
The ending –er and –ist, when added to long adjectives, also violates the norm and has different formations: to suggest excitement , humour, education.
e.g It is getting curioser and curioser.
She was the beautifullest woman.
For the sake of humor or advertising , -er and –est are added to such adjectives as bad (baddest, worse), good (goodes), many (maniest, manier) etc.
Sometimes, double forms of comparison are used, e.g She was getting worser and worser.
5 Adverbs
They are expressive when used as intensifiers, e.g horribly smart, terribly polite, awfully pleased, frightfully charming, to love fearfully (awfully). They give a colloquial touch. They are expressive because here we find two incompatible/contrasted words put together. We call such construction oxymoron. Also, degrees of comparison may be violated, e.g weller instead of better.
6 Numerals
On the whole , not expressive but become emphatic when used in exxageration (I’ve been away for 300 years) or when used independently, standing for a person, e.g You are a beautiful twenty (twenty for age).
7 Verbs and tenses
Tenses –so –called The Historical Present
It coincides with present simple. Normally in a fiction, the narrative is in the past (Once upon a time there lived), but occassionally, the author may swift over present tense, describing still past events. In this way, he creates the illusion of things happening at the present moment. Such passage comes quite emphatic –action in front of reader’s eye, make participate. Continuous tenses may express surprise, disbelief or indignation. E.g „One day, when I’m no longer spending my time running a sweet- stall , I will write a book about a soul.“ Sometimes, this tense is more polite and mild , e.g He can’t meet you. He’s not (he doesn’t) feeling so good today.
In the dialogue, we may come across ungrammatical phrases, such as I, he, we +ain’t. I says , I ain’t, times has changed, he done me harm (auxiliary missing ). Such examples reflect the educational level of the speaker, his origin or his excited stage of mind. There are archaic verbal endings that are used to create the historical background or to make the narrative more elevated. E.g you lives , knowest, he, she, entereth, knoweth. Past tense: hadst, didst.
Expressiveness of word-building
Words may become expressive due to their more morphological structure. Together with the adjectives, this suffix may produce words e.g brown -brownish, that denote a small degree of some quality. Also the suffix may form tactful words that are not found in dictionaries, if the speaker doesn’t wish sound too categorical. E.g the lecture was dullish, she came lateish.
With nouns +-ish, we get adjectives with a negative contemptuous colouring e.g childish, sheepish. This negative is even stronger with compounds e.g honeymoonish (exception: boyish, girlish do not have any negative connotation).
When –ish is added to proper names, it adds an uncomplementary colouring e.g mark twainish characters (-ish +proper name)
At the same time, with proper names we may have the suffix –ian e.g Dickensian characters, Shakesperian characters.
Suffix –s with names has poor connotation and belongs to refine style. E.g Dante -> Dantesque, Turneresque, picturesque.
Suffixes expressing negative attitude
The main noun- forming suffixes with negative attitude : gangster, hipster, oldster, profiteer, black -marketeer.
Semi-affix –monger: war-monger (for the war), panic -monger.
In the slang of young people, -o is a negative suffix e.g coppo, (policeman), kiddo.
Semi-affixes happy : car-happy (crazy about cars), handsome -dog (nice-man)
-ola: chairola
They are also slang-suffixes and contribute to contemptious ironic connotation
There are negative affixes that indicate absence of some quality and they convey expressive connotations. E.g fatherless, motherless are more expressive than „orphan“ which denotes the same, because the suffix shows that something important is missing.
Diminutive suffixes
Imply a small size and also positive/humorous or contemptious colouring. Thus the suffix –kin e.g lambkin, -let (chicklet, starlet), - ling (weakling ( weak person), -y (mommy, daddy), -ie (oldie, lassie).
Unexpected patterns of compound words create a humorous effect, due to unusual combinations of elements. E.g in- chief = commanding, editor. Boyfriend in-chief sounds unexpected and funny. Compound words standing for people may be formed out of a phrase and they contain negative evaluation and sound contemptuous, e.g ms What’s-her-name, a-might-have-been, an-also-ran (spordikommentaaridest). Writers use this pattern of word-building quite often, creating nonce-words (created for one occasion), e.g nouns (She treated me with a pleasant-day-don’t think), adjectives (a-you-don’t-know-the-world-smile), a- move -away-or-I’ll-kick-you-attitude. In general, nonce words are very expressive because they are fresh , striking new. This is true for words of an uncommon structure (see above hyphenated ones ) and for words built according to traditional patterns, e.g to Hamletise (don’t be too philosophical ), Romeo and Julietishness of their affair , to eyebrow (move eyebrow to suggest to leave).
Distorted words
Are quite humorous, proper understanding of these words is based on the stable-fixed context, e.g I beg your pudding (instead of pardon). Unusual shortenings, e.g to give bacon and e. ( eggs ), He k.n (knocked) at the door .
