Inglise keele struktuur (1)

1. Be ready to explain the terms (lecture 1): language , linguistics, synchronic approach to language , diachronic approach to language, linguistic competence, linguistic performance , what is grammar ?, prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar; phonology , phonetics, phone , allophone, phoneme ; morphology , morphemes ( types of morphemes), morphs, allomorphs, types of affixes, derivational affixes, inflectional affixes; open vs closed class words ; syntax.
Language: a systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.
- human language at all levels is rule - or principle-governed.
Linguistics: the scientific study of human natural language
Synchronic approach to language:
Diachronic approach to language:
Linguistic competence:
Linguistic performance:
What is grammar?: “The sounds and sound patterns, the basic units of meaning , such as words, and the rules to combine them to form new sentences constitute the grammar of a language”
Prescriptive grammar vs. Descriptive garmmar: Descriptive grammar: the systematic study and description of a language. Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers . Prescriptive grammar: a set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures of a language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think itshould be used.
Phonology: the subfield of linguistics that studies the structure and systematic patterning of sounds in human language.
Phonetics: of the acoustic detail of speech sounds and how they are articulated.
Phone : [p] A phone is actual pronunciation of a phoneme. A phone is represented between brackets
Allophone: e.g. pin – spin
Phoneme: /p/ - /iz/ ‘ houses ’ /s/ voicless ‘ cats ’ /z/ ‘ boys ’ /t/ ‘learned’ /id/ ‘wanted’ A phoneme is the smallest unit of the sound system of a language. If two sounds have the same phoneme, they are treated equally. A phoneme is represented between slashes.
Morphology: is the study of word formations and the internal structure of words
Morphemes: the smallest units of language that have their own meaning or grammatical function . cat, cat/s, laugh/ed, un/ able , sheep
Free morphemes: cat, laugh, eat, red
Bound morphemes: prefixes : pre- prejudge
dis- dislike
suffixes: -ist typist
infixes – attached within another morpheme. Infixation is common in languages of Southeast Asia and the Philippines , and it is also found in some Native American languages.
circumfixes – morphemes that are attached to a root or stem morpheme both initially and finally .
Morphs: the concrete realisation of a morpheme (‘was’ – be, past,  singular )
Allomorphs: a/an
Types of affixes: Derivational and infelctional
Derivational affixes: Derivational affixes may change the grammatical class of the root – verbs into nouns , nouns into adjectives (boy, boyish), and so on. Derivation is a lexical process which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by adding affixes to stems or roots . consideration , considerate, inconsiderate, inconsiderateness
Inflectional affixes: Inflectional affixes may be described as ‘relational markers’ that fit words for use in a sentence ( express a syntactic relation). Inflections do not change the grammatical class of a given item or produce new lexemes, just different word forms. Inflection is a general grammatical process that combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words. Inflectional affixes are always suffixes in English .
consider, considers, considered
Open vs. Closed class words: In linguistics, a closed class (or closed word class) is a word class to which no new items can normally be added, and that usually contains a relatively small number of items. Typical closed classes found in many languages are adpositions (prepositions and postpositions), determiners,  conjunctions , and  pronouns .[1]
Contrastingly, an open class  offers possibilities for expansion. Typical open classes such as nouns and verbs can and do get new words often, through the usual means such as compounding,derivation, coining, borrowing, etc. [2]
Syntax: studies how words group together to make phrases and sentences.
Sentences are not simply random strings of words; they conform to specific patterns determined by the syntactic rules of the language.
The syntactic rules in a grammar must account for the grammaticality of sentences, word order , structural ambiguity, the meaning relations between words in a sentence, the similarity of meaning of sentences with different structures, the speaker’s creative ability to produce and understand any of an infinite set of possible sentences.
Notes : Proto- Germanic » Northwest Germanic » West Germanic » North Sea Germanic » Anglo – Frisian » English
2. How to classify words into different word classes? ( definition – is that enough?, morphology, distribution and function tests ); Grammatical categories for nominals, verbs, adjectives.
“A set of words like dog, child , cat, man, bird  where the individual words are mutually substitutable is known as a word class…”
Definitions
a) A noun is the name of a person , place or thing .
b) A verb expresses an action , process or state.
c) An adjective is a describing word which modifies a noun.
“ Although such definitions will identify many members of a word class, linguists generally agree that they need to be supplemented by formal tests.
e.g. sincerity Sincerity can be frightening
misery Lee is misery itself.
Such miseries are uncommon
Distribution:
- a distribution test
Kim is an engine driver . an adjective or a noun?
*Kim seems engine. cf. Kim seems happy .
*Kim’s as engine as Chris. cf. Kim’s as happy as Chris.
Kim is an electric engine driver.
*Kim is an electrically engine driver. - modifiers
cf. Kim is an unbelievably skilful driver.
Grammatical category : A grammatical category is an analytical class within the grammar of a language, whose members have the same syntactic distribution and recur as structural unit throughout the language, and which share a common property which can be semantic or syntactic
Grammatical categories for nouns:
I. Inherent categories for nouns:
- number: Eng. dog - dogs
Saliba (Austronesian): natu -gu natu-gu-wao
child-my child-my- plural
- gender or noun class:
It. il libro ‘the book’ la casa ‘the house’
Swahili ( Niger -Congo): m-tu m-zuri ‘a nice man’
n-yumba n-zuri ‘a nice house’
ki-tu ki-zuri ‘a nice thing’
- definiteness: a house – the house
Sw. ett hus huset det röda huset
II. Relational categories for nouns: case
English vs Estonian
Grammatical categories for verbs
I. Inherent categories for verbs:
- tense : He walks a mile every day. He walked a mile every day
Grammaticalized expression of location in time.
The Wishram-Wasco dialect of Chinook: 4 inflectional past tenses
ga-čiux ‘He did it some time ago’
ni-číux ‘He did it long ago.’
na-čiúxw-a ‘He did it recently.’
i-číux ‘He just did it.’
- aspect: He was writing a letter to Tom.
He has written a letter to Tom.
- mood: He goes to Tallinn tomorrow .
He would go to Tallinn tomorrow if he had time.
German : the subjunctive
Wenn du Zucker hättest, könnten wir jetzt Tee trinken .
‘If you had sugar , we could drink tea now.’
English: They demanded that he leave the room .
If I were you, I wouldn’t buy this car.
- transitivity: sleep, kiss
Manam (a Kairiru-Manam language; Malalyo-Polynesian)
dang i- aka- gita –i
water be hot
‘he heated the water’
II. Relational categories for verbs: voice
The workers painted the house. The house was painted by the workers.
Das Buch wird von zwei Autoren geschrieben. ‘The book is being written by two authors .’
Heute Abend wird viel getanzt. ‘ There will be a lot of dancing tonight.’
III. Agreement categories for verbs: I am/he is/they are sleeping
he sleeps
Grammatical categories for adjectives
I. Inherent categories for adjectives: degree of comparison (comparative, superlative):
cold – colder – coldest
II. Agreement categories for adjectives: agreement of attributive adjectives with the head noun, and of predicative adjectives with the subject
French : le vin blanc ‘the white wine ’ la porte blanch ‘the white door ’
German: Ein klein -es Kind sah einen reich-en Mann ‘A small child saw a rich man’
3. Nouns and noun phrases, the structure and functions of noun phrases; lexical subclasses ( proper nouns, common nouns), abstract vs concrete nouns, one class or more?; grammatical categories: number, gender, case.
Identifying nouns: meaning, function, form
The noun phrase (NP): The NP consists of the head, which is typically a noun, and other elements which (either obligatory or optional ) determine the head and (optionally) modify the head or complement another element in the phrase. The NP typically functions as the subject, object or complement of clauses and as complement of prepositional phrases.
Peter likes the girl (determiner: def. article + head)
the small girl (det + premodifier: adjective + head)
the small girl in a black skirt (det + prem + head + postmodifier: prepositional phrase)
the small girl wearing a black skirt (det + prem + head + postmodifier: non-finite clause )
the small girl who is wearing a black skirt (det+prem+head + postmodifier: relative clause)
her (head; the whole NP can be replaced by a pronoun )
The structure of the NP: (determiners) (premodifiers) headNOUN (postmodifiers)
Lexical subclasses: Based on grammatical and semantic reasons nouns can be seen as falling into different subclasses. I saw…
1
2
3
2+3
without det
John
*bottle
furniture
cake
the
*the John
the bottle
the furniture
the cake
a
*a John
a bottle
*a furniture
a cake
some
*some John
*some bottle
some furniture
some cake
plural
*Johns
bottles
*furnitures
cakes
proper nouns
count nouns
noncount nouns
‘ dual class membership’
common nouns
Proper nouns: Sid, John, Linda

