AMERICAN SLANG
Review questions
English lexicology
1. Size of English vocabulary –
1) Old English – 50,000 to 60,000 words
OE – homogeneous; 1/3 of the vocabulary has survived
About 450 Latin loans (Amosova)
Viking invasions added 2,000
2) Middle English – 100,000 – 125,000
English becomes heterogeneous (Norman French, English, Latin), hybrid of
Germanic and Romance languages
Norman French influence – about 10,000 words, 75 % are still in use (Baugh)
Latin influence continues
3) Early Modern English – 200,000 – 250,000
English becomes a polycentric language; polyglot, cosmopolitan language
4) Modern English – 500,000 words (OED)
At present at least 1 billion lexical units
2. Core and periphery – Minkova & Stockwell,2006
Origin of the 10,000 most frequent words:
Old English 31.8 %
French 45 %
Latin 16.7 %
Other Germanic languages 4.2 %
Other languages 2.3 %
The core vocabulary is predominantly Germanic (the, I, you, etc.) Only 4 of the top-
ranked one hundred words in the Brown Corpus are of foreign origin.
64 state
81 use v (Old French)
93 people (Anglo-Norman, > Old French)
100 just (> Old French)
Core vocabulary and syllable structure:
93 of the first one hundred words in the Brown Corpus are
monosyllabic, and the
remaining have
two syllables (only, about, other, also, many even people)
Core vocabulary – often short (monosyllabic) words of Germanic and Old Norse origin.
3. Native and foreign element. – Native vocabulary: 3 strata
1) Indo-European words (names of close relatives, names of natural objects, parts of the
body, numerals)
2) Germanic words
3) Old English words
Indo- European: mother, father, Night, foot, heart, bear (bore, born), see
Germanic: friend, Bridge, ship, life, heaven, glass, death, make v, meet v
Old English: 23,000 – 24,000 items. Only about 3 % are of non-Germanic origin.
Etymologically homogeneous. (The Dictionary of Old English, University of Toronto).
65-85 % of the Old English vocabulary has been lost.
bad
bird [OE brid, (late Northumb.) bird, of unkn. origin and without cognates.]
woman
lady OE hlæfd€ge, f. hlaf loaf n.1 + Gmc base meaning ‘knead’
daisy OE dæges eage day’s eye
gospel OE godspel, i.e. god good a., spel news, tidings; rendering of eccl.L bona
annuntiatio, bonus nuntius, used as literal renderings of eccl.L evangelium, Gk
euaggelion
4. Latin borrowings - (1) Inflectional endings retained: addendum, albumen, apex,
area, bacterium/bacteria, cactus, calix, camera, cancer, circus, colossus, complex,
data, discus, equilibrium, fauna, flora, formula, fungus, genius, genus,
homunculus, honorarium, inertia, interim, latex, locus, medium/media,
memorandum, momentum, onus, opera, ovum, pauper, pendulum, peninsula,
propaganda, radium, referendum, series, simile, simplex, status, stimulus,
terminus, vertigo, victor.
(2) Actual inflected Latin verbs used as nouns: audio, audit, caveat, exeunt, fiat,
floruit, imprimatur, mandamus, video.
(3) Fixed phrases: ad hoc, a posteriori, de facto, de jure, extempore, (ex) post
facto, post mortem, quid pro quo, sine die.
(4) Binomials: gluteus maximus, Homo sapiens, miles gloriosus, Pax Britannica.
(5) Endings dropped or adapted, often through French: add, addition, additive,
agent, agentive, aqueduct, candle, colo(u)r, colossal, consider, contemplate,
decide, decision, erupt, eruption, general, generic, hono(u)r, hono(u)rable,
honorary, igneous, ignite, ignition, ignoble, illiteracy, illiterate, immoral,
immortality, ingenious, ingenuity, literacy, literate, literature, meditate,
meditation, meditative, memorable, memory, moment, momentary, momentous,
moral, morality, nobility, noble, pendulous, peninsular, revise, revision, sex,
similar, similarity, temple.
