Inglise keele stilistika II (0)

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SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES
SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES are based on a peculiar place of the word or phrase in the utterance (text, sentence, etc).This special place creates emphasis irrespective of the lexical meaning of the words used. Categories: syntactic stylistic devises based on:
SDD: based on ABSENCE OF LOGICALLY REQUIRED ELEMENTS OF SPEECH
ELLIPSIS
ELLIPSIS or ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES means leaving out one or both principle members of the sentence that is the subject or predicate.
NT: Where is the man I’m going to marry?
- Out in the garden . (no subject)
What is he doing out there ?
- Annoying father .
Here , in the dialogue , ellipsis creates the colloquial tone of the utterance. It also renders realistically the way the characters speak . The elliptical sentences convoy/ render carelessness, familiarity, harshness. It makes the utterance tens and emotional or helps to stress most important elements. NT: I went to Oxford , as one goes to exile; she to London.
APOSIOPESIS ( Greek - silence) it is called break-in-the- narrative .
APOSIOPESIS is an unfinished sentence where the speaker or writer suddenly stops in the middle , as if unable or unwilling to proceed. A indicates strong emotions , paralyzing the speaker or his desire to conceal part of information. NT: she must leave – or better yet – drown herself – make away with herself at some way – or –
The speaker’s strong emotions therefore inability to finish. NT: And it was so unlikely that she had stolen his wallet that… well.
NOMINATIVE SENTENCES
NOMINATIVE SENTENCES are just a noun -sentence, containing a noun or a nominal-noun-phrase sentence. NOMINATIVE SENTENCES strengthen the dynamic nature of the narrative. NT: London. Parks . Horse rides. Noisy streets. Noisy traffic . Policeman.
Such sentences evoke a more or less isolated idea of an object without any connection with other objects. These sentences appeal to reader’s imagination, and thus makes the reader active .
ASYNDETON
ASYNDETON means intentional omission of conjunctions between parts of a sentence or between sentences, disregarding norms of the literary language . ASYNDETON is used mostly to describe an energetic (objectic?) activities us to show exession (succession) of minute immediately following each of the actions . Opening the story of chapter, A helps to give a laconic … and at the same time detailed information into the action proper .
NT: The motion of the camp at night was everywhere . People sang . People cried. People fought. People loved. People hated . Some were sad. Others gay. Others with friends . Others lonely. NT: He yawned, put on his shirt , slammed the door , patted the dog, opened the mailbox, yawned, went back, wound the clock , yawned.
APOKOINU CONSTRUCTION
APOKOINU CONSTRUCTIONS mean a combination of two clauses into one at the expense of omitting the connecting world ( usually who or that). This is regarded bad grammar and this is characteristic of irregular oral speech (dialogue). NT: I am the first one saw her.
The main effect is to suggest the careless or uneducated nature of somebody’s speech.
NT: It was I was a father to you.
NT: It is your unfairness disgusts me.
NT: There is no one enjoys good food than he does.
THE GAP-SENTENCE LINK
THE GAP-SENTENCE LINK is seemingly illogical construction of a sentence that connects its parts in such a way that the reader himself must reconstruct the gap between them . The device is usually introduced by dots and followed by the conjunction “and” or ”but”.
The function is to give subjective evaluation of facts to introduce an effect or some cause .
NT: It was not Cape town, where people only frowned when they saw a black boy and a white girl… but. ( here he loved her)
SSD-s that are based on REDUNDANCY OF ELEMENTS OF SPEECH are:
(Here belong devices based on repetition)
FRAMING
FRAMING means repeating the same word, phrase or sentence at the beginning and at the end of a sentence or passage.In this way the repeated unit is emphasised.
NT: the street , so soft and sunny . Here he comes . She smiles and stretches out her hands .
ANADIPLOSIS
ANADIPLOSIS means repeating a word or phrase at the end of the clause or sentence and at the beginning of the next one. NT: Such was life. Life without hope. NT: Three fishers went sailing out in the West . Out in the West, as the sun went down.
ANAPHORA
ANAPHORA means repeating a world, phrase or sentence at the beginning of several clauses or sentences in succession ( happening one after another ). NT: Heroes come and go. Heroes eat and drink . Heroes kiss women and enjoy their lives . NT: Supposing he comes; supposing the darkness lits; supposing it is possible.