• don’t share the formal characteristics of common nouns (no article contrast , number contrast, modification): *the Tallinn, a Tallinn
  
• unique denotation, usually written with initial capitals
  
• often combine with descriptive words
  
• proper nouns (a single word) vs proper names ( King ’s College, the Hague, NB! *King’s famous College, *the beautiful Hague)
  
• may undergo processes of lexical morphology: un-Joneslike, Jonesian
  
• open class words
  

Common nouns: - count (denote individual countable entities): dog, pen, chair
- noncount (denote an undifferentiated mass or continuum): water, gold, sugar, furniture
Concrete vs. Abstract: (semantic distinction) concrete: table, milk abstract: love, thought , idea
remark— remarks , warmth—*warmths
One class or more: Nouns in English can be assigned to a primary or default class. Nevertheless, it is often possible to coerce a noun from one class to another, with a concomitant meaning change.
Proper  count: There are three Evas in the class.
Count  noncount (mass): After the accident , there was cat all over the road .
Mass  count: The waitress brought three waters to the table.
- dual class membership: some nouns can be seen from the point of view of count or noncount nouns.
I want an evening paper .
Wrap the parcel up in brown paper
- a different lexical item
a garment – clothing, a laugh – laughter, a ‘ permit – permission, a job, a task
– work , a poem - poetry
- conversion: nouns may also be shifted from one class to another by means of conversion
A: What cheeses have you got today ?
B: Well, we have Cheddar, Gorgonzola , and Danish blue.
Grammatica categories: Each of the main word classes has a typical set of grammatical categories.
Number: Number is the only inherent category for which nouns are inflected in all of the GMC languages, and the majority of nouns in all of these languages have plural forms which are distinct from those of the singular.
Hierarchy: singular > plural > dual > trial
IE had dual as well as singular and plural forms. The dual has disappeared in GMC in the inflection of nouns.
cf. Arabic: malikun ‘king’ malikani ’two kings ’ malikuna ‘three or more kings’
The English number system constitutes a two- term contrast: SINGULAR (‘one’) and PLURAL (‘more than one’). Each noun phrase is either singular or plural, and its number is determined by its head.
Distinguishes three main number classes of nouns (property of nouns).
a) singular invariable nouns (noncount nouns, abstract adjective heads): music, Thomas , the mystical; no plural unless reclassification takes place
b) plural invariable nouns (unmarked plural nouns, summation plurals, personal adjective heads, pluralia tantum words): people, scissors, jeans , the rich, damages, dregs; only in the plural
c) variable nouns: dog, foot , analysis ; these have both singular and plural forms
We can talk about three broad categories of the plural: regular , irregular , and foreign , the last two of which have subdivisions.
Type
Exponent
Examples
regular -s
beds, books , horses
irregular
Ø
sheep, fish , deer
ablaut
man  men, foot  feet, goose  geese, mouse  mice, louse  lice
[+voi] + -s
calf  calves, knife  knives, leaf  leaves, shelf  shelves
-en
child  children , ox  oxen
foreign
-on  -a
criterion  criteria, phenomenon  phenomena
-um  -a
curriculum  curricula, stratum  strata, symposium  symposia
-is  -es
analysis  analyses, crisis  crises, thesis  theses
-ix  -ices
matrix  matrices, index  indices, appendix  appendices
The vast majority of English nouns follow the regular pattern. Thus, new nouns that enter the language usually take the regular plural. Irregular patterns are not extended to new nouns usually (vax – vaxen). The strong or irregular nouns are relatively stable and show little speaker variation . There is some variation regarding nouns such as scarf, dwarf. Some frequently-occurring foreign formations have been nativised in Modern English, while others remain confined to particular registers.
Irregular plurals occur in compounds, while regular plurals don’t:
oxen cart / *dogs cart
lice-infested / *fleas-infested
teeth cleaner / * hands cleaner
clothes basket
savings bank
arms race
— collective compounds
b) Gender: Gender is a grammatical classification of nouns, pronouns, or other words in the NP, according to certain meaning- related distinctions, especially a distinction related to the sex of the referent .
Grammatical gender or overt gender of nouns:
German: der Mann ‘the man’ die Frau ‘the woman ’ das Kind ‘the child’
der Tisch ‘the table’ die Feder ‘the pen’ das Buch ‘the book’
English has no inflectionally-marked gender distinctions. Some 3rd person pronouns and wh-pronouns express natural gender distinctions:
it, which, etc. [NONPERSONAL] contrasts with the following :
who, whom , [PERSONAL]
he, himself [MASCULINE, chiefly PERSONAL]
she, herself , etc. [FEMININE, chiefly PERSONAL]
Gender in English nouns is ‘notional’ or ‘covert’ (cf. French, German, Russian ). There is no grammatical gender in English. Male entities are referred to masculine pronouns - he; female - she; sexless - it.
Some other remarks:
- morphologically unmarked for gender: bachelor  spinster, uncle  aunt , monk  nun, king  queen , nephew  niece, brother  sister
- morphologically marked for gender: host  hostess , prince  princess, god  goddess , hero  heroine
- personal dual gender (who – she/he): artist, cook, friend , servant, singer , enemy, speaker
- common gender (who/which – he/she/it): child, cat, dog, monkey (as pets or personified)
- collective nouns (it/which – they/who): army , board, class, crew, gang , jury, firm , family, party , company, department , government , etc.
- higher animals : male/female gender distinction maintained by people with a special concern
- lower animals and inanimate nouns (which – it)
c) Case: The term case applies in the first instance to a system of inflectional forms of a noun that serve to mark the function of an NP relative to the construction containing it.
Distinctions of case mark the structural and semantic functions of noun phrases within sentences.
Common Case and Genitive Case
Plain and Genitive case
Forms:
boy boys boy’s boys’
child child’s children children’s

