Inglise leksikoloogia (1)

1. Lexicology as a science
L. studies the voc of lg as a system. Word-learning, lexis -logos. The task of L is to establish the general features of modern Engl voc. Theoretical L. gives a complete picture of voc. Practical value lies in using and appretiating the lg more conciously. There is diachronic (historical) L that studies origin and development ; syncronic studies voc at a given historical period . There are general L (studies words disregarding particular features of any particular lg); special L (studies specific features of a separate lg, there is Engl that bases on general L); contrastive (compares vocabularys in different languages ).
2. Connection of L with other linguistic disciplines
a) the word performes a certain grammatical function (nt, he always misses the class , how many misses are there; the girl powders her nose , soliders face powder)In speech words are combined according to grammatical rules. The plural of nouns may carry a new meaning (nt, arms-weapons, looks-appearance, works - plant )
b)connected with phonetics . The meaning of a word is expressed by sounds and it depends on the order of sounds(spoonerism)
c)history of the lg –helps to understand ahanges in the meanings of words (nt, legend ment a book where a life of saints was described )
d)stylistics is the sign of expressive means of the language . The same idea may be expressed in different ways and so may aquire a new meaning.(nt, good -bye is neutral , ta-ta is colloquial, father - parent , daddy ) In some words we may find transfer meanings (methapfor- the flowers nodded their heads), metonymy (nt, how many vendes, macaroni)
3. Extra-and intralinguistic connection of words.
Extral are those between a word and reality (nt, farm – firmus ( latin ) that ment hard .) The answer lies in historical condition. Word „firma“ ment stable payment . Finally it ment „tenant‘s dwelling (elamine). To sack means when workers were dismissed, theiy took their tools in a sack and left . Intral words are connected with each other. New facts in the lg cause some change in the meaning of some words. (nt, autumn pushed harvest out, harvest tähendas nii sügist kui ka viljalõikust)
4. Motivation . Folk etymology.
Motivation reflects some feature of an object in a word (nt, cucoo! Duck – ducan ( sukelduma )). Types of mot:
a)phonetics- called sound imitation (onomatopoeia), (nt, murmur, bang , giggle, whistle).
b)morphologial mot- the meaning of a word is motivated by the meaning of morphemes(separate elements ), (nt, speak -er, ice- cream , beauty -ful)
c)semantic mot is based on the coexistance of the direct and figurative meanings(nt, the nose of the boat )
d)faded vs clear mot – new words are always motivated. (nt, ööbik-nighttingale, knight ja singer ). Time goes , motivation shanges. If motivation is not clear, people try to give their own explanation. Folk etymology-when motivation is not clear, people give their own explanation to a certain extent. It is folk etmymology. It happenes to borrowed words most often (nt, french etiquette – quite the ticket , meaning proper , polite ). To understand the mot of a word, we must know its history
5. Morphemes, allomorphs. Types of morphemic segnetability.
Morphemes are the smallest lexical units (can not divide ). They make up words. Morphemes have a certain meaning. (nt, pre – preplain, preview; less – waterless; hood – brotherhood). Some morphemes have diff sounds(nt, please, pleasure , pleasant). They are variants of the same morpheme or allomorph. Types: segmentable – those we can divide into morphemes (nt, hero- ic; happy – ness ). Non-segmentable- cannot divide any further (nt, luck, hand , smile ).
Types of morphemic segmantability:
a)complete segm occurs in words with transparent structure (läbinähtav), (nt, south - ern; mis- manage )
b)conditional segm characterizes words whose division is doubtful for semantic resons(nt, recieve, decieve). They are called pseudomorphemes (with no meaning).
c)defective- typical of words that have a morpheme which never occur in other words. Unique morpheme (nt, pocket, it seems unsegmentable, however we have in Engl locket ( medaljon )). (nt, pion _eer, that’s a unique morph)
6. Structural and semantic classific of morphemes conciders the freedom of morphemes.
Structural:
a)free- able to stand alone (nt, foolish – fool )
b)bound-never stands alone(nt, comfort_able, tig _riss)
c)semibound-can stand alone and at the same time they are like a suffix (nt, police_man- can be used alone, but means an occupation )
semantic: (meaning)
*The root is the lexical centre of a word. It plays the greatest role in expressing meaning. (nt, sunny , the root is sun, playful – play)
*the inflection is the grammatical ending of the word and it has an abstract meaning(book-s, he goe-s, -ing, -er). A part of the word that extends up to the inflection is the stem (alus). A stem may coinside with the root (bus, car) or may contain affixes.