EPIPHORA
EPIPHORA means repeating a word, phase or sentence at the end of clause, sentence or passages. NT: She likes the bottle. She is found of the bottle. She will never give up the bottle. NT: I know he run away from the battle . He was an ordinary human being who didn’t want to kill , so he run away from the battle.
POLYSYNDETON
POLYSYNDETON means intentional repetition of a conjunction in close succession in order to slow down the utterance (becomes monotonous). The two conjunctions are normally “and” which suggest energetic activity or the conjunction “or” stresses equal importance any numerated things listed. NT: And the coachman, and the horses rattled and jangled and whipped and cursed and swore and tumbled on together.NT: ?
TAUTOLOGY
TAUTOLOGY is such a construction that makes information redundant and this is objectionable in literary speech.
GRAMMATICAL TAUTOLOGY means that in one sentence a double subject or a double predicate or both are used. NT: My brother , he slept 40 days, without waking up.
NT: I know what the like of you are, I do. Such cases occur mainly in the dialogue and they suggest that the personages carelessness or not too educated speech. This way or other those constructions sound colloquial.
LEXICAL TAUTOLOGY means repeating absolutely the same information. NT: She always sleeps late , she never wakes up early . NT: He is leaving now, I mean he is going. In fiction this characterises the speaker negatively.
SSD-s that are based on UNUSUAL POSITION OF WORDS AND PHRASES .
INVERSION
INVERSION is emotional and expressive colouring may be conveyed by special word order. The violation of the accepted rules of word order is called inversion.
COMPLETE INVERSION means the predicate or part of it comes before the subject and thus the misplaced part is emphasised. NT: Beautiful those days were. (normal: those days were beautiful) NT: Unhappy went he. NT: Satisfied he looked. NT: Go I must.
PARTIAL INVERSION is when the direct object comes first in the sentence.
NT: His love letters I returned to the detective. The adjective or several adjectives come after the noun they modify (gives a solem and little archaic touch ). NT: I saw the first spring flowers, cold and shy and wintry. NT: In some places there are yellow tulips, slender, spicky and Chinese -looking. POOLELI LK 33
DETACHMENT
DETACHMENT means a syntactic separation of a word or phrase from the rest of the sentence to emphasise the isolated part. Isolation is signalled by punctuation (comma, dot, dash , semicolon, full stop) that are not actually needed according to rules of punctuation. The effect is strongest when the full stop is used. NT: I saw him. In his car. NT: I have to break you for money – daily . NT: They were heard again , immediately.
SSD-s that are based on SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES BEYOND ON SENTENCE
The term is not too adequate (accurate) because the devices discussed in this group may occur within on sentence as well.
PARALLELISM
Syntactic PARALLELISM means repeating the same order of words within sentence or sentences to add to the rhythmical features of the text. NT: In the garden, under the table, behind the car. NT: Came fast , spoke slowly, wrote carelessly. Complete parallelism means absolute identity of several structures. NT: Nobody thinks; nobody cares ; nobody bothers.
Partial parallelism means that the pattern is repeated but some deviations are present .
NT: Nobody thinks, nobody gives a damn, nobody bothers nowadays .
ANTITHESIS
ANTITHESIS means the opposition or the clash of two strongly contrasted ideas combined with syntactic parallels. Contrast is often created by antonyms. NT: A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant , and a time to pluck up that which is planted; a time to kill, and a time to heal; a time to break down, and a time to build up; a time to weep, and a time to laugh; a time to mourn, and a time to dance; NT: I am the poet of the body and the poet of the sole.
NT: I was his family’s devoted friend , and she was my family’s secret enemy.
CHIASMUS
Syntactic CHIASMUS (reversed parallelism) means that the word order of one sentence is inverted compared to that of the other sentence or clause. NT: Up went the curtain , the curtain went up.Lexical chiasmus means that both parts of the parallel construction have the normal word order and practically the same words are repeated. NT: I know the word, and the word knows me.
CLIMAX
CLIMAX means the arrangement of the words and phrases in such a way that their meaning becomes stronger in each case and reaches the peak of intensity in the end. NT: It was a mistake, a blunder, a lunacy. (creates gradation) NT: He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die.
There is also a logical climax – the way the author sees the things happened .
The function of climax is to show the significance of things as the author sees them.
ANTICLIMAX
ANTICLIMAX means a comic, satiric effect by arranging sentences in such a way that the aroused expectations are disappointed. (paradoxes are often based on anticlimax).