5. Greek borrowings - (1) Inflectional endings retained but spelt in the Latin style:
abiogenesis, aegis, analysis, anemone, antithesis, automaton, charisma, cinema,
crisis, criterion, cytokinesis, diagnosis, dogma, drama, electron, enigma, genesis,
gnosis, hoi polloi, kerygma, lalophobia, magma, osteoporosis, phenomenon,
photon, rhinoceros, rhododendron, stigma, synthesis, thesis.
(2) With Latin endings: brontosaurus, chrysanthemum, diplodocus,
hippopotamus, Pliohippus.
(3) Endings dropped or adapted: agnostic, agnosticism, alphabet, alphabetic,
analyst, analytic, anthocyanin, astrobleme, atheism, automatic, biologist, biology,
blasphemy, charismatic, chemotherapy, chronobiology, cinematography, critic,
criticism, dinosaur, dogmatic, dogmatism, dramatic, dramatist, electric,
electronic, enigmatic, epistemic, epistemology, gene, genetic, herpetology,
narcolepsy, odyssey, oligarchy, patriarch, phenomenology, photograph,
pterodactyl, sympathomimetic.
(4) Modern: bouzouki, moussaka, ouzo, rebetika, sirtaki, souvlaki.
6. Celtic borrowings - (1) Breton through French: bijou, dolmen, menhir.
(2) Celtic before Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, and Cornish, and through Latin, French,
and Old English: ambassador/embassy, bannock, bard, bracket, breeches,
car/carry/career/carriage/ cargo/carpenter/charge, crag, druid, minion, peat, piece,
vassal/valet/varlet.
(3) Cornish: porbeagle, wrasse.
(4) Gaelic, general: bog, cairn, clarsach, ceilidh, coronach, crag, crannog,
gab/gob, galore, skene, usquebaugh/whisk(e)y; Irish: banshee, blarney, brogue,
colleen, hooligan, leprechaun, lough, macushla, mavourneen, poteen, shamrock,
shebeen, shillelagh, smithereens, spalpeen, Tory; Scottish: caber, cailleach,
cairngorm, clachan, clan, claymore, corrie, glen, loch, lochan, pibroch, plaid,
ptarmigan, slogan, sporran, strath, trews, trousers.
(5) Welsh: bug, coracle, corgi, cromlech, cwm, eisteddfod, flannel, flummery
7. Scandinavian borrowings –
Europe: the Germanic languages
(1) Danish: smorrebrod.
(2) Dutch, including Flemish and Low German (but not Afrikaans: see Africa): bluff,
boor, boss, brandy, bully, bumpkin, clamp, clipper, coleslaw, cookie, cruise, dapper,
derrick, dope, drill, drum, easel, frolic, golf, grime, hunk, kink, landscape, loiter,
poppycock, rant, runt, scow, skipper, sled, sledge, sleigh, slim, smack, smuggle, snap,
snoop, splint, spook, stoop, yacht, yawl.
(3) German: blitz(krieg), dachshund, fahrenheit, flak, frankfurter, glockenspiel,
gneiss, hamburger, hamster, kaffeeklatsch, kindergarten, kitsch, leberwurst, leitmotiv,
nix, pretzel, quartz, realpolitik, sauerkraut, schadenfreude, schmaltz, schnitzel,
schwa, strafe, waltz, weltanschauung, weltgeist, yodel, zeitgeist.
(4) Icelandic: auk, eider, geyser, saga.
(5) Norse: anger, balderdash, bing, bleak, blether, blink, bloom, blunder, blur, call,
clamber, creek, crook, die, dirt, dowdy, doze, dregs, egg, fellow, flat, flaunt, flaw,
fleck, flimsy, gasp, gaunt, gaze, girth, glint, glitter, gloat, happen, harsh, inkling,
kick, kilt, law, leg, loan, meek, midden, muck, muggy, nasty, nudge, oaf, odd, raise,
root, scalp, scant, scowl, seat, skerry, skewer, skid, skill, skin, skull, sky, sniff, snub,
squall, squeal, take, they, thrall, thrift, thrust, ugly, vole, want, weak, window.
(6) Norwegian: fjord/fiord, floe, kraken, krill, lemming, ski, slalom.