Phrasal verbs are more expressive than their one-word counterparts and they sound colloquial, e.g to give in (colloquial), to surrender (neutral), turn -up vs to be late
Nouns converted from these verbs are even more expressive and colloquial e.g a pin-up ( magazine ), a walk -up (six- storey houses , no elevator in these).
Phonostylistics
Phonostylistics studies phonetic features which are at the speaker’s writer’s disposal to emphasize words or the whole utterance. The phonetic arrangement of the utterance does not exist by itself- it is iseparably connected with the meaning and message. Phonetically we distinguish between prosodic means and what may be termed as orchestration of sounds.
Prosodic means
Include such phenomena of speech as loudness, diapason (pitch), acceleration or slowing down the tempo, pausation, logical and emphatic stress , intonation contours. In this respect the written text is far from being perfect , much of it can be pronounced differently and therefore understood differently.
Loudness
The tone of the voice may vary from being cold, sharp , contemptuous to being tender, gay etc.
Depends on many factors. Diminished loudness expresses intimacy, shyness, mildness, also threat , warning may be expressed by it. A loud voice may indicate various states : familiarity, good-heartedness, a fear to be misunderstood, excitement, etc. Logical stress singles out words primary in the given context: I didn’t mean you, I meant everybody.
Diapason (pitch)
Depends on the state of excitement. It is high when a person is angry or excited and low when one is disappointed, sorrowful, desperate.
Tempo
The tempo of speech is usually slow when depression, sadness ought to be expressed. Anger, fear, joy and other momentary feelings accelerate it.
Stress ( logical, emphatic)
Stress which is meant to single out certain words as emotionally important, to point out their hidden or specific meaning is called emphatic or emphasis : I told you he is ´un ´well. (=drunk)
Emphatic stress may be signalled graphically by italics , exclamation marks , dots, dashes. It is used to express one’s attitude to the interlocutor or the utterance –such as admiration, surprise, distrust, contempt. Accompanying means of emphasis can be the prolongation of vowels and consonants. Vowels are generally prolonged when positive emotions are expressed: I’m so glad. It’s fantastic.
Consonant sounds tend to become longer to expresses negative feelings:lousy, phony, monstrous. The chief means of making one’s speech emotional is intonation and pausation.
Logical pauses divide the utterance into meaningful parts (corresponding) to sense -groups, often marked in the text by punctuation, e.g I didn’t know him then, / but I do now. //
Emotional pauses are introduced to draw attention to the word or phrase that follows and thus emphasize this word or phrase:
e.g She is so gentle, so /gently cruel. (No punctuation in the text, but the pause occurs before „Gently cruel“ to emphasize the controversial nature of the character expressed by two incompatible adjectives.
e.g Do you mean to say that she is still a –virgin ?
(Here the emotional pause corresponds to the dash and strenghthens the character’s disbelief)
Thus, pauses may be marked in the text and may be introduced by the speaker.
Orchestration (euphony)
Both oral and written speech may be characterized, when approached consciously by the speaker/writer, by orchestration, i.e the the choice of words with respect to acoustic properties of soundsm their sequence and repetition. Due to their acoustic features sounds may evoke certain feelings, ideas, images. Another term for this phenomenon is euphony (Gk. –„pleasant to the ear“).
Phonetic stylistic devices
Onomatopoeia (sound imitation, echo -writing)
Is a combination of sounds which suggests acoustic features of objects or actions. E.g buzz, clang, bang , mew, roar, rattle, whisper, ding- dong , splash, rustle, flop, squeek, giggle, whistle. These are traditional cases (registered in dictionaries). More original and hence expressive instances comprise nonce coinages:
The train choo-chooed to the station .
Rrrr-umph! A devastating crash..
A jet whooshed into the sky.
He tut-tutted his tongue.
Punk , punk, punk, her needle broke the taut circle ...
Clop, -clop, -clop! Up the street came the delivery wagon.
Alliteration
The repetition of similar or identical consonants at the beginning of neighbouring words or stressed syllables:
Most musical of mourners, weep again !
This device goes back to Anglo-Saxon poetry that knew no rhyme and did not yet rely on metre. An example of this period:
In a somer seson, when soft was the sonne , I shope me in shroudes, as I shepe were. (W.Langland)
The importance of A. Is fully recognized by contemporary poets as well. They use it more sparingly, yet rather frequently and effectively. The complete alliteration of Anglo-Saxon poetry is sometimes used for humorous purposes:
Susan Simpson strolled sedately,
Stifling sobs, suppressing sighs. ( Anon .)
Alliteration may have its share in producing an ironic effect. Byron , for example, pokes fun at the sugar sweetness of writers of love songs through the consonants in the second line of
When amatory poets sing their loves
In liquid lines mellifluously bland...