NT: Women have a wonderful instinct of things. They can discover everything – except the obvious. NT: I know two things about the horses. And on of them is rather coarse .
SUSPENSE
SUSPENSE means holding the reader in a tense anticipation. This is achieved by special construction of the sentence in which the main part of information comes at the end of the sentence. The sentence must be long. NT: The day on which I take the happiest and best step of my life – the day in which I shall be man, more enviable than any other man in the world – the day on which I give bleek house its little mistress – shall be next month .
Syntactic structures used in a new function
Rhetoric quest – requires no answer , used to emphasise the point. In public speech it expresses sarcasm. In college speech it expresses irony, mostly, because the answer is clear . The reader is made active. E.g. who can stop me (nobody). Is it fair to treat him like this (no).
Exclamation – this a sentence used as an interjection to express a sudden emotion. E.g. she was so fantastic! How fantastic the paper looked!
Graphical expressive means
Punctuation marks – the outward shape of the printed page is very important. The author is conscious of various types of prints and their interrelation. The division of prose into paragraphs (the capital letters, italics , and punctuation marks). Gr.means are vital in order to pass over the reader, those features that in oral speech are rendered by prosodic elements – stress, tone of the voice , pauses, the length , sound, etc.
Punctuation marks take up a prominent place among gr.means. It points out many elemnts – emotional pauses, irony. It also senders the authors ' attitude towards what he says and expresses emotional actions and reflects the rhythmic organization of the text. E.g. and then she saw – a ghost . Expressive function, see detachment. Stylistic function of full stop may be different .
Over stopping – the full stop is used very frequently separating words or phrases that normally don’t form a sentence. E.g. I wouldn’t call her beautiful. Or clever . Because she is boring. And dull. In such cases over stopping creates a peculiar rhythm .
Under stopping – means too few full stops, long sentences. It reflects the dynamic qualities of the text. These 2 devices are favoured by modernist writers T.S. Eliot and Faulkner . In Eliots' “…. march ” the march of soldiers is written by very short sentences. The inferior monologue of Molly Bloom in “ Ulysses ” (40 pg without a single punctuation mark) to show the flow of human thoughts. The indented line also belongs to punctuation marks. In scientific prose the division into paragraphs is conditioned by the logical treatment of the problems. New paragraph developing new ideas. In fiction, this principle hardly works . If the writer presents a long description as one paragraph, it means that he attaches equal importance to every sentence. If separate sentence is patterned as one paragraph it stands out meaningfully, emotionally. E.g.
She hated Rosemary Barton . If thoughts could kill, she would have killed her.
But thoughts do not kill –
Thoughts are not enough….
From the rhythmical point, the alteration of long and short paragraphs adds to the rhythmical effect on the text. Long paragraphs create a monotonous rhythmic effect. A sequence of short or very short paragraphs creates an abrupt rhythm.
The most prominent punctuation marks are exclamation marks and question marks. Their frequent use in the text speaks of emotionality. E.g. Winter ! So cold! Why snow ? The exclamation mark is often used to offer the sentences that are not exclamatory in form. In such cases it expresses the specific , mostly ironic attitude or indignation. E.g. a truth , a faith , a generation of men goes – and is forgotten , and it doesn’t matter!
Sentences that are interrogative in structure mat end with exclamation m to express strong surprise of distrust. E.g. a, does she think of me so often! The dash and dots ( suspension marks) create emotional pauses to mark indecision, uncertainty, nervousness. E.g. Well, he is a..he is a kind of acquaintance. In dialogue the dash and dots are used to render the speech realistically. To show that speakers don’t listen one another.
Quotation mark – serve to single out either the speech of characters or their thoughts that remain unuttered. Words or phrases may be used with quot marks to imply that they belong to other characters and the author himself feels ironic about them. Sometimes quot marks are used to show that words are used in some specific or narrower meaning.
Capital letters – are involved in personification and antonomasia. Words may contain only capital letters for emphatic purposes. E.g. WILL YOU BE QUIET ! He shouted. It is a tradition to begin every poetic line with a capital letter. It has been a tradition in every language but nowadays it is chopped either partly or altogether to create intimacy with the reader. Even in headings small letters tend to be used. E.g. under milk wood (by dylan thomas ). The arrangement of lines on a page has become very significant in poetry . The so called figure poems have appeared . There are poems having shape of a figure ( star , fly) depending on a context .