(7) Scots, in English at large: balmoral, burn, canny, carfuffle, collie, cosy, eerie,
eldritch, forebear, glamour, glengarry, gloaming, glower, gumption, guddle,
Hogmanay, lilt, pony, raid, rampage, uncanny, wee, weird, wizened, wraith; mainly
in Scotland: ashet, bogle, bonnie, burn, cleg, dreich, dwam, fornent, furth of, glaikit,
glaur, hochmagandy, howf, leal, lowp, outwith, scunner, speir, stot, thole, trauchle.
(8) Swedish: glogg, ombudsman, smorgasbord, tungsten.
(9) Yiddish: chutzpah, shlemiel, shlep, shlock, schmaltzy.
8. French borrowings - (1) French, Old: allow, bastard, beauty, beef, brush, castle,
chivalry, choice, cloister, conquest, constraint, court, defeat, destroy, dinner,
forest, frail, garden, govern, honest, hostel, interest, judge, loyal, marvel, mutton,
paste, place, poison, pork, priest, push, quarter, quest, royal, stuff, sure, tempest,
ticket, trick; Modern: aperitif/apéritif, apresski/après-ski, avant-garde, bidet,
bourgeois(ie), brasserie, brassiere/brassière, cafe/café, camouflage, canard,
chateau/château, chef, chevalier, coup de grace/grâce, coup'etat/état, croissant,
cuisine, debacle/débacle/débâcle, debut/début, dessert, elite/élite, esprit de corps,
etiquette, fiance(e)/fiancé(e), fricassee/fricassée, frisson, garage, gourmand,
gourmet, hors d'oeuvre, hotel, joie de vivre, liaison, limousine, lingerie,
marionette, morale, nee/née, objet d'art, parole, pastiche, patisserie/pâtisserie,
petite, pirouette, prestige, regime/régime, risque/risqué, silhouette, souvenir,
toilette, vignette, voyeur,
9. Spanish borrowings - Spanish, adapted: alligator, anchovy, barricade, cask,
cedilla, galleon, grenade, hoosegow, lariat, ranch, renegade, sherry, stampede,
stevedore, vamoose; direct: adobe, armada, armadillo, borracho, bravado, chili,
chinchilla, embargo, guerrilla, hacienda, mosquito, mulatto, negro, peccadillo,
pinto, pronto, sarsaparilla, silo, sombrero, vigilante
10. Italian borrowings - Italian, through French: balcony, battalion, brigade,
charlatan, design, frigate, granite, squadron; direct: alto, arpeggio, bordello,
broccoli, cameo, canto, confetti, contralto, cupola, ghetto, graffiti, grotto,
imbroglio, lasagne, libretto, mozzarella, pasta, piano(forte), piazza, piccolo,
pizza, pizzeria, pizzicato, ravioli, risotto, sonata, seraglio, soprano, spaghetti,
staccato, stanza, studio, tagliatelle, vermicelli.
11. Dutch borrowings - (2) Dutch, including Flemish and Low German (but not
Afrikaans: see Africa): bluff, boor, boss, brandy, bully, bumpkin, clamp, clipper,
coleslaw, cookie, cruise, dapper, derrick, dope, drill, drum, easel, frolic, golf,
grime, hunk, kink, landscape, loiter, poppycock, rant, runt, scow, skipper, sled,
sledge, sleigh, slim, smack, smuggle, snap, snoop, splint, spook, stoop, yacht,
yawl.
12. Borrowings from Asian languages –
South and South East Asia
(1) Hindi/Urdu: bungalow, crore, dacoit, deodar, dinghy, dungaree, ghee, gymkhana,
jodphurs, lakh, loot, paisa, pakora, Raj, samo(o)sa, shampoo, tandoori, tom-tom, wallah.
(2) Javanese: bantam, batik, gamelan, junk.
(3) Malay: amok, bamboo, caddy, camphor, cassowary, cockatoo, dugong, durian, gecko,
gingham, gong, kampong/compound, kapok, kris, lory, mangosteen, orang-utan, paddy,
pangolin, rattan, sago, sarong.
(4) Malayalam: betel, coir, copra, ginger, teak.
(5) Marathi: mongoose.