Semantic functions of 's:

We can use sentential or phrasal analogues to present the different meanings.
1) possessive genitive: the boy’s car
2) partitive genitive: the man’s head, the baby’s eyes
3) subjective genitive: the boy’s application
4) objective genitive: the thief ’s arrest
5) genitive of origin: the student ’s letter
6) local or locative genitive: the butcher’s (shop)
7) genitive of measure: an hour ’s walk , ten days ’ absence
8) descriptive or classifying genitive: a man’s voice
4. Pronouns: pronoun subclasses!; categories of case, number, person, gender (be ready to discuss these grammatical categories).
A varied class of closed-class words with nominal function. Semantically, a pronoun may be a ‘pro-form’. Syntactically, most pronouns function like noun phrases. Some pronouns have morphological characteristics that nouns do not have (‘case’, person, gender, number).
Pronoun subclasses:
central: personal, reflexive, possessive
reciprocal: each other, one another
relative: the wh-series, that
interrogative: the wh-series
demonstrative: this, these, that, those
indefinite , positive , universal : all, both, each, every
indefinite, positive, assertive: the some series, multal and paucal, one; half , several , enough, other, another
indefinite, positive, non-assertive: the any series, either
indefinite, negative : the no series, neither
Morphological characteristics:

• case: I/me
  
• person: I/you/she
  
• gender: he/she/it
  
• number: I/we; this/these
  

According to structure:
Simple : I, we, that, some
Compound: myself , somebody
Composite: each other, one another
Grammatical categories:

a) Case in Old English pronoun system:

1st
2nd
SING
DUAL
PLURAL
SING
DUAL
PLURAL
NOM
iċ
wit
wē
þū
git
ġē
ACC/DAT
mē
unc
ūs
þē
inc
ēow
GEN
mīn
uncer
ūre
þīin
incer
ēower
GLOSS
‘I/me’
‘we/us two’
‘we/us’
‘you’
‘you two’
‘you all’
3SG
3PL
MASC
NEUT
FEM
—
NOM
hē
hit
hēo, hīo
hī(e)
ACC
hine
hī(e)
GEN
his
hire
hira, hiera, hiora
DAT
him
him
Case in Modern English:
Traditional accounts recognise at least a binary case contrast.
Nominative
I
we
he
she
they
who
Objective
me
us
him
her
them
whom
Personal
Possessive
Reflexive
Person
Number
Gender
Subjective
Objective
Determinative
Independent
1st
sg
I
me
my
mine
myself
pl
we
us
our
ours
ourselves
2nd
sg
you
you
your
yours
yourself
pl
you
you
your
yours
yourselves
3rd
sg
masc
fem
neut
he
him
his
his
himself
she
her
her
hers
herself
it
it
its
—
itself
pl
they
them
their
theirs
themselves
At least in certain dialects, the morphs I and me (and similarly we and us, he and him, etc.) are in non-contrastive distribution; in some dialects, indeed, the complementation is probably complete . We may suspect that if it were not for the Latinizing school tradition , the complementation would be complete for most speakers: I initially, except in isolation, me directly after a verb or a preposition and in isolation. Actual exceptions to this are either on the Latin pattern (It’s I, or Who’s there? — I, instead of Me), or are overcorrections (between you and I) … There is no longer any justification for speaking of case in English; for the distinction between subjective and objective ‘ cases ’ (under whatever name) disappears as soon as I and me, etc., are shown to belong to the same morpheme. A form with added -’s is not a case-form either, but simply a form with added -’s: the -’s is simply another morpheme, with a statable range of positions in which it occurs.
1sg
2nd
3sg
1pl
3pl
Initial
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
General
me
him
her
us
them
According to these revisions the former nominative pronouns are restricted to occurring as single, preverbal subjects (in most natural varieties of English). Blevins says that the distribution of these initial forms pattern with preverbal subject clitics in French: je, tu, il, ils.
She likes riding horses.
Who is it? – It’s me/him/her/us/them.
Who wants to sing a song ? – Me!/Not me!
It was me who opened the letter.
b) Person: Personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns have distinction of person
c) Gender: 3rd person singular pronouns of the categories of personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns
Personal gender
masculine
he
him
his
himself
feminine
she
her
her hers
herself
Nonpersonal gender
it
its
itself
Gender distinctions are neutralised in the plural: they, them
Personal/nonpersonal gender: who/whom – which; somebody – something
d) Number
• The personal, reflexive, and possessive pronouns have morphologically unrelated singular and plural forms.
• Pronouns belonging to other classes (interrogative, relative, indefinite) do not in general have number contrast
• Exceptions: this/these, that/those
• in current standard English, only the reflexive forms yourself and yourselves preserve a distinction between singular and plural
5. The English verbal system: basic verb types and their characteristics (main/lexical verbs and helping verbs (primary and modal auxiliaries)); verb forms in finite and non-finite verb phrases (examples!); modals and primary auxiliaries (be, do have): their differences (contribution to the VP, finite and non-finite forms) and similarities (the NICE properties); meanings of the modal verbs: epistemic modality, deontic modality, dynamic modality (examples!);
 types of main verbs: intransitive verbs(has no object), transitive (monotransitive -A monotransitive verb is a verb that takes two arguments: a subject and a single  direct object. For example, the verbs buy,  bite , break, and eat are monotransitive in English., ditransitive-a ditransitive verb is a verb which takes a subject and two objects which refer to a recipient and a  theme . E.g. The man bought his wife a ring, complex transitive verbs-A verb that requires both a direct object and another object (usually an object of a preposition) or a complement.), linking verbs, dynamic vs. stative
Be able to identify these different types and give examples of these types
Basic English Verb Types: Verbs are divided into three main categories, according to their function within the verb phrase.
TYPE
FORMS
EXAMPLES
NEGATES?
FRONTS?
main
all
sit, eat, read, walk
no
no
auxiliary
all
is/are/was/were, do/does/did, has/have/had
yes
yes
modal
finite
may, might, can, could, will, would
yes
yes
Other terms: main verbs = full verbs, lexical verbs; be, do, have = primary verbs
Main verbs carry full meaning and are the key to all sentences. Auxiliaries are used in combination with main verbs in VPs to form tenses and to express modality.
Main/Full Verb Classes: Main verbs fall into regular and irregular verbs:
TYPE
BASE
PAST
PAST PART
Regular
walk
walked
walked
No Change
cut
cut
cut
hit
hit
hit
Past = Past part
meet
met
met
seek
sought
sought
Base = Past
beat
beat
beaten
Base = Past part
come
came
come
No overlap
sing
sang
sung
eat
ate
eaten

The morphology of main verbs

Verb forms and the verb phrase.