Multiplication – of letters, that is, letters are doubled to reflect the way they are pronounced. E.g. laaaaarge, ruuuuuuin.
Hyphenation – may split up a word into syllables or even letters, thus, emphesizing this very word. E.g. I des-pise him!
Italics – show that words are important in this very context or words are used in some special, ironic meaning. It is a tradition to italicize foreign words.
Graphical stylistic devices
Graphon – is distorted spelling of a word. It renders phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation and occurs in prose only and not in authors´ narrative but dialogue. I suggest blurred, coherent or careless pronunciation caused by temporary features (young age, ignorance of the discussed topic) or by permanent outs ( social , territorial, educational)
Permanent graphon – used by many writers. E.g. fella, summat (somewhat), tomorra, gimme, dunno, helleva. Gr is wildly used by modern writers in England and by negro and military writers in America.
Occasional graphon - individual , belongs to particular author and is hardly used ny any other. E.g. We lov ar ticher, howwid, she gave permissen for the operashun.
Suggests something about the speaker!! It is interesting to note that violated spelling still result in the correct pronunciation of the word. We don’t produce it in translation. Makes the speech colloquial.
Stylistic colouring of words, stylistic classification of English vocabulary
Stylistically neutral words – are those that are used in any style of language, are natural in any circumstances. E.g. man, street, tomato. In contrast to those, there existx a nr of words that possess fixed stylistic colouring or connotation. Standing alone , they are associated with certain style of language and felt as elements of this style. Homicide is literary word and its synonym murder is neutral. Main belongs to poetic vocabulary and its synonym ocean is neutral. Capital C in Chinese is colloquial and Chinese is neutral. Stylistic colouring doesn’t depend on a context. It is conditioned by the existence of corresponding neutral words and becomes clear only in comparison with them. Style colouring words lend their colouring to the whole utterance. It is sometimes sufficient to have 2-3 words in a paragraph to make the latter either poetic or solemn etc depending on the nature of those 2-3 words.
Common literary vocabulary
Are not confined to any sphere of usage . Here mainly belong borrowed words. E.g.
Yearly-annual, hint-allusion, to see-to behold, talk - converse , true-authentic.
The man fell -the individual was precipitated, hard study made him sleepy-indefatigable pursuit of knowledge endowed somnolence in him.
Sometimes lit words are used for the sake of humour. Especially when they describe very trivial actions.
Special literary vocabulary
Terms – belong to scientific discourse. They are indispensible for the development of science . E.g. malaria (med), blood vessel, spinal cord; linguistics – semantics, syntax, chiasmus. Outside this direct application the function of the terms changes . In fiction terms may be used to recreate a true-to-life atmosphere of some profession. E.g. Arthur Hailey “The Final Diagnosis”, “The Airport ”. Secondly to suggest characters educational status , social backround. To create irony when describing the interest and hobbies of common people. Aldington “ Death of a hero” describes uses of psychology terms. Lastly, for the sake of humour when terms are used instead of everyday words.
Foreign words and barbarism
Barbarisms are words from other languages borrowed into English but no assimilated to the full extent. However , registered in dictionaries. E.g. vacuum, bizarre, stiletto
Foreign words and phrases – are facts of other languages. They don’t belong into English. E.g. mein Gott ! Avanti (go ahead ), soleil (sun), kummel (vodka). Appear in italics.
The function: 1. to supply local colour writer is describing. E.g. spain and used Spanish . 2. suggest persons nationality 3. to suggest a social status 4. desire to be above the average 5. to sften the utterance by using less familiar foreign words.
Archaic words – words no longer used in everyday conversation are felt outdated and remind bygone times . E.g. to deem, watt (to know), time piece (clock), perchance ( perhaps ) ear (before).
Stylistic point of view. We should keep apart natural and deliberate use of archaic words, thus, in Shakespeare many words are archaic today but where ordinary words at that time. (natural words). Contemporary writers and speakers use these words deliberately.
Function: 1. recreate truthfully the atmosphere of a certain period (historical novels). 2. to parody historical novels (in this case archaic words are used extremely often). 3. to stress the characteristic toutchness of the past. E.g. Dickens “The Old curiosity shop”. 4. for the sake of humour when used in everyday speech.