(6) Sanskrit through various languages: ashram, avatar, banya, banyan, beryl, brahmin,
carmine, cheetah, chintz, chutney, crimson, juggernaut, jungle, jute, lacquer, mandarin,
palanquin, pundit, sapphire, sugar, suttee; more or less direct: ahimsa, asana, ashrama,
atman, avatar, bodhisattva, brahmin, Buddha, chakra, guru, hatha yoga, karma, lingam,
maharaja(h), mahatma, mantra, Maya, nirvana, raja(h), rani/ranee, satyagraha, sutra,
swastika, yantra, yoga, yogasana.
(7) Sinhala: anaconda, tourmaline
(8) Tagalog: boondock, ylang-ylang.
(9) Tamil: catamaran, cheroot, curry, mango, mulligatawny, pariah.
(10) Telugu: bandicoot.
Central and East Asia
(1) Chinese languages: china, chin-chin, chopsticks, chopsuey, chow chow, chow mein,
dim sum, fan-tan, feng shui, ginseng, gung-ho, kaolin, ketchup/catsup, kowtow, kung fu,
lychee, loquat, mahjong, pekoe, sampan, tai chi, taipan, Tao, tea, yang, yen, yin.
(2) Japanese: aikido, banzai, bonsai, bushido, futon, geisha, haiku, hara-kiri, judo, jujitsu,
Kabuki, kamikaze, kimono, koan, mikado, sake, samisen, samurai, sayonara, Shinto,
shogun, soy(a), sushi, teriyaki, tofu, tycoon, yen, Zen.
(3) Tibetan: lama, Sherpa, yak, yeti.
(4) Tungus: shaman.
13. Etymological doublets - Etymological doublets – two words of the same
derivation but having different meanings, for example fashion and faction, cloak
and clock.
14. Folk etymology - Folk etymology → noun
a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase.
• [mass noun] the process by which the form of an unfamiliar or foreign word is
adapted to a more familiar form through popular usage.
15. Archaisms - Archaisms – Form or use of a form which is obsolete or belongs
recognizably to an older stage of a language
→ noun
a thing that is very old or old-fashioned, especially an archaic word or style of
language
16. Neologisms - Neologisms → noun
a newly coined word or expression.
• [mass noun] the coining or use of new words.
- DERIVATIVES neologist noun neologize ( also neologise ) verb .
- ORIGIN early 19th cent.: from French néologisme.
17. Affixation - Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base,
which may be simple (as in full, the base to which –ness is attached to yield
fullness), or complex (like meditate, the base to which pre- is attached to yield
premeditate).
18. Prefixes - A prefix is an affix that precedes its base. English examples so far
presented are mis- in misfortunes and pre- in premeditated. In English all prefixes
are derivational; thus un- in unhappy, de- in decontaminate, counter- in
countersignature, and so on create new lexemes rather than inflected forms of
happy, contaminate, and signature. A prefix is an element placed at the beginning
of a word to adjust or qualify its meaning (de-, non-, re-).
19. Suffixes - A suffix is an affix that follows its base. English examples so far
presented are –s in misfortunes, -ate and –(e)d in premeditated, and –ful in
spoonful and cheerful
. A suffix is an element placed at the end of a word to form
a derivative, such as –ation, -fy, -ing, frequently one that converts the stem into
another part of speech.
20. Infixes - An infix is an affix that is inserted inside its base. An infix is placed
within a word; they are rare in English:
-o- narcology
-i- calciferous
21. Combining forms - A combining form can either be a prefix or a suffix; the
difference is that the combining form adds a layer of extra meaning to the word,
e.g.
bio- (life, living) biochemistry
-cide (killing) pesticide
Prefixes and suffixes only modify an existing meaning.
22. Back-formation - …a kind of derivation in reverse, in which a supposed affix is
removed from a word. baby-sit v < babysitter , televise < television
23. Alphabetisms, initialisms, acronyms - alphabetize / ( also alphabetise )
→ verb
[with obj.] arrange in alphabetical order: the listings are arranged by state and
alphabetized by city.