1. the base form: call , sing, walk, etc.
finite: a) the present tense (except 3sg): I eat every day.
b) the imperative: Open the window !
c) the present subjunctive: They demanded that she leave the room.
non-finite: a) the bare infinitive : He may come tomorrow.
b) the to-infinitive: He wants her to call him.
2. the -s form: calls, sings, walks, etc.
finite: the 3rd person singular present tense: She walks a mile every day.
3. the -ing participle: calling, singing , walking, etc.
non-finite: a) the progressive aspect: He’s reading a book now.
b) –ing clauses: Calling early , I found her at home.
4. the past form: called, sang, walked, etc.
finite: the past tense: I walked a mile yesterday .
5. the -ed participle: called, sung, walked, etc.
non-finite: a) the perfect aspect: He has called twice today.
b) the passive voice: Her sister is called Sally .
c) –ed participle clauses: Called early, he ate a quick breakfast .
Lexical classification:
Fragment
Lexical class
My
article
father
noun
gave
verb
me
pronoun
a
article
nice
adjective
gift
noun
Finite and non-finite verb phrases:
The non-finite forms of the verb occur not only in non-finite verb phrases, but also in non-initial positions in finite verb phrases (e.g. She [is reading]VP a book now).
Finite verbs
Present Simple: I type I speak
Present Continuous: I am typing I am speaking
Past Simple: I typed I spoke
Present Perfect: I have typed I have spoken
Non-finite verbs
Present Participle: Typing speed Speaking engagement
Perfect Participle: Having typed Having spoken
Past Participle: Typed letters Spoken commentary
Gerund : Typing can be difficult. Do you find speaking stressful?
Infinitive: To type is a real skill . They want you to speak.
Be, do, have – main verbs or auxiliary verbs:
A feature [AUX] distinguishes main verbs from auxiliary verbs
There is no random usage of either [+AUX] or [–AUX] element of this syntactic class in English dialects but their properties tend to cluster in the sense of exhibiting all or none of the properties.
BE
HAVE
DO
NICE
aux
main
aux
main
aux
main
BrE
AmE
negation
—
—
inversion
—
—
code
—
—
emphatic affirmation
—
—
Helping verbs: modals and auxiliaries:
Auxiliary verbs are generally divided into two subclasses: the modal auxiliaries, which show no inflectional forms, and the primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) which realise a full set of inflectional forms in the auxiliary function.
• The distinction between modals and auxiliaries is principally morphological.
e.g. can, *cans, *canning
be, been, being, is, are, was, were
• The auxiliaries make different contributions to the verb phrase: be – aspect, voice; have – aspect; do – ‘semantically empty’, negation, interrogation = do- support
• The modals express modality (dynamic, deontic, epistemic modality).
• Modal and auxiliary subcategorisation
Category
Items
Subcategorises for
Examples
modal
must,can,should
VP[base]
must go, should speak ,can’t remember
perfect
have, has, had
VP[past part]
has gone ,have spoken, had remembered
progressive
be,is, was, were
VP[present part]
is running, was speaking, been sleeping
passive
be,is, was, were
VP[passive part]
is arrested, was eaten, been decided
• Modals and auxiliaries show a similar distribution.
Modals and auxiliaries share a common function of operators, i.e. provisionally the first auxiliary in the verb phrase. He might have been being questioned by the police .
The NICE-properties: both modals and primary auxiliaries are marked by the NICE properties. Main verbs lack these properties.
- negation: both occur with the negative adverb not and the suffix -n’t.
She doesn’t like it. *She liken’t it *I like not it.
I can’t come tomorrow *He camen’t. *He came not.
Some problems:
no negative form *mayn’t, only may not
mightn’t occurs but is not used by most speakers of AmE.
- inversion: both may be inverted in matrix interrogatives.
Does she like it? *Likes she it?
Will you come? *Saw you them?
Have you seen them?
also:
Seldom had he seen such a sight .
Hardly had I left the room, when they began talking about me.
Had I known he was coming , I’d have waited.
- code: avoidance of repetition, … and so… constructions
I can come and so can John.
I want to ask you and so does Mary . *I want to ask you and so wants Mary.
Can you come tomorrow? I can. – the whole VP is not repeated
- emphatic assertion/positive: the nuclear stress is on auxiliaries to mark a finite clause as positive rather than negative:
You ‘must come tomorrow.
I’ can come. (You are wrong to think I cannot .)
Meanings of the modal verbs:
Modality is a semantic category that allows speakers to express how committed they are to the truth of a proposition (the speaker's propositional attitude ).
Epistemic modality - how committed we are to the truth of a statement; our attitude to the truth of a proposition
He must have arrived .
He may have arrived.
He may not have arrived.
He can’t have arrived.
Historically, epistemic meanings have developed from deontic meanings.
Deontic modality - how we think things should be in the world (how people should behave).
You may/can come tomorrow
You must come tomorrow.
Dynamic modality - concerned with ability and disposition, willingness, intention to perform actions :
John can play the piano . (ability)
I’ll help you. (I’m willing to help you…)
Types of main verbs:
Intransitive: ache, cry, faint, smile, walk, etc.
Transitive verbs: monotransitive: find, lose , read, etc
ditranstive: bring, give, tell, etc.
complex transitive: call, drive , leave, make, etc.
Linking/copular verbs: be, become, feel , keep , look , seem, smell, turn, etc.
Stative (be, exist, love, think) vs. dynamic verbs (do, make, run, walk, sleep)
6. The structure of VPs: finite VPs and non-finite VPs (how these VPs differ , see the handout), simple and complex VPs; categories of the English verb: mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive), tense (the number of tenses; present, past, constructions for expressing future time), aspect (progressive and perfective), voice (syntactic and semantic valence, grammatical relations, semantic roles, active -passive correspondence, agentless passives, verb constraints , transitivity, characteristics of the personal passive, etc.)
 Vendler’s classification of verbs + semelfactives (read Van Valin 2005); the characteristic features of these verb types and tests that can be used to identify them.
Finite verb phrases:
a) Finite VPs can occur as the VP of independent clauses
b) Finite VPs have tense contrast
c) There is a person concord and number concord between the subject of a clause and the finite VP.
d) Finite VPs contain , as their first or only word, a finite verb form which may be either an operator or a simple present or past form. DO-support is used in forming negative and interrogative constructions.
e) Finite VPs have mood, which indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of the predication.
- the indicative mood
- the imperative mood
- the subjunctive mood
Non-finite verb phrases: The infinitive ((to) walk), the –ing participle (walking), and the –ed participle (walked) are the nonfinite forms of the verb.
a) Nonfinite VPs do not occur as the VP of an independent clause.
b) Nonfinite VPs have no tense or mood distinctions.
c) Nonfinite VPs cannot occur in construction with a subject of a main clause.
Simple and complex verb phrases: Finite verb phrases: The simple finite VP consists of only one word, which may be present, past, imperative, or subjunctive. The complex VP consists of two or more words.
The four basic types of constructions in a complex VP are: modal, perfective, progressive, passive.
A. modal + the base form of a MV: may write
B. the perfect auxiliary HAVE+ the –ed participle of a MV: has written
C. the progressive auxiliary BE + the –ing participle of a MV: is writing
D. the passive auxiliary BE + the –ed participle of a MV: was written
These four basic constructions also enter into combination with each other.
CD: is being written
ABD: may have been written
ABCD: may have been being written
The more complex the VP pattern is, the less commonly it occurs.
Nonfinite verb phrases
As modals have no nonfinite forms, they cannot occur in nonfinite verb phrases.
infinitives
participles
simple
to examine
examining
B
to have examined
having examined
C
to be examining
[being] examining
D
to be examined
[being] examined
complex
BC
to have been examining
having been examining
BD
to have been examined
having been examined
CD
to be being examined
[being] being examined
BCD
to have been being examined
having been being examined

