adjective + preposition omadussõna + eessõna
proud of,
good at,
married to
adverb particle Some
verbs are followed by adverb
particles .
Examples are: put on, take off, give
away , bring up,
call in.
Sometimes the particle is detached from the
verb and put after the
object .
•He
took his boots off.
•They called the
doctor in.
apposition a grammatical
construction in which two
usually adjacent
nouns having the
same referent
stand in
the same syntactical relation to the
rest of a sentence (as
the poet and
Burns in “a biography of the
poet Burns”)
back - reference In grammatical
analysis , the
term reference is often used to state a
relationship of
identity which
exists
between grammatical
units , e.g. a
pronoun 'refers' to a
noun or
noun phrase . When the
reference is to an earlier
part of the
discourse , it may be called a 'back-reference' (or anaphora);
collective noun Collective noun is the name we give to a group of nouns to
refer to
them as one entity.
A crew of sailors.
A flock of
birds .
A range of
mountains .
conjunction any
member of a small
class of
words distinguished in manylanguages by their
function as connecto
rs between words,
phrases ,
clauses , or sentences, as and, because, but,
however .
content words Content words are words that have meaning. They can be compared to grammatical words, which
are structural. Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and
adverbs are usually content words. Auxiliary
verbs,
pronouns ,
articles , and prepositions are usually grammatical words.
Example
‘We
flew over the mountains at dawn'.
countable nouns Countable nouns are
easy to recognize. They are things that we can
count . For example: "pen". We
can count
pens . We can have one, two, three or more pens.
Here are some more countable nouns:
•dog, cat,
animal , man,
person •bottle, box, litre
•coin,
note , dollar
•cup, plate, fork
•table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be
singular or
plural :
•My dog is
playing .
•My
dogs are hungry.
We can use the
indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
•A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
•I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
•Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it
alone :
•I like oranges.
•Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:
•I've got some dollars.
•Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
•I've got a few dollars.
•I
haven 't got many pens.
definite article The definite article
the is the most
frequent word in
English .
We use the definite article in
front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what
we are referring to.
• because
there is only one:
The Pope is visiting
Russia .
The
moon is very
bright tonight.
The Shah of
Iran was deposed in 1979.
This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective:
He is the tallest boy in the class.
It is the oldest
building in the town.
• because there is only one in that
place or in those surroundings:
We
live in a small
village next to the
church .
(the church in our village)
Dad, can I borrow the car?
= (the car that belongs to our family)
When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we
went to the (the
beach near my grandmother’s
beach every day.
= house)
Look at the boy in the
blue shirt over there.
(the boy I am pointing at)
• because we have
already mentioned it:
A
woman who
fell 10 metres from High
Peak was lifted to
safety by a helicopter. The womanfell
while climbing .
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In
January last
year two men
walking on the peak were
killed in a fall.
We also use the definite article:
• to say
something about all the things referred to by a noun:
The
wolf is not
really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous
animals )
The kangaroo is
found only in
Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
The
heart pumps
blood around the
body . (= Hearts
pump blood around bodies)
We use the definite article in this way to
talk about
musical instruments:
Joe
plays the
piano really well.(= Joe can play any piano)
She is
learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar)
• to refer to a system or
service :
How long does it take on the
train ?
I heard it on the
radio .
You should
tell the
police .
• With adjectives like
rich ,
poor , elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people:
Life can be very
hard for the poor.
I think the rich should pay more
taxes .
She
works for a group to help the disabled.
The definite article with
names :
We do not normally use the definite article with names:
William Shakespeare wrote
Hamlet .
Paris is the capital of France.
Iran is in
Asia .
But we do use the definite article with:
• countries
whose names
include words like
kingdom,
states or
republic:
the United Kingdom; the Kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the People’s Republic of
China .
• countries which have plural nouns as their names:
the
Netherlands ; the
Philippines • geographical
features ,
such as
mountain ranges , groups of islands,
rivers , seas, oceans and canals:
the
Himalayas ; the Canaries; the
Atlantic ; the Atlantic
Ocean ; the
Amazon ; the
Panama Canal.
•
newspapers :
The
Times ; The Washington Post
• well
known buildings or works of art:
the
Empire State Building; the Taj
Mahal ; the
Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers
• organisations:
the United Nations; the Seamen’s Union
• hotels, pubs and restaurants*:
the
Ritz ; the Ritz
Hotel ; the
King ’s Head; the Déjà Vu
*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or
restaurant is the name of the
owner , e.g.,
Brown ’s; Brown’s Hotel; Morel’s; Morel’s Restaurant, etc.