- DERIVATIVES alphabetization noun .
initialism → noun
an abbreviation consisting of initial letters pronounced separately (e.g. BBC).
acronym. 1. This term denotes a type of abbreviation made up of a set of initials that
are pronounced as a single word, as Nato is (as distinct from BBC). An acronym is
generally treated as a word in its own right in other ways, for example in the
formation of plurals when appropriate. Examples of familiar acronyms include: Aids
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), Anzac (Australian and New Zealand Army
Corps), ASH (Action on Smoking and Health), PIN (personal identification number),
SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), Unesco (United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization), and WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant).
Some of these, especially the names of organizations, start off as ordinary
abbreviations (often with full stops) and develop into acronyms; others (e.g. ASH) are
deliberately contrived so as to lend themselves to pronunciation as words and hence
acquire acronym status artificially.
24. Clippings, fore clippings, back clippings, ambiclippings - Clipping refers to
the shortening of some word while the original meaning is retained. Clipping
does not create lexemes with new meanings, but lexemes with a new stylistic
value.
1) foreclippings – raccoon->coon, telephone->phone
2) back-clippings – debutante->deb, crocodile->croc
3) ambiclippings – influenza->flu, head shrinker->shrink
“(1) the material which is removed may come from the beginning of the word,
the end, or both,
(2) that it is not always the semantic head of the word which is retained,
(3) that it is not always the stressed syllable in the word which is retained, and
(4) that a compound or phrase may be clipped to provide a simple clipping.”
25. Blends - portmanteu words - “lexemes made out of a phonological parts of two
(rarely more) other words, with the parts which remain from the originals being
determined purely phonologically without any reference to morphs”.
Boom+hois=boost, breakfast+lunch=brunch etc. In this semantic respect, proper
blends resemble
copulative compounds (such as actor-director, writer-
journalist). Semantically or in terms of origin, we can distinguish two
fundamental types of blend. There are those like smog where the words in the
original, smoke and fog, are in paradigmatic relationship with each other, and
those like motel, where the two words in the original, motor and hotel, are in a
syntagmatic relationship with each other”. In syntagmatic origin blends, the order
of the elements is determined by the original.
26. Clipped compounds - Clippings may be compounded with each other to give
clipping compounds. Kid-vid – kid’s video.
The term may also be taken to include compounds which have just one of the
elements clipped… autochanger < automatic record changer, op art < optical art
In a clipping compound, the first part of both words is represented in the new
word; in a blend the first part of the first word in the original and the last part of the
second word in the original are represented.” (Bauer 2006: 501)
sitcom < situational comedy (clipping compound)
monergy < money energy (blend)
“…clippings are frequently given additional suffixal material, which has the effect of
lengthening them again… embellished clippings are regionally variable in their
productivity… preggers < pregnant
27. Conversion - The process by which a word belonging to one word class gets used
as part of another word class without the addition of an affix. (Also called
reclassification or functional shift.)
Nouns from verbs:
a bounce (E16), a meet (M19), a retread (E20), a swim (M16; M18 in current sense)
Verbs from nouns:
to fingerprint (E20), to highlight (M20), to holiday (M19), to mob (M17), to necklace
(E18; L20 in current sense)
Adjectives from nouns:
average (L18), chief (ME), commonplace (E17), cream (M19), damp (L16; E18 in
current sense), game (plucky; E18).
An unusual recent conversion is the use of plus, already a preposition and noun, as a
colloquial conjunction:
10% bonus offer until 31st December, plus you'll get a mystery present.
Minor types of conversion include conversions of closed class words (e.g. the ins and
outs, the whys and wherefores); of affixes (e.g. So you've got an ology, isms and
wasms); and even of whole phrases (e.g. his prolier-than-thou protestations).
A distinction is sometimes made between full conversion, as here, and partial
conversion. In this a word takes on only some of the characteristics of its new word
class. The use of adjectives in constructions like the poor, the handicapped are cited
as examples of partial conversion, since they do not permit marking for plural or
countability (*six poors, *a handicapped); but this analysis is disputed by other
grammarians, who prefer to treat such usage simply as an adjective functioning as the
head of a noun phrase.
28. Compounds - “Compounds are formed by joining two or more root morphemes
or (classical) combining forms into a single lexeme”. “Compounding – a word-
formation process in which two or more simple words are joined to a new word
with a single meaning.”