The category of mood:

1. The indicative mood: It indicates that what is said must be regarded as a fact . It presents an action as a fact of reality . The indicative mood has a wide variety of tense and aspect forms in the active and passive voice. The sun rises in the east .
2. The imperative mood: It expresses a command or a request to perform an action. The action always refers to the future. Aspect and voice distinctions are not characteristic of the imperative mood.
But cf.: Get elected, and then we can talk about changing foreign policy
‘let + infinitive’: Let him finish his dinner .
You take it away .
The imperative mood resembles the infinitive in form and meaning. As to the meaning, the imperative mood does not express action, only urges the person to fulfil an action. The infinitive names the action.
3. The subjunctive mood: It expresses unreal or hypothetical actions or states . They may be viewed as desired, necessary , possible, supposed , imaginary or contradicting reality. The subjuncitve mood in modern English is generally an optional and stylistically somewhat marked variant of other constructions. A passive subjunctive is a possibility for all types:
God be praised!
It would be odd if she were awarded the first prize.
Negation:
It is essential that this mission not fail. [does not fail – indicative]
The Senate has decreed that such students be not/ not be exempted from college dues.
If I weren’t/were not your best friend, you would regret that remark.
Present subjunctive:
The mandative subjunctive. It occurs in subordinate that-clauses, and consists of the base form of the verb only. There is no regular concord of the indicative mood between the subject and the finite verb, and there is no back shifting of tense.
The committee proposes/proposed that Mr Day be elected.
His sole requirement is/was that the system work.
- productive: it can be used with any verb in a that-clause when the superordinate clause satisfies the requisite semantic condition that the that-clause be introduced by an expression of demand , recommendation, proposal , resolution, intention, etc.
Verbs: decide, insist , move, order, prefer , request
Adjectives: advisable, desirable, fitting , imperative
Nouns: decision, decree , order, requirement, resolution
The employees have demanded that the manager
resign. AmE
should resign. BrE
resigns. BrE
The formulaic subjunctive:
It consists of the base form of the verb. It is used in certain set expressions chiefly in independent clauses.
God save the Queen!
Suffice it to say that we won.
Come what may, we will go on with our plan.
Heaven forbid that I should let my own parents suffer.
Be it noted that this offer was made in good faith . (formal, rather archaic)
The present subjunctive can be used in subordinate clauses:
- clauses of condition and concession
( Even ) if that be the official view, it cannot be accepted.
- clauses of condition or negative purpose introduced by lest or for fear that
The President must reject this proposal, lest it cause strife and violence . (ibid.)
The past subjunctive:
The were-subjunctive
- hypothetical or unreal in meaning.
- used in adverbial clauses introduced by such conjunctions as if, as if, as though, though, and in nominal clauses after verbs like wish and suppose .
- limited to the one form were, and thus breaks the concord rule of the indicative verb BE in the 1st and 3rd pr sg of the past tense.
If I were/was rich, I would travel around the world.
I wish the lecture was/were over.
The category of tense: 3 different levels on which the terms ‘present’ and ‘past’ can be interpreted:
- the referential level
- the semantic level
- the grammatical level
The number of tenses:
The threefold opposition is reduced to two, since morphologically English has no future form of the verb in addition to present and past forms. Some grammarians have argued for a third, ‘future tense’, maintaining that English realizes this tense by the use of an auxiliary verb constructions (such as will + infinitive): but we prefer to follow those grammarians who have treated tense strictly as a category realized by verb inflection.
The present tense as ‘nonpast’:
I want a cake. I wanted a cake.
Today is Tuesday. Tomorrow is Wednesday .
What are you doing today/tomorrow?
*I can help you yesterday. I can help you today/tomorrow.
Meanings of the simple present tense with reference to present time:
(a) State present
(b) Habitual present
(c) Instantaneous present
- commentaries
- demonstrations and other self-commentaries
- special exclamatory sentences
- performatives
Nonpresent uses of the present tense
(a) ‘The historic present’
(b) with verbs of communication
(c) Referring to the future

(d) fictional narratives

Meanings of the past tense with reference to past time:

The past tense combines 2 features of meaning:
- the event/state takes place in the past and there is a gap between its completion and the present moment
- the event/state took place at a definite time
(a) Event past
(b) Habitual past
(c) State past
Meanings of the past tense with reference to present and future time:
(a) Indirect speech
(b) The attitudinal past
(c) The hypothetical past
Constructions for expressing future time:
- will/ shall + infinitive
- be going to + infinitive
- the present progressive
- the simple present
- will/shall + the progressive infinitive
- be about to
- be + to infinitive
Vendler’s classification of verbs and semifactives:
States - static situations, inherently temporally unbounded (atelic): desire , want, love,
hate, know , believe
Activities (unbounded processes) - dynamic state of affairs, inherently temproally
unbounded (atelic): run, walk, swim, push a cart, drive a car
Accomplishments (bound processes) - expresses changes of state, inherently
temporally bounded (telic), not instantaneous: run a mile, draw a circle , walk
to school, paint a picture , grow up, deliver a sermon, recover from illness
Achievements (point events) - express changes of state, inherently temporally bounded
(telic); instantaneous: recognise, find, stop, start, reach the top, win the race
spot someone
Semelfactives - punctual events (+/- dynamic),
atelic, punctual: cough, flash , shoot, knock, sneeze
Active accomplishments - dynamic, telic, unpunctual: march to the
park, eat the fish, paint sb’s portrait
The category of aspect : The term ASPECT refers to a grammatical category which reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time.
The two aspect constructions: the perfective (complete) and the progressive (in progress)
These two aspects may combine within a single verb phrase (She has been reading)
Tense and aspect combine freely in a complex verb phrase:
Present Perfect
he has examined
Past Perfect
he had examined
Present Progressive
he is examining
Past Progressive
he was examining
Present Perfect Progressive
he has been examining
Past Perfect Progressive
he had been examining
Perfective aspect: (‘ anterior time’)
The present perfect
(a) the state present perfect
(b) the event present perfect
(c) the habitual present perfect
The past perfect (‘pluperfect’)
‘past-in-the-past’
(a) indirect speech constructions
(b) the attitudinal past perfect
(c) the hypothetical past perfect
Progressive aspect:
3 components.
1) the happening has duration
2) the happening has limited duration
3) the happening is not necessarily complete
The three verb senses of state, event, and habit are differently interpreted with the progressive:
(a) the state progressive
(b) the event progressive
(c) the habitual progressive
The perfect progressive:
The happening (a) has (limited) duration
(b) continues up to the present or recent past
(c) need not be complete
(d) may have effect which are still apparent
(e) ‘temporary habit up to the present’