•
families :
the Obamas; the Jacksons
demonstrative determiner There are
four demonstrative determiners in English and they are: this, that,
these and those
Note that demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative pronouns. When they are
used as determiners they are followed by the nouns they
modify .
Compare :
This is my
camera . (Demonstrative used as a pronoun,
subject of the verb
is)
This camera is mine. (Demonstrative used as a determiner modifying the noun
camera.
demonstrative pronoun A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to point to something
specific within a sentence.
These pronouns can indicate
items in
space or time, and they can be either singular or plural.
The food you’re cooking
smells delicious. --> That smells delicious.
• The pretzel-like
yoga move we’re doing really
hurts . --> This really hurts.
• What is the
strange , polka-dotted, Sasquatch-like creature
coming toward us? --> What is
that?
determiner General and specific determiners
Determiners are words which
come at the
beginning of the noun phrase.
They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general.
Determiners are either specific or general
Specific determiners:
The specific determiners are:
•the definite article:
the•possessives:
my,
your,
his,
her,
its;
our,
their,
whose•demonstratives:
this,
that,
these,
those•interrogatives:
whichWe use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are
referring to:
Can you
pass me the
salt please?
Look at those lovely flowers.
Thank you very much for your
letter .
Whose coat is this?
General determiners:
The general determiners are:
•
a; an; any; another ; other ; whatWhen we are
talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not
know exactly what we
are referring to, we can use an uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner:
Milk is very good for you. (= uncount noun)
Health and education are very
important . (= 2 uncount nouns)
Girls normally do better in school
than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)
… or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an:
A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter.
A man climbing nearby saw the
accident .
We use the general determiner
any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking
about all of those people or things:
It’s very easy. Any
child can do it. (= All
children can do it)
With a
full licence you are
allowed to
drive any car.
I like beef, lamb, pork - any
meat .
We use the general determiner
another to talk about an additional person or
thing :
Would you like another
glass of wine?
The plural form of
another is
other:
I
spoke to John,
Helen and a few other
friends .
distributive Distributives: each, every, either, neither, another, other. We use a distributive determiner to refer to
each element or
individual of a group or class, and not to a group or class collectively.
Each and every
These two words have about the same meaning. We use each when we think of people or things
seen as separate individuals, and every when we
mean every one that together make up the group.
•She wears a ring on each finger except the thumbs.
•Police arrested every member of the
armed gang for robbery.
We can use each and every only
before a singular countable noun.
•Police questioned each/every member of the family for possible involvement in the
murder .
We can use each and every to mean more than two.
•Each /every member at the
meeting received a
copy of the
report .
We can use each to mean two and every to mean three or more.
•Each
player in the singles
final has a
different style of play. (= two players)
•There were cars parked
along the
sides of every
street in town. (= all the streets)
We can use every with uncountable nouns.
•He
gave me every
advice before I
went for the
climb .
Either and neither
As determiner, either is used to mean one or the other of two people or things,
while neither indicates not the one nor the other of two people or things.
•Either parent is
going to look for their son’s bully.
•He received
injuries on either side of his head from a
fight .
•Neither
boxer was
able to knock the other out.
•Neither one would give in
until the other apologized.
Another and other
•The tribal chief has
five wives already, and now he wants another one.
•They defused a
bomb but didn’t know there’s another one nearby going to
explode .
•There are other
ways of eliminating rats
besides drowning them.
•It’s no use having only one shoe. I don’t know where the other one is.
function/ grammar words In English grammar, a
function word is a word that expresses a grammatical or structural
relationship with other words in a sentence.
In
contrast to a content word, a function word has
little or no meaningful content. Function words
are also known as
grammatical words, grammatical functors, grammatical morphemes, function
morphemes, form words, and
empty words.
Function words include determiners (for example,
the, that), conjunctions (
and,
but), prepositions (
in, of), pronouns (
she, they), auxiliary verbs (
be, have),
modals (
may, could ),
and quantifiers (
some, both ).
generic reference We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do the same
thing by omitting the article altogether.
•A
beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
•An airedale is sometimes a
rather skittish animal.
•The
golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
•Irish setters are not the
highly intelligent animals they used to be.
The
difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the
latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the
former (see beagle sentence) refers to all
members of that class.
gerund Every gerund,
without exception, ends in ing. Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to identify.
The problem is that all
present participles also end in ing. What is the difference?
Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be
subjects , subject complements,
direct objects,
indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
Present participles, on the other
hand ,
complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers.
Read these examples of gerunds:
Since Francisco was five
years old,
swimming has been his
passion .
Swimming = subject of the verb has been.
Francisco's
first love is swimming.