Classification based on word classes:
compound nouns – coffee pot
compound adjectives – sky-blue, lead-free, machine-readable
compound verbs – dry-clean, carbon-copy
compound prepositions – onto, into
Dry-clean, happy-go-lucky etc.
“It seems that longer compounds such as railway timetable can virtually always
broken down into nested compounds, each of which shows binary branching”
“Not only is it the case that only the final element in an English compound can
usually inflect, it is also the case that in a very large number of cases the final element in
isolation denotes a hyperonym or subordinate term for what is denoted by the compound
as a whole” windmill, sky-dive, sky-blue
“It (i.e. the final element) determines the word-class of the compound and, in
most cases, the inflectional class of the compound” flittermouse (pl –mice)
“Inflection is typically marked on the final element of the compound whether it is
regular or irregular. In such cases we may talk of this final element as the HEAD of the
compound”
The distinction between a phrase and a compound is far from clear
forget-me-not, love-in-a-mist
1) phonology (stress patterns) (not consistent or predictable, thus unreliable)
2) semantic criterion - a compound can be more specialized than a phrase
One of the criteria is the position of the stress – in compounds primary stress on the
first component, and the second component carries a secondary stress.
Classical compounds: “…neo-classical compounds, where a knowledge of Greek and
Latin would be required for their interpretation”. Calligraphy, mastectomy
Phonological compounds – falling intonation, stressed on the first word
blackbird
teapot
Or primary stress falls on the stressed syllable of the first word
emergency plan
Re
publican Party
29. Solid, hyphenated, and open compounds - Orthographic compounds:
1) Solid compounds
blackbird
2) hyphenated compounds
muddle-headed
3) open compounds
coffee cup
30. Endocentric and exocentric compounds –
endocentric a. (Ling.) designating a compound or construction whose
distribution is the same as that of one of its constituents M20. NSODE
(of a construction or compound) having the same syntactic function in the
sentence as one of its immediate constituents. Cold water is an endocentric
construction, since it functions as would the noun water. Greenhouse is an
endocentric compound, since it is a noun as is its head house. Cf. exocentric.
The overwhelming number of English compounds are endocentric
exocentric a. (Ling.) designating a compound or construction whose
distribution is not the same as that of any of its constituents; not endocentric:
E20. NSODE
not having the same syntactic function in the sentence as any one of its immediate
constituents. In the garden is an exocentric construction, since it does not function in
the same way as the noun garden. The noun bittersweet is an exocentric compound,
since it is a noun but its elements are both adjectives. Cf. endocentric.
“The class of dvandva compounds in Sanskrit is made up of compounds which
denote the unity made up of the two distinct items named in the elements of the
compound.”
31. Meaning change - semantic shift A change in the meaning of a word taking
place over time. (Also called semantic change.)
There is a general tendency for words to develop new meanings and to relinquish
other meanings over time. Much of this change occurs not in isolation but in relation
to other words whose meanings are changing in other ways. Meat once meant ‘food
in general’ while flesh had a wider coverage than at present, taking in both living
flesh and dead flesh as food. Individually considered, each word has contracted its
field of reference, but taking them together it becomes clear that a certain
reclassification has taken place. Collide, once used mainly of pairs of trains and ships
in motion, has expanded its scope, merely as a result of technological change, so as to
refer to motor vehicles and aircraft. With this momentum it has been able to achieve
generalization not only to the encounter of almost any objects whose paths might
cross (e.g. pedestrians, sub-atomic particles, etc.) but also to the meeting of a moving
object with a static one (e.g. a car colliding with a tree).
32. Metaphor and metonymy – Metaphor: the application of a name or descriptive
term or phrase to an object or action to which it is imaginatively but not literally
applicable (e.g. a glaring error, a loud check).
Metonymy: figure of speech in which a word or expression normally or strictly used of
one thing is used of something physically or otherwise associated with it: e.g. the
Pentagon (strictly a building) when used of the military inhabiting it. This may lead to
metonymic change of meaning: e.g. the sense of bureau changed successively from ‘cloth
used to cover desks’, first to ‘desk’ itself, then to ‘agency etc. (working from a desk)’.
Defined in the most general sense as any figure based on ‘contiguity’: as such often taken
to include e.g. synecdoche: opposed in this sense to metaphor as a figure based on
‘similarity’.