The category of voice:Preliminaries: syntactic and semantic valence. Mary gave a book to a small boy.

syntactic/ functional [NP NP PP] (Categorial)
subcategorization: [SUBJ OBJ IOBJ] (Relational)
lexical transitivity: (arg1 arg2 arg3)
semantic/thematic: (Generic)
argument structure: (Instantiated role )
Each verb or other predicate has a certain number of arguments, each of which bears a distinct semantic role (a verb’s argument structure).
give, V: __ NP PP
give, V:
Semantic roles: agent , experiencer, patient , theme, recipient, beneficiary, location, goal , source
Grammatical relations: subject, direct object, indirect object
Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two ways , without change in the facts reported.
a. The boy ate the yellow apple .
b. The yellow apple was eaten by the boy.
The active-passive relation involves two grammatical levels: the VP
the clause
The formula of the active-passive correspondence:
NP1 + active VP + NP2
~ NP2 + passive VP + (by NP1)
The passive with and without agents:
(a) the agent is not known or difficult to state;
(b) the agent is self-evident from the context ;
(c) mentioning the agent is avoided due to special reasons;
(d) there is a greater interest in the passive subject;
(e) as a cohesion- building tool in the discourse .
7080% of passives in English are agentless.
(a) Tom was killed . (b) Someone killed Tom
(c) Tom was killed instantly
(d) James was born on Sunday.
(e) Mary is said to be a good singer.
(f) It was rumoured that he had secretly married her.
(g) The music was followed by a short interval.
(h) *The music was followed.
Transitivity:
(a) Tom runs every morning . (b) * Every morning is run by Tom.
(c) Tom gave Mary a present.
(d) Mary was given a present by Tom.
(e) */?A present was given Mary by Tom.
(f) Tom saw himself in the mirror .
(g) They couldn’t see each other.
(h) The little girl shook her head.
Verb constraints:
have, lack, hold, become, resemble, suit , etc.
(a) He has a nice room.
(b) I lack confidence.
(c) The concert lasts two hours .
(d) The barrel holds petrol .
(e) *Petrol is held by the barrel.
(f) The thief was held by the police.
The get-passive:
(a) The dog was run over by a car. (b) The dog got run over by a car.
Personal passives vs Impersonal passives:
In the prototypical (basic) passive the subject of the passive sentence acquires the same subject properties as the active subject. In nominative-accusative languages the passive subject is assigned nominative case and agrees with the verb. Rendering the subject of the active sentence as an agentive phrase in the passive is generally optional.
Passivisation does not result in the change of semantic roles.
The prototypical passive is the personal passive. It always has an overt subject (the active object) with semantic content.
The impersonal passive (e.g. Polish, German, Turkish, Dutch, and others). Impersonal passives differ from personal passives in that there is no overt subject. In addition, they are primarily associated with intransitive verbs. Generally, the agent of impersonal passives is restricted to human beings, which is not the case in personal passives.
Die jungen Leute haben in der Küche geraucht.
‘Young people have smoked in the kitchen .’
In der Küche wurde (von den jungen Leuten) geraucht.
‘There was smoking (by young people) in the kitchen.’
Impersonals:
Estonian
Poiss loeb raamatut. Loetakse raamatut.
Lapsed magavad sügavalt. Magatakse sügavalt.
7. Adjectives and adjective phrases; 4 properties of adjectives, the structure and functions of the adjective phrase, syntactic subclassification of adjectives, semantic classification adjectives.
The properties of adjectives:
a) They can freely occur in ATTRIBUTIVE functions, ie they can premodify a noun, appearing between the determiner (including zero artice) and the head of a noun phrase:
an ugly painting, a roind table, dirty linen .
b) They can freely occur in PREDIACTIVE function, ie they can function as subject compliment, as in ‘The painting is ugly’, or as object compliment ‘He thought the painting ugly’.
c) They can be premodified by the intensifyer very:
The children are very happy.
d) They can take COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms. The comparison may be my means of inflections (-er and –est) ‘The children are happier now’ and ‘They are the happiest people I know’, or by the addition of the premodifiers more and most ‘These students are more intelligent’ and ‘They are most beautiful paintings ’.
Syntactic subclassification of adjectives:
Attributive only: In general, adjectives that are restricted to attributive position , or that occur predominantly in attributive position, do not characterize the referent of the noun directly. For example, old can be either a central adjective or an adjective restricted to attributive position. In that old man (the opposite of that young man), old is a central adjective, and can thus also be predicative: That man is old on the other hand, in the usual sense of an old friend of mine [‘a friend of old, a long-standing friend’], old is restricted to attributive position and cannot be related to My friend is old. In this case, old is the opposite of new [recently acquired ]. The person referred to is not being identified as old; it is his friendship that is old.
When adjectives characterize the referent of the noun directly (that old man, My friend is old) they are termed INHERENT, when they do no (an old friend of mine) they are termed NONINHERINT.
Intensifying adjectives: Some adjectives have a heightened effect on the noun they modify, or the reverse , a lowering effect. At least three semantic subclasses of intensifying adjectives can be distinguished:
a) Emphasizers: have a general heightening effect and are generally attributive only, eg:
a true scholar plain nonsense
a clear failure the simple truth
pure (‘sheer’) fabrication an outright lie
a real (‘undoubted’) hero sheer arrogance
a certain winner a sure sign
b) Amplifiers: scale upwards from an assumed norm, and are central adjectives if they are inherent and denote a high or extreme degree:
a complete victory ~ The victory was complete.
Great destruction ~ The destruction was great.
On the other hand, when they are noninherent, amplifiers are attributive only:
a complete fool
*The fool is complete
firm friend ≁ *The friend is firm
Amplifiers are only attributive when they are used as emphasizers, conveying principally emphasis rather than degree.
c) Downtoners: have a lowering effect. Usually scaling downwards from an assumed norm. They are relatively few (eg: slight in a slight effort, feeble in a feeble joke).
Restrictive adjectives: restrict the reference of the noun exclusively , particularly or chiefly. Examples, within noun phases, include :
a certain person his chief excuse
the principal objection the exact answer
the same student the sole argument
the only occasion the specific point
a particular child the very man
Adjectives related to adverbs : Some noninherent adjectives that are only attributive can be related to adverbs, even though they are not intensifying or restrictive. They include:
my former friend ‘formerly my friend’
an old friend ‘a friend of old’
past students ‘students in the past’
a possible friend ‘possibly a friend’
the present king ‘the king at present’
an occasional visitor ‘ occasionally a visitor’
Some adjectives require implications additional to the adverbial:
the late president ‘the person who was formerly our president (but is now dead)’
If the adjectives premodify agentive nouns, the latter also suggests a relationship to an associated verb:
a big eater ‘someone who eats a lot’
a clever liar ‘someone who lies cleverly’
a hard worker ‘someone who works hard’
a heavy smoker ‘someone who smokes heavily’
a sound sleeper ‘someone who sleeps soundly’
Adjectives related to nouns: Some denomial adjectives are restricted to attributive position:
an atomic scientist ‘a scientist specializing on the theory of atoms’
a criminal court ‘a court dealing with crime’
a criminal liar ‘a lawyer specializing in cases of crime’
a polar bear ‘a bear living near the pole’
a medical school ‘a school for students of medicine’
musical comedy ‘a comedy accompanied by music’
a tidal wave ‘a wave produced by the tide’
Predicative only: Adjectives that are restricted, or virtually restricted, to predicative positions are most like verbs and adverbs. They tend to refer to a (possibly temporary) condition rather than to characterize. Perhaps the most common are those referring to health (or lack of health) of an animate being:
He felt ill/poorly (BrE) /well/faint/unwell
However, many people use such adjectives as attributives too, for example:
A well person need see a doctor only for a periodic checkup.
A large group of adjectives that are restricted to predicative position comprises adjectives with can take complementation:
able (to + infinite) fond (of)
afraid (that, of about) glad (that, to)
answerable (to) happy (that, to with, about)
adverse (to, from) loath (to)
aware (of) subject (to)
conscious (that, of) tantamount (to)
Some of these adjectives must take complementation (eg: subject to and tantamount to), and many normally do.
Many of these adjectives closely resemble verbs semantically:
He is afraid to do it ‘He fears to do it’
They are fond of her ‘They like her’
This is a tantamount to an ultimatum ‘That amounts to an ultimatum’
Semantic subclassification of adjectives:
Stative/dynamic: Adjectives are characteristically stative. May adjectives, however, can be seen as dynamic. In particular, most adjectives that are susceptible to subjective measurement are capable of being dynamic. Stative and dynamic adjectives differ syntactically in a number of ways. For example, a stative adjective such as tall cannot be used with the progressive aspect or with the imperative: *He’s being tall *Be tall
On the other hand we can use funny as a dynamic adjective:
I didn’t realize he was being funny. Her story was very funny.
Adjectives that can be used dynamically are: brave, calm, cheerful, conceited, cruel, foolish, friendly , funny, good, greedy, helpful, jealous, naughty, noisy, tidy .
Gradable/non-gradable: Most adjectives are gradable. Gradability is manifested through comparison: tall ~taller ~tallest
beautiful ~more beautiful ~most beautiful
It is also manifested though modification of intensifiers:
very tall so beautiful extremely useful
All dynamic and most stative adjectives are gradable; some stative adjectives are not, principally denominal adjectives like atomic scientist and hydrochloric acid, and adjectives denoting provenance, eg: British.
Inherent/noninherent: Most adjectives are inherent. For example the inherent adjective in a wooden cross applies to the referent of the object directly: a wooden cross is also a wooden object. On the other hand in a wooden actor the adjective is noninherent: a wooden actor is not (presumably) a wooden man.
INHERENT NONINHERENT
a firm handshake a firm friend
a perfect alibi a perfect stranger
a certain result a certain winner
a true report a true scholar
8. Adverbs and adverb phrases, morphological structure of adverbs, the structure of the adverb phrase, functions of adverbs, degrees of comparison, semantic classification.
Morphological structure:
1. simple: soon, here , now, well
2. derived: lately, purely, charmingly, quickly
Less common suffixes: -wise clockwise
-ward(s) onwards, backwards
- fold two-fold, many-fold
-like warlike
-most innermost, outermost
-way(s) sideways
3. Compound: sometimes, somewhere, downstairs
4. Composite phrasal adverbs: a great deal, far enough, now and then
Structure of the adverb phrase:
(premodifier) headadverb (postmodifier)
headadverb
surprisingly
premodifier + headadverb
very surprisingly
headadverb + postmodifer
surprisingly for her
premodifier + headadverb + postmodifier
very surprisingly indeed
Functions of adverbs:
modifier of an adjective
remarkably accurate
modifier of an adverb
he did it somewhat prematurely
clause element adverbial
I quite forgot about it.