may convey various shades of meaning. A.Tennyson, by the use of consonants, suggests firmness and hardness of the eagle and rock in
He clasps the crag with crooked hands...
In the following example the initial „f“ is particularly appropriate to the image of the blowing wind: The fair breeze blew , the white foam flew ,
The furrow followed free ... (S.T. Coleridge )
The above example shows that alliteration may become onomatopoetic in quality. Consider also the following instance :
Welling water’s winsome word,
Wind in warm wan weather .. (S.T.Coleridge)
Another function of alliteration lies in connecting words by similarity of sound so that you are made to think of their possible connections:
Good-bye, to Flattery’s fawning face ;
To Grandeur with his wise grimace ..( Emerson )
There have been attempts to define the expressive value of separate sounds. It has been noted, for instance, that the sounds l, m, n suggest slowness and peacefulness. An exhaustive study of consonants and some consonant clusters has been conducted by Marjorie Boulton who claims the following:
B and p suggest quickness, movement, triviality, scorn;
M, n, ng provide various effects of humming , singing, music, occasionally sinister
L suggests liquids in motion, streams, water, rest, peace, luxury
K, g, st, ts, ch suggest harshness, violence, cruelty, discomfort, noise, conflict
S, sh hissing, also soft and soothing sounds
Z appears in contexts of harshness
F, w and to a lesser extent v, suggest wind and any motion of a light kind
T, d are like k, g, but less emphatic
R –depends on the sounds near it, but is generally found in contexts of movement and noise:
Th –tends to be quiet and soothing.
Apart from poetry and prose, A. is used in newspaper headlines, the titles of books, advertisements , phraseological units e.g „Pride and Prejudice “ , „Sense and Sensibility “, „Live with Lightning“, last but not least , now or never , forget and forgive
An ad: Clearsil opens, cleans, clears up pimples –You don’t miss a moment’s fun.
Assonance or vocalic alliteration
Repetition of stressed vowels in neighbouring words. Like alliteration, it has melodious and emphatic qualities:
Tenderly bury the fair young dead ...(La Costa)
Or: Forgive what seemed my sin in me. (Tennyson)
Normally, assonance does not appear alone : it is accompanied by other means of sound orchestration, i.e alliteration, rhyme:
Hear the sledges with the bells –
Silver bells
What a world of merriment their melody foretells! (Poe)
Some scholars have attempted to relate vowel sounds to the meaning they convey. The sound / I / , either alone or in dipthtongs, is said to produce the impression of lightness, airiness, brightness.
The fields breathe sweet, the daisises kiss our feet ,
Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sit ... (T.Nashe)
The length of vowels is also relevant: long vowels tend to sound more peaceful or more solemn than short ones, which tend to give an impression of quick movement, agitation or triviality. The predominance of long vowels and diphtongs is said to render the sense of slow pace or slowness, heaviness. This assessment of vowel sounds could be backed up by the following fragment:
Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright !
The bridal of the earth and sky;
The dew shall weep thy fall tonight;
For thou must die. (G. Herbert )
In the following lines, S.T.Coleridge suggests the feeling of the menace of sharp, arid heat partly due to the short vowels:
All in a hot and copper sky,
The bloody Sun....
Rhyme
Is a special kind of regular sound repetition occurring at the end of poetic lines or at other, symmetrically placed stretches of a poem . Rhyming words are often situated at a regular distance from each other. Rhyming has a twofold nature. As any sound repetititon, it plays an important role in sound orchestration. Being regularly repeated, it has marked rhytmical and compositional qualities. The rhyming words have either identical or similar sound combinations. Identity of sounds results in full rhymes, comprising the repetition of the last stressed vowel and the following consonant(s): blushes –thrushes, tide-side, gold -cold, miss-kiss.
Incomplete rhymes
Derive from modifications of full rhymes.
Incomplete vowel rhymes require identical vowels, while consonants are different: world- serve , bulb- skull , pen-best, storm-mourn, balm- path .
Consonant rhymes
The reverse principle is observed here, consisting of identical consonants and dissimilar vowels, as in: blood -blade, love-live, felt -fault, burn -born, crisp -grasp.
Compund rhymes
Are made up of two or more words, united by a single stress, that reproduce the sound form of a related word: clamorous- enamour us, women –two men, adorer-before her, Verona - known a ..., feter-beset her, grammar-d-n her, bottom -forgot ´em (examples are taken from Byron’s „Beppo“)
These rhymes are mainly employed to evoke a humorous response. They also add a colloquial touch to the text.
Eye-rhyme (or sight rhyme)
A peculiar feature of English rhymes. It contains identical letters while vowel sounds are pronounced differently: love –grov e, farm –warm , gush –bush , dew –grew ,flames – Thames . This rhyme is appreciated by the eye rather than by the ear. Its existence is conditioned mainly by historical changes in the vowel sounds in certain positions. Eye-rhymes are used by contemporary poets largely as a tribute to the poetic tradition of the past.
17

