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A semantic role is the underlying relationship that a participant has with the main verb in a clause .
Also known as: semantic case , thematic role, theta role (generative grammar ), and deep case (case grammar)
Example:
If, in some real or imagined situation, someone named John purposely hits someone named Bill , then John is the agent and Bill is the patient of the hitting event. Therefore , the semantic role of Bill is the same (patient) in both of the following sentences :
John hit Bill.
Bill was hit by John.
In both of the above sentences, John has the semantic role of agent.
Syntax- the study of sentence formation ; the way words combine to form sentences; combinations of words
Lexeme- a minimal unit in the lexicon of a language Ex: go- went -gone- going =go
Morphosyntactic properties- morpho- refers to morphology and includes rules for deriving the various inflectional forms of a lexeme from the lexical stem
-syntax- refers to the syntax of a language which includes rules that
specify under what conditions a lexeme may or must carry a given inflectional property
Constituent- an element considered as part of a construction
Suppletion- phenomenon whereby one lexeme is represented by two or more different roots , depending on the context Ex: go-went
The constituent structure is an abstract property of sentences (but there is evidence for this).
The constituent analysis of a sentence identifies the forms and their hierarchical arrangement within one another .
The two most basic units of syntax are the sentence and the word. The sentence is the largest unit of syntax. The word is the lowest unit of syntax.
Part of speech classes in English : nouns , verbs , pronouns , adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. (nouns denote physical objects, adjectives denote properties, verbs denote events )
The same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next:
1) Books are made of ink, paper and glue
2) Mary waits patiently while John books the tickets .
3) We walk down the street .
4) The mail carrier stood on the walk.
Nouns:
Proper nouns: Chris , American Airlines , Seattle
Pronouns: he, she, it, them , her, our, yours
Common nouns:
• count: cat, pen, car
• mass: water, gold , rice
• abstract: love, ignorance
A test of substitution – if in a sentence we can substitute one lexical item so that
the sentence remains grammatical, the word which was substituted, and the word we used for substitution, must belong into the same class .
1) [Cornish] became extinct in the 18th century.
2) [Laughter] became extinct in the 18th century.
3) [Wolves] became extinct in the 18th century.
4) *[ below ] became extinct in the 18th century.
5) *[suddenly] became extinct in the 18th century.
6) *[listens] became extinct in the 18th century.
a) The man loved peanut butter cookies.
b) The puppy loved peanut butter cookies.
c) The king loved peanut butter cookies.
d) *The green loved peanut butter cookies.
e) *The in loved peanut butter cookies.
f) *The sing loved peanut butter cookies.
a) [John] went to the store .
b) [The man] went to the store.
c) *[Quickly walks] went to the store.
d) [Norvel] kissed the blarney stone.
e) *[To the washroom] kissed the blarney stone.
Diagnostics for sentence structure: substitution test, movement tests, It-clefts
If you can replace a string of words by a pronoun , this string must be an NP / constituent
a. Mary saw [the man who fed the dog]
b. Mary saw him.
c. * Mary saw him who fed the dog.
d. Mary saw [the man] while he fed the dog.
e. Mary saw him while he fed the dog.
Topicalisation- a group of words which can move to another position in a
sentence - as a rule , to the first position - must be a constituent; a sequence of words which does not form a constituent, cannot undergo this movement
a) Mary will never read that novel by her uncle .
b) [That novel by her uncle] Mary will never read.
c) * By her Mary will never read that novel uncle.
d) * That novel Mary will never read by her uncle.
a) John will never read a thousand novels.
b) [Read a thousand novels], John never will.
c) * Read, John will never a thousand novels.
Replacement + Movement = Questions
If you can replace the sequence of words by question words such as who or what and move the question word to the first position of the sentence, the sequence must be a constituent.
a) Mary ate a sandwich with cheese .
b) What did Mary eat? A sandwich with cheese (NP)
c) * What did Mary eat cheese? A sandwich with
a) John was in the huge garden.
b) Where was John? In the huge garden (PP)
c) * Where was John garden? In the huge
Cleft-construction
It – form of to be – X – that – Y
X – something which we want to stress in order to contrast it
with something else (i.e. focus )
a) It was [John] that scored the goal (not Bill)
b) It is [the female ] that has grey feathers (not the male )
a) The girl with red hair fell on the steep stairs.
b) It was [the girl with red hair] that fell on the steep stairs.
c) It was [on the steep stairs] that the girl with red hair fell.
d) *It was [the girl] that with red hair fell on the steep stairs.
e) *It was [on the steep] that the girl with red hair fell stairs.
noun = head in an NP
a. [ dogs ] are adorable
b. [friendly dogs] are adorable
c. [friendly dogs with brown fur] are adorable
d. * [friendly] are adorable
e. * [with brown fur] are adorable
nouns function as head in the structure of NPs:
• the red apple
• [the [red apple]
• *[the red] apple]
The determiner relates to the rest of the NP as a whole . 3 levels of constituency in the phrase the red apple: NP = D Adj N
Predicate refers to the type of event/state (expressed by verbs, adjectives). Arguments refer to the participants in the event/state.
Ex: Gwen hit the baseball .