33. Meaning restriction and extension. - restriction of meaning Change by which the
meaning of a word is narrowed by the addition of a feature or features that were not
previously part of it: e.g. that by which deer, formerly a word for ‘animal’ in general,
came to denote one specific kind of animal.
widening of meaning Enlargement of the class of entities that a word denotes: e.g. the meaning
of bird, formerly ‘young bird’, was extended, in the early history of English, to mean ‘bird’ in
general. Also called ‘extension of meaning’: but extensions that involve the simple loss of a
restriction (like the restriction to birds that are young) might usefully be distinguished from those
by which new senses will be added.
34. Meaning degradation and elevation
35. Monosemy - noun
[mass noun] (Linguistics) the property of having only one meaning.
36. Polysemy - [mass noun] (Linguistics) the coexistence of many possible meanings for a
word or phrase.
37. Homonyms - a word that has both the same pronunciation and the same spelling
as another, but is etymologically unrelated to it.
Examples are:
bill (statement of charges): bill (beak)
fair (just): fair (sale, entertainment)
pole (long slender rounded piece of wood or metal): pole (each of the two points
in the celestial sphere about which the stars appear to revolve)
pulse (throbbing): pulse (edible seeds)
row (noun, a line): row (verb, propel boat)
soil (earth): soil (make dirty)
38. Homophones - One of two or more words that are identical in sound but different
in spelling and meaning: beer/bier, there/their/they're. The occurrence of
homophones is largely a matter of historical chance, in which words with distinct
meanings come to coincide phonologically: byre a cowshed, buyer one who buys.
Words may be homophones in one variety of English but not another:
father/farther and for/four are homophonous in RP, but not in AmE and ScoE;
wails/Wales are general homophones; wails/Wales/whales are homophones for
many, but not in IrE and ScoE. Whether/whither are homophones in Scotland, but
not whether/weather, which are homophones in England.
39. Homographs - a kind of
HOMONYM: one of two or more words that are identical in
SPELLING but different in origin, meaning, and
PRONUNCIATION, such as
entrance (noun: stress on first syllable) a door, gate, etc., and entrance (verb: stress on
second syllable) to put in a trance; lead (verb: rhyming with ‘deed’) to take, conduct,
guide, etc., and lead (noun: rhyming with ‘dead’) a metal.
40. Synonyms - noun
a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the
same language, for example shut is a synonym of close.
41. Opposites (antonyms) - noun
a word opposite in meaning to another (e.g. bad and good).
42. Hyponyms - in linguistics, a hyponym of a given term is a more specific term in
the same domain; e.g. spaniel is a hyponym of dog, and bag, box, and cup are
hyponyms of container.
43. Hypernyms (hyperonyms) - A hypernym is a more general term, so that dog is
the hypernym of spaniel, and container of bag, box, and cup.
→ noun
a word with a broad meaning constituting a category into which words with more
specific meanings fall; a superordinate. For example, colour is a hypernym of red.
44. Meronyms - noun
(Linguistics) a term which denotes part of something but which is used to refer to the
whole of it, e.g. faces when used to mean people in I see several familiar faces present.
45. Holonyms - in relation to a given term, a
term—word or phrase—that denotes a
whole whose part is denoted by the other term, such as "face" in relation to "eye".
Body is a holonym of arm, leg and heart.
Word is a holonym of letter.
46. Collocations - “the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each
other in a text”.
“the name given to the relationship a lexical item has with items
that appear with greater than random probability in its context”.
Grammatical collocations – “consist of a dominant word – noun, adjective/participle,
verb – and a preposition or a grammatical construction”
in the picture ‘pildil’
admiration for
acceptable to
Lexical collocations “do not have a dominant word; they have structures such as the
following: verb + noun, adjective + noun, noun + verb, noun + noun, adverb + adjective,
adverb + verb.