7. Morphological classification of words:
a)derivates have rootmorpheme and one or more affixes (nt, dis-satis-fied, man-ly)
b) root words have just a root (nt, car, post)
c)compounds (liitsõnad) have 2 or more stems put together. Stems may be simple (nt, ice-cream, ice and cream are stems)
d)compound derivatives -2 stems joined and an affix is added to them both (nt, kind- heart -ed)
8. Affixation
Affixes are used to build new words and they have quite an abstract meaning (nt, mad-ness, ness is suffix)
Prefix – prefix plus stem (nt, verbs : to enrich, disagree; adj: antiwar, uneasy; noun : exwife) There are 25 prefixes that change the word to a different part of speech (nt, to debus – to get off the bus)
Suffixation – stem plus suffix (nt, hood plus child is childhood, friendship , readyness, government ).
New forming suffixes (-ance, -dom, -ee, -er, -ing, -ness)
Adj forming suffixes( suit -able, tempora -ry, beauti-ful, penny-less, famou-s)
numeral forming suffixes( four -teen, four-ty, fif-th)
Adverb forming suffixes( slow -ly, home-wards)
Affixes are dead – they are no longer felt as part of words(nt, dea-d, sai-l) and living (easyly recognized). Living affixes are non-productive (not used today but yet we may recognize them(nt, some- handsome , hood-childhood) and productive that are used at present (nt, de, re pre, non, un).
Affixes are native and borrowed. Native ones are those that existed in OE period (ish, dom, ful, teen). They used to be indipendent words. Foreign affixixes are viewed according to the lg they come from (nt, Latin- able; deca- dent , expect-ancy)
Hybrids are for example read plus able. Some words have elements that belong to different languages, they are hybrids. Diminutive suffixes express fondness or a small size (nt, daddy, booklet , pussykin). Derigatory express neg attitude (nt, gangster) . Negative prefixes are un, non, mis dis
9. composition ehk compound.
The pattern of composition is a combination of 2 or more stems. Compounds are spelt either as one word or with an hyphen. Compounds are completely motivated (nt, dining- room ), partly motivated (nt, flower -bed), absent (nt, fiddle, viiul ). Stress on the first part (nt, doorway); primary stress on the first part, secondary stress on the second part (nt, shop -keeper). The meaning comes from the meaning of its parts and also from the order (nt, life-boat, boat-life). The majority of compounds are nouns and adjectives.
Adj: noun plus adj (nt, skin - deep )
Noun plus numeral (nt, 7-day- vocation )
Adj plus adj (nt, light blue dress )
Noun plus participle 2 (nt, man-made)
Nouns:noun plus noun (nt, ash-tray)
Noun plus adj (nt, black board)
Noun plus gerund (nt, smoking room)
Noun plus verb (nt, search light)
For example: forget -me –not – formed a compound out of a sentence. It’s a syntactic word building (ehk compression)
Derivational compounds are compound derivatives (nt, black heared boy). Compounds may be based on reduplication (nt, hush -hush, murmur). Ironic words (nt, pretty -pretty), ablaut combinations – two parts with same consonant sounds but different vowels (nt, chit -chat – foolish talking). There is also rhyming combinations (hoity-toity)
10. Conversion is a non affixal formation of words. (zero derivation)
. Conversion is using a word of one part of speech as a word of some other part of speech. Words with complex structure are not converted as a rule . (nt, childhood, friendship)
Noun becomes a verb ( anger , to anger)- that’s the basic model of conversion
Adj becomes a verb (to thin , to slow, to equal)
Prep becomes a verb (to out, to down)
Prep becomes a noun (ups and downs)
Substantivation – Substantivation of adjectives is when nouns are converted from adjectives. They have the plural form and the posessive case . (nt, an alcoholic). Partial subst (nt, the rich , poor ) – subst is partial because these words do not take a new paradigm . They’re used with definite article and a collective meaning. Conversion is very productive because Engl is an analytical lg, the paradigms are simple and yet conversion is not absolutely productive. Traditional conversion is registred in the dictionaries. Occasional conv. takes place when writer wishes to be original . (nt, to brandy, to hm).
How do I know which word is the result of conversion? (nt, paper , to paper) Compare the number of menaings of both words. Paper (noun) has several meanings but to paper has only one. So the verb has been converted from the noun. The other option is to consult the historical dictionaries. Then later word is converted from the earlier one.
11. Back -formation
– new words are formed by taking away affixes. (nt, connection, to connect). This process is based on analogy. Back-form is word building and it means coining verbs. (nt, butcher, to butch; sculptor, to sculpt, television , to televise). Rarely some other parts of speech are found (nt, nasty, to nast )
12. Abbreviation .
Engl has a tendency to form short words. A new word is formed by shortening the stem. (nt, ad, advertisment; siss, sister; doc, doctor ). Are usually colloquial. If the shortened form is used more often than the long form, it becomes neutral (nt, phone , telephone ).