In poetry archaic words are often used for their more elevated colouring and not for the sake of historical background. In official documents some archaic words are still used, however the tendency is that to avoid them. E.g. hereby, hereinafter.
Poetic diction – words traditionally used in poetry and partly they overlap with archaic words. E.g. hapless (unhappy), naught (nothing), hearken (to hear ). Function – to uphold lofty poetic colouring (if used in poetry). If used in trivial conversation the effect is irony, satire , humour.
Common colloquial vocabulary
Familiar words that occur everyday more intimate talk and as a rule not used in literary speech. To hurt -to kick around, clever- smart , friend-buddy, pal, die-go west.
Interjections. E.g. Jee! Goshh!
Neutral words used metaphorically - Half - baked (silly), juicy (good), lamb ( dear )
Diminutive forms – fatty (fat), sweety, piggy, Marge
Special forms of address – old thing ! Sweet heart ! Honey!
Colloquial abbreviation – op ( operation ), sis, sec
Intensifiers or adverbs – result is trite oxymoron (very often) e.g. horribly smart, terribly sweet.
Words with a wide range of application – 1. thing- may stand for anything 2.stuff 3. job
Ph. Verbs – make out ( understand ), give in (surrender). Nouns converted from ph v e.g. break through, getaway.
Time fillers – you see! I mean.. eaaa..you know..
Special colloquial vocabulary
Slang – colourful words and expressions belonging to low colloquial speech. Coined and used by people to show that they are “one of the gang ”. Used by many social groups. Reason the appearance of slang lies in the speakers desire to be original , witty and sometimes a protest against the standards. If such a word is used widely it seizes to be slang and becomes common or neutral word. E.g. skyscraper, taxi, piano, photo , pub. The history of slang is short. The word boose has been slang word even since it was coined at the 16th century . Slang is formed by word building means (see lexicology ) as well as figures of speech. E.g. upper - storey (head), bread (money). Metonymy is used – shirtwoman. Hyperbole – killing – astonishing. Irony – clear as mud.
In slang a word is sometimes spelt backwards. Then it is calles backslang e.g. rum-mur, top o reeb – pot o beer , yob-boy. There is also so called rhythmical slang. It comes from cockney e.g apples and pairs standing for stairs, trouble and strife – wife . Slang is noted for the great number of synonyms. True for things discussed often. Being drunk – all wet, pie eyed , screwed, polished, zig-zag. Excellent – good, elegant, meaty, wicked, tops. Money – beans, bacon , berries, grass , bullets.
Slang is devided into general slang – used in all fields of life and special slang is used in certain spheres – army, university , stock exchange . This kind of slang is called
Jargon
Military – glasshouse ( prison ), olds wets ( old soldier ), picture show (battle)
University – to fail ( stump , to ship, to hit the ceiling ).
Spikker – crib , pony, hog
Exam – river , screw
The function of slang and jargon in the authors narrative is to characterize an object or person emotionally often by ridiculing. Slang in the direct speech is used to suggest that the speaker is excited or wishes to sound funny or appeal to others.
Cant – is the language of underworld – criminals , tramps. It is a secret language in which the important words are disguised for the outsider not to understand. Used in special meaning e.g. mill (prison), plant (theft), jack (money). There are words that occur in this style only e.g. yegg (criminal), shiv (knife).
Vulgar words – expressions and words to be widely used e.g. fuck, dick , ass
Lexical words usually replaced by euphemisms or by scientific words. The very object or reference is considered vulgar e.g. penis-dick, urinate- piss . Stylistic vulgarism don’t express vulgar objects yet, they are inappropriate because they have negative colouring e.g. smeller-nose, plant-bury, flathead- fool
Curses – damn! Bloody!
Shortened forms – SOB (son of the bitch )
In the direct speech they serve as a means of speech, lack of education, social status. If used in authors’ speech the effect is humour, irony.
Professional words – words coined and used by professional groups – docs, teachers, real estate . They stand for objects typical of given trade or occupation . Such words are easily understood, not secret and used to make communication easier – less official. Very often long words are shortened in hunting- buff (buffalo); lab ( laboratory ); fresher – first year student , lit- literature .
Dialectic words – words used locally so they characterize a person as belonging to a certain geographical area, also education and breeding may be suggested. Some dialectal words have become common colloquial e.g. lad-man, lassy-lady. In some dialects thou (sina), tell ( gossip ), strike a daisy (exclamation meaning), addle (to earn ).
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