Swimming = subject complement of the verb is.
Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his girlfriend
Diana .
Swimming = direct object of the verb enjoys.
Francisco gives swimming all of his energy and time.
Swimming = indirect object of the verb gives.
When Francisco wore dive
fins to class, everyone knew that he was devoted to swimming.
Swimming = object of the preposition to.
indefinite article In English, the two indefinite articles are
a and
an. Like other articles, indefinite articles are
invariable. You use one or the other, depending on the first letter of the word
following the article,
for
pronunciation reasons . Use
a when the next word starts with a consonant, or before words
starting in
u and
eu when they
sound like
you. Use
an when the next word starts with a
vowel
(a,e,i,o,u) or with a
mute h.
The indefinite article is used to refer to something for the first time or to refer to a
particular member of a group or class.
movement verb position verb possessive determiner In English grammar, a
possessive determiner is a type of function word used in front of a noun to
express possession or belonging (as in "
my phone ").
The possessive determiners in English are
my, your, his, her, its, our, and
their.
As Lobeck and Denham point out, there's some overlap between possessive determiners
and possessive pronouns. The
basic difference, they say, "is that pronouns
replace full noun phrases.
Possessive determiners, on the other hand, have to occur with a noun"
possessive pronoun A possessive pronoun is a part of speech that attributes ownership to
someone or something. Like
any other pronoun, it
substitutes a noun phrase and can
prevent its repetition. For example, in the
phrase, "These
glasses are mine, not
yours ", the words "mine" and "yours" are possessive pronouns
and stand for "my glasses" and "your glasses," respectively.
preposition A preposition is a word used to
link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a sentence.
Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns. In
some
cases , you’ll
find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.
preposition vs. adverb particle Many words can be used as both adverb particles and prepositions. There is some difference
between an adverb particle and a preposition. While the particle is closely tied to its verb to form
idiomatic expressions, the preposition is closely tied to the noun or pronoun it modifies.
The following words are used only as particles and
never as prepositions – away, back, out,
backward,
forward , upward, downward
preposition vs. conjunction The difference is in the
context .
A conjunction joins a
dependent clause to a sentences. A preposition joins a prepositional phrase to
a sentence.
Examples:
•The families got separated after the war.
Here, The families got separated is a sentence and the war is a prepositional phrase being joined to
it.
Hence , the word after is a preposition in this
case .
•We went to the bar after we won the
game .
In this case, we went to the bar is the main sentence and we won the game is a dependent clause.
Hence, the word after is a conjunction here.
prepositional phrases At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will
begin with a preposition and end with
anoun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition.
The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to
describe it.
Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase:
At home
At = preposition; home = noun.
In time
In = preposition; time = noun.
Most prepositional phrases are longer, like these:
From my grandmother
From = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun.
Under the
warm blanket Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun.
In the weedy, overgrown
garden In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun.
A prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an adjective, the prepositional
phrase will
answer the question
Which one? pronouns A pronoun (
I, me, he, she, herself , you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose,
someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that
takes the place of a noun. In the sentence
Joe saw Jill , and
he waved at her, the pronouns
heand
her take the place of
Joe and
Jill, respectively. There are three
types of pronouns: subject (for example,
he); object (
him); or possessive (
his).
Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can
remember subject pronouns easily by
filling in the
blank subject space for a
simple sentence.
Example: ___ did the job.
I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are,
therefore , subject pronouns.
Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will
follow to be verbs,
such as
is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.
Examples:
It is he.This is she speaking.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize. proper noun Nouns name people, places, and things. Every noun can
further be classified as common or proper.
A
proper noun has two distinctive features: 1) it will name a specific [usually a one-of-a-kind] item,
and 2) it will begin with a capital letter no
matter where it occurs in a sentence.
quantifier We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something:
how much or how many.
Sometimes we use a quantifier in the place of a determiner:
Most children start school at the age of five.
We ate some bread and butter.
We saw
lots of birds.
uncountable nouns Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we
cannot divide into separate
elements . We
cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or
"litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:
•music, art, love,
happiness •advice, information, news
•furniture,
luggage •
rice ,
sugar , butter, water
•electricity, gas,
power •
money ,
currency We usually
treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
•This news is very important.
•Your luggage
looks heavy .
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an
information" or "a music". But we can say a "something" of:
•a
piece of news
•a bottle of water
•a grain of rice
We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:
•I've got some money.
•Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:
•I've got a little money.
•I haven't got much rice.
zero article We use the term zero article when a noun is not preceded by a definite article (
the) or indefinite
article (
a, an).
- The definite article with names:
- General and specific determiners
- Specific determiners:
- General determiners:
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