Abbr. Types of shortening:
*initial shortening- means dropping the first part (nt, telephone, phone)
* final shortening- second part dropped ( exam , examination)
*acronyms- words made up of initial letters (nt, USA, WC)
*ellipsis- shortening an expression (nt, bub, public house)
*syncope-dropping unstressed syllables in the middle of the word(mathS, mathematics)
13. Blending
it is joining 2 stems and dropping points of both(nt, smog – smoke plus fog, fringlish- french plus engl, motel- motorists plus hotel)It operates in colloquial engl. It is concidered a minor word building type. Yet new words appear today as well and it is quite productive. Blends began to appear in the 14th century . Nowadays blends are popular in newspapers and advertisments.
14. Words from the historical point of view.
Archaic words become archaic because there appears a new name for the object. Archaic words are used mainly in poetry to make the text more elevated and solemn. Lexical archaisms are first separate words(nt, behold, to see; stud , house; perchance, maybe). Grammatical archaisms are outdated gr endings(nt, thou knowest- you know). Althouhs arch words are not used widely, they may be used for the sake of humour or irony. Historisms are words that stand for objects that have dissapeared(nt, names of wapons: sword -mõõk, coat of mail-soomusrüü; names of musical instruments : loot- lauto , lyra-lüüra). New words include neologisms and nonce words: neologisms are words that appear to satisfy the needs of society. They stand for new things and concepts that appear due to the development of science and thought . (nt, lasor, computer, nuclear physics , high-fi).
*affixation-jawnee, deadee(surnu portree), to criminalise
*composition- vanity- surgery , idiot box
*conversion-to time-table, to beaver
*back formation- to sight see, to play act
*abbreviation- marvy-marvellous
*blending-botel(boat plus hotel), candygram(candy plus telegram)
Abstract neologisms are words in which no word building type is present. Random letters are put together. Nonce words are made up by the writer to sound original, expressive or humerous. (nt, togetherness, withness, to hamletize) Such words are not used by other people as a rule, but some words found their way to engl. (nt, snob- Thackery ).
Etymology has 2 meanings: the origin of words and it’s a branch of lexicology that studies the origin of words. Voc is divided into 2 cathegories:native and borrowings. A native w belongs to the original english stock . A borrowing is a word taken from another language. Modern Engl is the result of development of Germanic trikes(inimhulk) that settled on Br isles on 5-6 century, they wre Angles, Saxons, Jutes. In Middle Engl periods (11-15 cent )there were 5 mail dialects: Northen, East -central, west -central, south- western , kentish. The basis of E became the London dialect . Due to the importance of London as the capital, the London dialect spread over the country .
15. Sources of borrowing:
Latin, Old Scandinavian, French. Latin: there are 3 layers of Lain borrowings:1)these words stand for objects in everyday life (, nt pepper, plum, butter, wine , cup, dish , chalk, kitchen , street , mile, inch). 2)At the end of 6th cent christianity was introduced. Latin became the language of religion (nt, altar , angels, candle , devil , munk , nun, pope, preest) 3) During the Renaissance mainly abstract nouns and scientific words were borrowed (nt, conception, effect , idea, illusion , medium , necessity, decorate, illuminate, absolute, humaine,immidiate)
Old Scandinavian(12-14 cent) England had been constantly invaded(sisse tooma ) Norveigns, Danes, Sweeds. Especially strong was Danes influence (nt, anger, fellow, husband , sister; to die, to call , to raise; ill, low, odd, ugly ). A typical feature of Scandinavian words is –sk(sc) – skill, scare , scanty(kasin). French found their way to Engl from the Norman dialect. In 1066 Engl was conqured by the Normans. In the 9th cent they conqured the north of France and adopted the French lg and culture. The Normans occupied all the leading positions. The feudal nobility spoke Norman dialect, common people English , religious literature was written in Latin, fiction in French. French words reflect: 1)titles: prince , duke, sir, madam ; 2)family:parent, oncle, aunt ; 3) military : battle , arms, war, navy; 4)entertainment: pleasure, delight; 5)proffessions:taylor, painter , butcher; 6) time: hour , minute , second; 7)environment: river , mountain , soil. It is possible to trace borrowings to a definite period of time: *the twelfth cent borrowings: court, country, cabbage, prison ; *the thirteenth cent borrowings: accuse, poison , pure ; * 17th cent borr: capital, commerce, investment, bank ; * 18th cent borr: democrate, royalist, to terrorize.