.DOC Laadi alla originaalfail 17 lk · .doc · 22 allalaadimist

50 punkti Autor soovib selle materjali allalaadimise eest saada 50 punkti.

~ 17 lehte Lehekülgede arv dokumendis

2009-09-30 Kuupäev, millal dokument üles laeti

22 laadimist Kokku alla laetud

0 arvamust Teiste kasutajate poolt lisatud kommentaarid

Elle-Riin Kakku Õppematerjali autor

stilistika

Sarnased õppematerjalid

doc

Exami kysimused-vastused

1. STYLE The term "style" is polysemantic (has many meanings): a Latin word "stilus" originally meant a writing instrument used by ancient people. Already in classical Latin the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one's ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift defined style as "proper words in proper places". In present day English the word "style" is used in about a dozen of principle meanings: 1. the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his/her ideas (e.g. style of Byron) 2. the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period 3. the use of language typical of a literary genre (e.g. the style of a comedy, drama, novel). 4. the selective use of language that depends on spheres / areas of human activity (e.g. style of fiction, scientific prose, newspapers, business correspondence, etc.). STYLISTICS Stylistics is the study of style. The very term "stylistics" came in more com

Stilistika (inglise)

doc

Stilistika loeng

FGI 1081 Stilistika (Irina Ladusseva) Kab. 420 2 AP Ends with an exam; lasts only for 1 semester. At the exam you get 2 questions and an exercise (50 sentences: establish the device used, recognize it, and name it). Care about the pronunciation of the terms. Books: - I. Galperin "Stylistics" - I. Ladusseva "Rhythm and Text" - I. Ladusseva "Vocabulary and Style" - I. Ladusseva "Stylistic practice: Book I, Book II" - I. Ladusseva "A Guide to Punctuation" EXAMINATION TOPICS: 1. Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies 2. Inherent connotations. Phonesthe

Stilistika (inglise)

doc

Stilistika materjalid

STYLISTICS 1. Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies The term ,,style" is polysemantic. Latin ,,stilus"--a writing instrument used by the ancients for writing on waxed tablets. Soon, the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one's ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift said: ,, Style is proper words in proper places" Present day--half a dozen meanings: · the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his ideas (Style of Byron) · the manner of expressing ideas characteristic of a literary movement or period (symbolism, romanticism) · the use of lg. typical of a literary genre (comedy, drama, novel) · the selective use of lg that depends on spheres of human activity. These are called functional styles or registers (fiction, newspaper) Stylistics is the study of style. However, for some r

