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language and it is the ‘mental reality’ which is responsible for all those aspects of language use which can be characterized as ‘linguistic’. Abstract sets of rules that help us to form and understand grammatical sentences. Linguistic performance → According to Chomsky linguistic performance is the production of actual utterances which rely on our mental reality of language. The way people actually speak with mistakes and stops and unfinished sentences. What is grammar? → Grammar is the system of a language, could also be described as rules in how to form new sentences constitute (tervik) the grammar of a language. Although you don’t need to know grammar to learn a language (children for example start speaking before they learn grammar), it makes studying a foreign language easier because it helps to understand the system of a specific language. Grammar divides into two: Prescriptive grammar → Prescribes rules that tell to the
1. Be ready to explain the terms (lecture 1): language, linguistics, synchronic approach to language, diachronic approach to language, linguistic competence, linguistic performance, what is grammar?, prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar; phonology, phonetics, phone, allophone, phoneme; morphology, morphemes (types of morphemes), morphs, allomorphs, types of affixes, derivational affixes, inflectional affixes; open vs closed class words; syntax. Language: a systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression. - human language at all levels is rule- or principle-governed. Linguistics: the scientific study of human natural language
Examples are: put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in. Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the object. •He took his boots off. •They called the doctor in. apposition a grammatical construction in which two usually adjacent nouns having the same referent stand in the same syntactical relation to the rest of a sentence (as the poet and Burns in “a biography of the poet Burns”) back-reference In grammatical analysis, the term reference is often used to state a relationship of identity which exists between grammatical units, e.g. a pronoun 'refers' to a noun or noun phrase. When the reference is to an earlier part of the discourse, it may be called a 'back-reference' (or anaphora); collective noun Collective noun is the name we give to a group of nouns to refer to them as one entity. A crew of sailors. A flock of birds. A range of mountains. conjunction
in a verb phrase modal verbs an auxiliary verb which is used with the main/lexical verb to indicate particular attitude (possibility, obligation, prediction, deduction) (must, shall, will, should, would, can, could, may, might) prepositions: closed-class items The prepositional phrase (PP) consists of a P followed by a prepositional complement, which is typically: · an NP · wh-clause · V-ing clause adposition the cover term for the whole word class, includes prepositions and postpositions simple prepositions they consist of one word complex prepositions consist of more than one word postposed prepositions or `stranded prepositions' - the object (or complement) has to precede the P and P itself follows its object these are postposed prepositions PPs may function as: · adjunct (e.k. vaba laiend) The people were singing on the bus (locative function) · disjunct (e.k. üldlaiend)
Algebraic, colonial, theoretical o Qualitative - express more specific concepts Grammatical o Some relational adjectives can adopt qualitative meanings. grammatical, which has a relational meaning ‘having to do with grammar’ in the sentence she is a grammatical genius, but which also has a qualitative sense ‘conforming to the rules of grammar,’ as in This is a grammatical sentence. o –ed – having X/being provided with X – broad-minded, pig-headed, bearded, bigoted, quick- witted o –ish – somewhat X/vaguely X – can attach to adjectives, numerals and syntactic phrases, nouns, : greenish, fiveish, out-of-the-wayish, James-Deanish, o –less without X – senseless, pennyless, homeless o –like similar to X lifelike, warlike, coward-like,
STYLISTICS 1. Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies The term ,,style" is polysemantic. Latin ,,stilus"--a writing instrument used by the ancients for writing on waxed tablets. Soon, the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one's ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift said: ,, Style is proper words in proper places" Present day--half a dozen meanings: · the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his ideas (Style of Byron)
g. style of Byron) 2. the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period 3. the use of language typical of a literary genre (e.g. the style of a comedy, drama, novel). 4. the selective use of language that depends on spheres / areas of human activity (e.g. style of fiction, scientific prose, newspapers, business correspondence, etc.). STYLISTICS Stylistics is the study of style. The very term "stylistics" came in more common use in English only some 45 years ago. Stylistics is a part of style; it studies principles of selecting and using different linguistic means (grammatical and phonetic) that serve to render shades of meaning. The Stylistics of language studies stylistic devices and expressive shades of linguistic units (words, construction of phrases). The Stylistics of speech studies individual texts viewing the way the message or content is expressed.
removed from a word. baby-sit v < babysitter , televise < television 23. Alphabetisms, initialisms, acronyms - alphabetize / ( also alphabetise ) → verb [with obj.] arrange in alphabetical order: the listings are arranged by state and alphabetized by city. - DERIVATIVES alphabetization noun . initialism → noun an abbreviation consisting of initial letters pronounced separately (e.g. BBC). acronym. 1. This term denotes a type of abbreviation made up of a set of initials that are pronounced as a single word, as Nato is (as distinct from BBC). An acronym is generally treated as a word in its own right in other ways, for example in the formation of plurals when appropriate. Examples of familiar acronyms include: Aids (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), Anzac (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps), ASH (Action on Smoking and Health), PIN (personal identification number),
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