2 arguments: Gwen, the baseball, one predicate: hit
hit expresses a relation between the 2 arguments, i.e. the 1st argument is applying some force to the 2nd argument.
laugh, weep, fall, ... ➔ event with 1 argument
stand, glow , ... ➔ state with 1 argument
read, kiss, kick, ... ➔ event with 2 arguments
know , love, fear , ... ➔ state with 2 arguments
sell, give, send , ... ➔ event with 3 arguments
syntactic arguments – the constituents that appear in the positions of S, DO and IO
syntactic valency – how many syntactic arguments the verb can take
complements – obligatory dependents of the head of some phrase
modifiers – optional dependent of an item in a phrase
semantic roles (thematic roles) – the roles performed by the referents of NPs in a clause
agent – an animate being who deliberately performs an action
patient – the direct object that undergoes the action of the verb
theme – an entity undergoing some action
goal – an entity towards which the action is directed
experiencer – someone who experiences something
possessor – the one who possesses something
intransitive – they take no object complement – arrived, went, lie
transitive/monotransitive – takes one object complement- painted, wrote, eats
ditransitive – take DO and IO
reporting verbs – describe what people say or think (suggest, say, wonder)
She said [that she would come ]
ergative verbs –a verb that can be either transitive or intransitive in the same meaning: if used intransitively, the DO of the transitive verb occurs as the subject of the intransitive one.
I opened the door . vs. Suddenly, the door opened.
John drew these cars. vs. *These cars drew.
phrasal verbs – a combination of a verb and an adverb /PP which has a single meaning
( hand over, look forward to, go on, speak up, back up)
John [[backed up] his argument]
prepositional verbs –a verb that selects a specific PP constituent for its complement
(rely on, talk about, think of)
John [relied [on his friend ]]
main verbs/lexical verbs – all verbs that are not auxiliary verbs; carries the full meaning
in a verb phrase
modal verbs – an auxiliary verb which is used with the main/lexical verb to
indicate particular attitude (possibility, obligation, prediction , deduction) (must, shall, will, should, would, can, could , may, might)
prepositions: closed-class items
The prepositional phrase (PP) consists of a P followed by a prepositional complement,
which is typically:
• an NP
• wh-clause
• V-ing clause
adposition – the cover term for the whole word class, includes prepositions and postpositions
simple prepositions – they consist of one word
complex prepositions – consist of more than one word
postposed prepositions or ‘stranded prepositions’ - the object (or complement) has to precede the P and P itself follows its object – these are postposed prepositions
PPs may function as:
• adjunct (e.k. vaba laiend)
The people were singing on the bus (locative function)
• disjunct (e.k. üldlaiend)
To my surprise , the doctor phoned.
• conjunct (e.k. sidesõna)
On the other hand, it is really good to be old.
Adjunct- a word or combination of words added to a clause to give more information about time, place , or manner, etc.
the complex sentence –a sentence which consists of more than one clause
superordinate clause – contains another clause that is embedded within the main clause
subordinate clause – always embedded within another clause
Relative clauses are a type of embedded clause that modifies the
head noun.
Here are some students who haven ’t done their homework.
Restrictive relative clauses may be introduced by a relative pronoun who/what/which, the complementizer that or nothing .
The article that/which/∅ they read last term.
Non-restrictive relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun who/what/
which.
That article, which they read under protest last term, …
Bound morpheme, bound allomorph- morpheme or allomorph that cannot stand on its own as a word. A bound morpheme is one whose allomorphs are bound
Intransitive verb – verb that is not transitive
There are two voices in English, the active voice and the passive voice.
Active Voice
Paul congratulated David
Passive Voice
David was congratulated by Paul
(in verbs)
ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives come before the noun which they modify.
PREDICATIVE adjectives come after a verb.
POSTPOSITIVE adjectives come immediately after the modified noun.
Cranberry morpheme- morpheme (or allomorph) that occurs only in one word (more precisely, only one lexeme)
Valence- in linguistics is always a number from one to three. It can be thought of as a semantic notion , a grammatical notion, or a combination of the two. Valence-adjusting constructions are morphosyntactic constructions that affect the semantic and/or the grammatical valence of a clause.
Semantic valence refers to the number of participants in the discourse world scene conventionally evoked by a verb. Ex: Eat = Something that eats and something that gets eaten.
Grammatical valence(or syntactic valence) refers to the number of core arguments present in any given clause. Ex: Calvin already ate= no direct object but it is understood that something go eaten.
A semantically transitive situation is a relation between two participants such that one participant acts toward or upon the other.
A semantically intransitive situation is a property, state, or other situation involving only one participant. Sometimes intransative situations are univalent, they have a semantic valence of one.
Divalent- two participants
Trivalent- three participants
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound noun is usually [noun + noun], Ex: bed+ room , firefly, blackbird
The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. The second part identifies the object or person in question. Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different, or more specific, than the two separate words.
Valence-decreasing constructions:
Those that „combine“ controlling and affected participants into a single participant: reflectives, reciprocals, middles
Those that downplay a controlling participant: passives, impersonals
Those that downplay an affected participant: object omission, object demotion, object incorporation
Valence-increasing constructions:
Those that ass a controlling participant: causatives
Those that upgrade a peripheral participant: dative shift