Stilistika (inglise)

doc

Inglise keele stilistika II

1 SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES are based on a peculiar place of the word or phrase in the utterance (text, sentence, etc).This special place creates emphasis irrespective of the lexical meaning of the words used. Categories: syntactic stylistic devises based on: SDD: based on ABSENCE OF LOGICALLY REQUIRED ELEMENTS OF SPEECH ELLIPSIS ELLIPSIS or ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES means leaving out one or both principle members of the sentence that is the subject or predicate. NT: Where is the man I'm going to marry? - Out in the garden. (no subject) What is he doing out there? - Annoying father. Here, in the dialogue, ellipsis creates the colloquial tone of the utterance. It also renders realistically the way the characters speak. The elliptical sentences convoy/render carelessness, familiarity, harshness. It makes the utterance tens and emotional or helps t

Stilistika (inglise)

docx

Inglise keele struktuur

1. Be ready to explain the terms (lecture 1): language, linguistics, synchronic approach to language, diachronic approach to language, linguistic competence, linguistic performance, what is grammar?, prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar; phonology, phonetics, phone, allophone, phoneme; morphology, morphemes (types of morphemes), morphs, allomorphs, types of affixes, derivational affixes, inflectional affixes; open vs closed class words; syntax. Language: a systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression. - human language at all levels is rule- or principle-governed. Linguistics: the scientific study of human natural language Synchronic approach to language: Diachronic approach to language: Linguistic competence: Linguistic performance: What is grammar?: "The sounds and sound patterns, the basic units of meaning, such as words, and the rules to combine them to form new sentences constitute the grammar of a

Inglise keel

odt

History of english review questions and answers 2016

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OLD ENGLISH - 15 monophtongs, (7 long, 7 short, 1 central), 4 diphtongs, 17 consonants. Free variaton of R, and it was pronounced everywhere. Very much Germanic in character. Quite some special consonants that no longer exist. About morphology: synthetic with numerous aglutinating tendencies. System of tenses Germanic, but with a reduction of tenses. Paradigmatic leveling; Stress shift; Word order; Loan words (Old Norse, Old French). Dual pronouns. Determiners - no separate definite article. Strong and weak verbs. Word order relatively free with tendencies towards SVO. SVO, SOV, VSO most common. Adposition and podposition were both possible (eesliide ja tagaliide). About syntax: clauses were joined much simpler than nowadays, using and, then etc. Because of case syncretion the word order in a sentence became much more important to be able to tell the difference between words. FIRST CONSONANT SHIFT (GRIMM'S LAW) Grimm's Law (also known as the First Germanic

Inglise keele ajalugu

docx

Grammar Terminology

1 Grammatical Terminology PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR FLGR.01.042 Grammatical Terminology analytic analüütiline (= uninflected - grammar is focused in the sentence , e.g. English) synthetic sünteetiline (= inflected - grammar is focused in the word, e.g. Estonian, Latin, Russian, Old English) ending lõpp (käände- ja pöördelõpud) marker tunnus (mitmuse, oleviku, lihtmineviku, tingiva kõneviisi, käskiva kõneviisi, kaudse kõneviisi, umbisikulise tegumoe, ma- tegevusnime, oleviku kesksõna, mineviku kesksõna) derivational affix liide, tuletusliide, tuletusafiks (e.g. postwar, anti-American, wiser, greenish) parts of speech sõnaliigid English Estonian Definition

Inglise keel

doc

Inglise leksikoloogia kordamisküsimuste vastused

LEXICOLOGY 1. Size of English vocabulary 1) Old English – 50,000 to 60,000 words Vocabulary of Shakespeare OE – homogeneous; 1/3 of the vocabulary has survived • 884,647 words of running text About 450 Latin loans (Amosova) • 29,000 different words (incl. work, working, Viking invasions added 2,000 worked, which are counted here as separate 2) Middle English – 100,000 – 125,000 words) English becomes heterogeneous (Norman French, • 21,000 words English, Latin), hybrid of Germanic and Romance languages Norman French influence – about 10,000 words, 75 % are still in use (Baugh) Latin influence continues 3) Early Modern English – 200,000 – 250,000 English becomes a polycentric language; polyglot, cosmopolitan language 4) Modern English ?

Leksikoloogia ja leksikograafia

Rohkem sarnaseid

Kommentaarid (0)

Kommentaarid sellele materjalile puuduvad. Ole esimene ja kommenteeri

Kõik kommentaarid

.DOC Laadi alla originaalfail 17 lk