Adverbs as an adverbial

Adjuncts: Slowly they walked back home.
He spoke to me about it briefly .
Subjuncts: We haven ’t yet finished .
Would you kindly wait for me.
Disjuncts: Frankly, I’m tired.
Fortunately, no one complained.
Conjuncts: She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money .
If they open all the windows , then I’m leaving.

Modifier of adjectives

a) amplifiers: awfully sorry, extremely dangerous, deeply concerned, too dull
b) downtoners: a bit dull, fairly small, quite normal, hardly noticeable, rather late
c) emphasizers: That’s just impossible. You are certainly welcome.

Modifier of adverbs

pretty soon
smoke very heavily
Modifier of particles , prepositional adverbs, and prepositions
The nail went right through the wall .
He made his application well within the time.
He knocked the man right out.
Her parents are dead against the trip.

Modifier of pronouns, predeterminers, and numerals

Nearly everybody came to our party.
They recovered roughly half their equipment .
Virtually all the students participated in the discussion.

Modifier of NPs

We had quite a party.
They will be here for quite some time.
It was rather a mess.

Postmodifying adverbs

the day before
the way ahead
Adverbs as complements of a preposition.
over here
near there
from abroad
till then
Degrees of comparison:
- inflectional
- periphrastic
- suppletive
Most adverbs stand outside the degrees of comparison.
Semnatic classification:
Adverbs of place, time, manner, degree, etc.
9. Types of phrases, clause structures, verb complementation, syntactic functions of clause elements: subject, object, complement, adverbial; the four characteristics of clause elements (form, position, syntactic function, semantic properties); main semantic roles of clause elements.
Types of phrases:
Noun phrase:
a book, this interesting book, the old woman next door, his refusal to leave room
head nouns: proper nouns, pronouns, nominalized adjectives
The syntactic roles of NPs:
- Subject
- Direct Object
- Indirect Object
- Prepositional object
- Complement of the preposition
- Subject complement (predicative)
- Object complement (predicative)
- Adverbial
Discontinuous NPs:
In this chapter a description will be given of the food assistance programs that address the needs of the family.