16. Sources of borrowing
: Greek came mainly from Latin and France. There was great interest in Ancient literature and philosophy . English scolars borrowed words directly from Greek. They were bookish and scientific words. (nt, athlete, myth, enthusiasm ). The Dutch lg- ship building terms were borrowed in the middle ages (nt, deck , rift(hari), skipper, yacht. Italian – in the 16th cent Italic words penetrated into the Engl lg. Italy had a very developed culture (nt, violin, trio, piano, solo , libretto; studio , fresco, canto ) Also casino , macaroni, spaghetti , fascism. Spanish borrowings were borrowed directly(nt, banana, cocoa, tomato, burrito,mosquito).Portugese: cobra, emu, port, tank, veranda . Russian: ruble, verst, steppe, vodka, tiga, crash. German words were translated word for word (nt, chain -smoker, home-sickness, masterpiece, swan - song ; thing in itself, world outlook, world market ; kinderkarten, schnaps, sour kraut, deli). Non-European lg: Arabic words came in the middle ages through French (nt, algebra , alixir, hashish , harem, islam , sherbet). Hebrew or Old Jewish- words werw borrowed due to the translation of the bible (nt, hallelujah, Massiah). In the 17th cent England started to conqure other countrys such as India (nt, cashmere, nirvana , bungalo), Chinese (nt, gingseng, tea), Japanese (geisha, sushi , kimono, samurai , harakiri), North.Am Indians(moccasin, tomahawk, wigwam).
17. How to tell a borrowing from a native word?
The initial posistion of sounds may be important (nt, vacuum is Latin, valley is French, also genre . Combination of letters( ph, kh, aeu) speak about foreign origin(nt, philology, beautiful). Sometimes it is possible to tell the immediate source of borrowing (ch): maschine is French, echo is Greek; cheese, child is Latin or native. If a word has many syllables and the stress falls on the last one, we have a foreign word (nt, picturesque, magazine , cigarette ). Grammatical forms may be strange to English. We mean irregular plural forms of nouns (nt, datum – data, bacterium- bacteria )
18. Assimilation . Types of assim. Degree of assim.
We mean the changes that borrowings undergo(läbi elama) in English and how they adapt themselves its peculiarities. Types(?):phonetics that is changes in pronounciation. What was strange to English were replaced by other sounds (nt, phneumonia, psycology, ptolemy). Grammatical assimilation – Usually borrowings lost their former grammatical features, yet some have kept their original plural inflexion (nt, thesis). All borrowings with complex structure appeared in English as simple words (nt, umbrella , portpholio). Lexical assimilation(what happens to meaning)- words with many meanings are usually borrowed just in one meaning(spanish word cargo – good carried in a ship). Some meanings become more general(nt, umbrella). Sometimes primary meaning becomes secondary (nt, fellow ment conpagnon, now it’s a boy or a man). Degree of assimilation : this is the extent to which the word follows norms of English. There are: Completely assimilated words – they don’t differ from native words. We find them in older borrowings(nt, street, sister, nun). Such words are frequently used, they’re stilistically neutral, they take part in word building. (nt, master, -ly,-ful, mastermind ). Partial assimilation are divided into: 1)words are not assimilated semantically meaning they have a certain meaning (nt, sari, rikshaw) 2) words not assimilated gramatically(crises, bacillus-bacilli) 3)words not completely assimilated phonetically(nt, police , prestige, mascine). 4)words not assimilated grafically (nt, ballet, buffet, café). Barbarisms or unassimilated words – they sound strange. (nt, ciao). The degree of assimilation depends on the time of borrowing. The older the borrowing, the greater the degree. If borrowed words are widely used , they may be assimilated. (nt, clinic).
19. Words of native origin. Influence of borrowings.
Native words belong to very important semantic group ( modal verbs- shall , will, can, may; pronouns - I, you, he, my, his; preps- in, out, under; numerals and conjunctions (but, till , as. National words are head, arms, back; mother , brother , son, wife ; snow , rain, wind, sun; cat, sheep , cow; old, young, cold , hot, dark ; do, make, go, come, see. Many native words have developed many meanings (nt, hand, man, head). Most native words have become parts of set expression, borrowed words haven’t. (nt, heart- to break a heart, to take to heart, to have heart in one’s mouth). Most native words make up large groups of derived nad compound words(nt, heart-ly, heart-less, to heart-en, hard hearted, sad hearted)The native eliments play a very important role in English. Influence of borrowings – Some say that Engl lg was enriched mainly due to loan words. The first effects of foreign influences is of course the volume of vocabulary . Borrowings influence native words stilistically and semantically. If we have 2 words in the lg: one native, other borrowed, then they become different in meaning and usage (nt, to meet or to encounter - meaning’s the same, but stilistically different)Under the influence of borrowings native words narrowed their meaning (nt stool-iste, chair was borrowed, chair infuenced stool and it is now a taburet). Borrowings have influenced the Engl lg a lot yet native eliments should not be disregarded or overlooked.
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