1) weak collocations – see a film, and enjoyable holiday, extremely complicated
2) medium-strength collocations – see a doctor, direct equivalent, highly
intelligent
3) strong and restricted collocations – see reason, burning ambition, blindingly
obvious
1) adjective + noun
bright / harsh / intense / strong light
2) quantifier + noun
a beam / ray of light
3) verb + noun
cast / emit / give / provide / shed light
4) noun + verb
light gleams / glows / shines
5) noun + noun
A light source
6) preposition + noun
by the light of the moon
7) noun + preposition
the light from the window
8) adverb + verb
choose carefully
9) verb + verb
be free to choose
10) verb + preposition
choose between two things
11) verb + adjective
Make / keep / declare sth safe
12) adverb + adjective
perfectly / not entirely / environmentally safe
13) adjective + preposition
Safe from attack
14) short phrases including the headword
the speed of light, pick and choose, safe and sound
47. Idioms - A set expression in which two or more words are syntactically related,
but with a meaning like that of a single lexical unit: e.g. ‘spill the beans’ in
Someone has spilled the beans about the bank raid, or ‘put one's foot in it’ in Her
husband can never make a speech without putting his foot in it.
48. Syntactic freezes (irreversible binomials, trinomials) - irreversible binomial - a
pair of words in a fixed and parallel relation: e.g. (It is raining) cats and dogs, not
dogs and cats; (just a few) odds and ends, not ends and odds, heart and soul, not
soul and heart.
Irreversible trinomials - three words always stated in a fixed order (bell, book,
and candle; calm, cool, and collected).
49. Phrasal verbs - noun
(Grammar) an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another element,
typically either an adverb, as in break down, or a preposition, for example see to,
or a combination of both, such as look down on.
50. Lexical fields - noun
(Linguistics) a lexical set of semantically related items, for example verbs of perception.
51. Componential analysis - “…analysing the sense of a word in terms of smaller
sense components.” “a sense is a set of semantic features”.
“semantic features should have the same properties as phonological features: they
should be
(1) primitive, not analyzeable into smaller units,
(2) universal, found across languages, and
(3) binary, having a positive (marked) and negative (unmarked) value for each
feature.
The full feature inventory should have sufficient coverage to exhaustively define the
sense of any word.”
“A componential analysis presupposes a preliminary positioning of the examined words
in a semantic field, after which the the field is as it were turned inside out: the labels that
represent the dimensions of the field become components of the meaning of the separate
words.”
Prototype theory – “a concept is structured as a space centered on a prototype. A
prototype is an abstraction of maximal typicality for the category: for example,
the BIRD prototype is about the size of a robin, is dullish brown or grey, flies and
sings…The closer a member is to the prototype, the more typical it is.”
“The central issue in the interface between verb senses and syntax is the linking or
syntactic projection of the semantic arguments of a verb…called thematic roles,
thematic relations, or participant roles”. Thematic roles are components of verb
meaning.
“ Actor and patient are macroroles – they express very abstract content which
may be combined with other roles. The actor is the performer of the action, or the
source of energy in the event, may be sentient and act volitionally, and may cause
change to occur to the patient. The patient is the undergoer of an action or
change, is the ‘energy sink’ in the event, and is not volitionally involved.
Spatial or localist roles…may be combined with the macroroles. Localist roles
refer to location or movement in physical or metaphorical space. The entity which
moves or is located in a state or location is the theme, the entity from which
movement departs is the source, and the entity at which movement terminates is
the goal. Where movement takes place in the field of possession, the goal is a
recipient”.
“Verbs which express translocation of a theme select a path. A path may contain a
goal…”
“Verbs of perception and emotion have the roles experiencer, the sentient being
perceiving or experiencing emotion, and stimulus, the precept or cause of emotion”.
“The entity expressed in an instrumental with-phrase is an instrument”.
52. Corpus - any systematic collection of speech or writing in a language or variety
of a language.
53. Concordance line - A concordance is an alphabetical list of the principal words
used in a book or body of work, with their immediate contexts. Because of the
time and difficulty and expense involved in creating a concordance in the pre-
computer era, only works of special importance, such as the
Vedas[1] ,
Bible,
Qur'an or the works
of Shakespeare, had concordances prepared for them.
54. KWIC - an acronym for Key Word In Context, the most common format for
concordance lines.
→ noun
[mass noun] [as modifier] (Computing) denoting a database search in which the
keyword is shown highlighted in the middle of the display, with the text forming its
context on either side.
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