Verb phrases:

Tom is eating a cake.
to have ended
to be read
The finite VPs function as a central clause element.
Discontinuous VPs: subject-operator inversion, not-negation, adverbials
Adjective phrases:
so sad, bad enough, guilty of a serious crime
The syntactic roles:
- Premodifiers of nouns
- Subject complement
- Postmodifiers of nouns:
- Object complement
Adverb phrases :
so slowly, fortunately enough
- Modifiers in adjective or adverb phrase
- Adverbials on the clause level
Prepositional phrase:
PPs consist of a preposition and a complement (typically a NP, sometimes wh-clauses and ing-clauses).
in the evening
Functions:
- Adverbials on the clause level
- Postmodifer and complement of nouns
- Complement of adjectives
stranded prepositions:
Susan understood what he was aiming at.
What did you ask for?
- in interrogative clauses, relative clauses, passive constructions, infinitival complement clauses, and ing-clauses.
Clause structures:
subject (S)
verb (V)
object (O) direct (Od)
indirect (Oi)
complement (C) subject complement (Cs)
object complement (Co)
adverbial (A) subject-related (As)
object-related (Ao)
Verb complementation:
The elements Od, Cs, Co, and A /.../ are obligatory elements of clause structure in that they are required for the complementation of the verb.
Syntactic functions of clause elements:
Criteria used: (i) forms, (ii) position, (iii) syntactic function of other than positional potentialities, (iv) semantic role.
Subject:
Form: normally a NP or a nominal clause
Position: normally occurs before the verb in declarative sentences, and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses. In wh-interrogative clauses: subject-operator inversion, except where the wh-element is itself the subject
Syntactic functions

• obligatory in finite clauses except in imperative clauses
  
• determines the number and person, where relevant , of the verb in finite clauses
  
• determines the number of the subject complement when that is a NP
  
• determines the number and, where relevant, the person and gender of the reflexive pronoun
  

as direct object, indirect object or prepositional complement

• the subjective form of pronouns
  
• the active-passive correspondence
  
• the subject is repeated in a tag question by a pronoun form
  

Semantic properties

• typically refers to information that is regarded by the speaker as given
  
• the agentive role
  

Object: direct and indirect:
Form: normally a NP or a nominal clause (nominal relative clauses)
Position: normally follows the subject and verb. If both objects are present, the indirect object normally comes before the direct object.
Syntactic function

• the objective form for pronouns
  
• in case of co-reference with the subject, the object usually requires a reflexive pronoun which agrees with the subject in person and, where relevant, in number and gender.
  

Semantic properties

• Od an entity that is affected (patient/theme) by the action denoted in the clause;
  
• Oi: to an animate being that is the recipient of the action (recipient/beneficiary).
  

Complement: subject and object:
Both complements are in a copular relationship with another clause element.
Form: normally a NP and AdjP, but it may also be a nominal clause.
Position:
Cs: follows the subject and the verb.
Co: follows the direct object.
Syntactic functions

• If it is a NP, the Cs has concord of number with the subject, and the Cs has concord of number with the direct object.
  
• If it is a reflexive pronoun, the Cs has concord of number, person, and, where relevant, gender with the subject.
  
• The complement cannot become the subject of a corresponding passive clause. The Co becomes the subject complement in the passive clause.
  
• If the Cs is a pronoun, there is a distinction between subjective and objective forms; the subjective form is more prevalent in formal use.
  

Semantic properties

• The attribute : identifies or characterises the referent of the clause element to which it is related.
  

Adverbial:
Form: normally an AdvP, PP or adverbial clause. It may also be a NP.
Position: the adverbial may occur in more than one position in the clause. Its mobility depends on the type and form of the adverbial.
SVA – after the subject and verb
SVOA – after the direct object
Syntactic functions
Except for the obligatory adverbial in the SVA and SVOA types, adverbials are optional.
Semantic properties

• the circumstances of the situation (adjuncts and subjunct);
  
• comments on the form or content of the clause (disjunct);
  
• provides a link between clauses (conjunct).
  

Main semantic roles of clause elements:
Participants involved in situations described by clauses are entities realised by NPs. They can be either concrete or abstract.
The strange man stole Tom’s car.

• the agentive participant (agent): the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb;
  
• the affected participant (patient/theme): an animate or inanimate participant that does not cause the happening denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way;
  
• the recipient participant: the animate being that is passively implicated by the happening or state;
  
• the attribute: identification and characterisation
  

10. Simple and multiple sentences (compound and complex sentences); coordination, subordination; types and functions of subordinate clauses; examples!
Simple and multiple sentences: Traditional grammar classifies sentences as simple, compound and complex.
Susan prepared the food. (simple)
Susan prepared the food and Ed bought the wine. (equal; compound)
She called you while you were out. (main + subordinate clause - complex)
A simple sentence contains only one clause.
A compound sentence contains two or more independent or main clauses.
A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, at least one of which is subordinate. It is a multiple sentence built up on the principle of subordination.
Coordination: The linking by coordinators of clauses and other sentence parts of equal meaning and grammatical value. Coordination can link nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbials, etc.
- syndetic and asyndetic coordination
Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards the victim.
Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim. (Quirk et al. 1985: 918)
Coordinators: the coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but), related adverbs ( once , so),
and correlatives that link (coordinate) clauses and other sentence
elements of equal meaning and grammatical value.
They looked ragged and thin but not actually starving.
John played football , and Mary played tennis , but Alice stayed at home.
Zero coordinator: I came, I saw, I conquered (Julius Caesar ).
Correlatives: both…and…, either …or…, neither…nor…, not only…, but also …
whether…or (whether)…
Syntactic features of coordinators:
- clause-initial position
- sequentially fixed
- not preceded by a conjunction
- link clause constituents
- link subordinate clauses
- multiple coordination
Subordination: The joining of a clause to a main clause in such a way that it is dependent (= the complex sentence)
While Maria sets the table for breakfast, he hums a little tune to himself.
Subordinators: after, although, as because, before, if, since, that, though unless, until , when(ever), where(ver), while; but that, in that, in order that, such that, as far as, as long as, as soon as, as if, as though, in case, etc.
Types of subordinate clauses:
- nominal clauses
- relative clauses
- adverbial
- comment
Formal indicators of subordination:
(i) a subordinating conjunction.
(ii) a wh-element.
(iii) inversion.
(iv) The verb element is either non-finite or absent.
Syntactic functions of subordinate clauses:
- subject
- direct object
- indirect object
- subject complement
- object complement
- adverbial
- postmodifier in NP
- prepositional complement
- adjectival complementation
Types and functions of subordinate clauses:
Nominal clauses:
- that-clauses
- wh-interrogative clauses
- yes-no and alternative interrogative clauses
- exclamative clauses
- nominal relative clauses
- to-infinitive clauses
- -ing clauses
- bare infinitive clauses
- verbless clauses
Adverbial clauses:
- clauses of time
- clauses of place
- clauses of condition, concession, and contrast
- reason clauses
- purpose clauses
- result clauses
- clauses of similarity and comparison
- clauses of preference
- comment clauses
Relative clauses :
Comparative clauses :