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BOOKS (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
A book is a set or collection of written, printed , illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper , parchment, or other various material , usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf , and each side of a leaf is called a page. A book produced in electronic format is known as an electronic book (e-book).
Books may also refer to works of literature , or a main division of such a work . In library and information science , a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals or newspaper . The body of all written works including books is literature. In novels and sometimes other types of books (e.g. biographies), a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, etc.). A lover of books is usually referred to as a bibliophile, or, more informally, a bookworm.
A store where books are bought and sold is a bookstore or bookshop. Books can also be borrowed from libraries .
In 2010, Google estimated that there were approximately 130 million unique books in the world.

Etymology

The word book comes from Old English "bōc" which itself comes from the Germanic root "*bōk-", cognate to beech. Similarly , in Slavic languages (e.g. Russian , Bulgarian and Macedonian) "буква" (bukva—" letter ") is cognate to "beech". It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood . Similarly, the Latin word codex , meaning a book in the modern sense ( bound and with separate leaves), originally meant "block of wood".

History of books

Antiquity

Sumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400 –2200 BC
When writing system were invented in ancient civilization, nearly everything that could be written upon —stone, clay, tree bark , metal sheets—was used for writing. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt about 5,000 years ago. The Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus , a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from each other (scriptura continua) and there was no punctuation. Texts were written from right to left , left to right, and even so that alternate lines read in opposite directions. The technical term for this type of writing is 'boustrophedon,' which means literally 'ox-turning' for the way a farmer drives an ox to plough his fields.

Scroll

Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart .
Papyrus, a thick paper-like material made by weaving the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool , was used for writing in Ancient Egypt, perhaps as early as the First Dynasty, although the first evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC). Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. Tree bark such as lime (Latin liber , from which also comes library) and other materials were also used.
According to Herodotus (History 5:58), the Phoenicians brought writing and papyrus to Greece around the 10th or 9th century BC. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (biblion) and book (biblos) come from the Phoenician port town Byblos, through which papyrus was exported to Greece. From Greek we also derive the word tome (Greek: τόμος), which originally meant a slice or piece and from there began to denote "a roll of papyrus". Tomus was used by the Latins with exactly the same meaning as volumen.
Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman , Chinese , and Hebrew cultures . The more modern codex book format form took over the Roman world by late antiquity, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia .

Codex

Woman holding a book (or wax tablets ) in the form of the codex. Wall painting from Pompeii , before 79 AD.
Papyrus scrolls were still dominant in the 1st century AD, as witnessed by the findings in Pompeii. The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from Martial, in his Apophoreta CLXXXIV at the end of the century, where he praises its compactness. However the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use. This change happened gradually during the 3rd and 4th centuries , and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the format is more economical, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it is portable , searchable, and easy to conceal. The Christian authors may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan texts written on scrolls.
A Chinese bamboo book
Wax tablets were the normal writing material in schools, in accounting , and for taking notes. They had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted, and reformed into a blank. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman pugillares) is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex). The etymology of the word codex (block of wood) also suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.
In the 5th century, Isidore of Seville explained the relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (codex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock , because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches."

Middle Ages

Manuscripts

Folio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (capsa), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals.
The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century A.D. saw the decline of the culture of ancient Rome. Papyrus became difficult to obtain due to lack of contact with Egypt, and parchment, which had been used for centuries, became the main writing material.
Monasteries carried on the Latin writing tradition in the Western Roman Empire. Cassiodorus, in the monastery of Vivarium ( established around 540), stressed the importance of copying texts. St. Benedict of Nursia , in his Regula Monachorum (completed around the middle of the 6th century) later also promoted reading. The Rule of St. Benedict (Ch. XLVIII), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the Middle Ages and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged.
Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand , which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only a few dozen books, medium -sized perhaps a few hundred . By the 9th century, larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in Avignon and Paris library of Sorbonne held only around 2,000 volumes.
Burgundian author and scribe Jean Miélot, from his Miracles de Notre Dame, 15th century.
The scriptorium of the monastery was usually located over the chapter house. Artificial light was forbidden for fear it may damage the manuscripts. There were five types of scribes:

• Calligraphers, who dealt in fine book production
  
• Copyists, who dealt with basic production and correspondence
  
• Correctors, who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced
  
• Illuminators, who painted illustrations
  
• Rubricators, who painted in the red letters
  

The bookmaking process was long and laborious. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead , after which the text was written by the scribe, who usually left blank areas for illustration and rubrication. Finally , the book was bound by the bookbinder.
Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy .
Different types of ink were known in antiquity, usually prepared from soot and gum, and later also from gall nuts and iron vitriol. This gave writing a brownish black color, but black or brown were not the only colors used. There are texts written in red or even gold , and different colors were used for illumination. Sometimes the whole parchment was colored purple , and the text was written on it with gold or silver (for example, Codex Argenteus).
Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the 7th century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However, the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before the 12th century. It has been argued that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading.
The first books used parchment or vellum (calf skin ) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather . Because dried parchment tends to assume the form it had before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During the later Middle Ages, when public libraries appeared , up to 18th century, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft . These chained books are called libri catenati.
At first, books were copied mostly in bars , one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the Manuscript culture of the time led to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (pecia), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular stationers guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.
Judaism has kept the art of the scribe alive up to the present . According to Jewish tradition, the Torah scroll placed in a synagogue must be written by hand on parchment, and a printed book would not do, though the congregation may use printed prayer books, and printed copies of the Scriptures are used for study outside the synagogue. A sofer (scribe) is a highly respected member of any observant Jewish community.

Paper books

The Arabs revolutionised the book's production and it’s binding in the medieval Islamic world. They were the first to produce paper books after they learnt papermaking from the Chinese in the 8th century. Particular skills were developed for script writing (Arabic calligraphy), miniatures and bookbinding. The people who worked in making books were called Warraqin or paper professionals. The Arabs made books lighter—sewn with silk and bound with leather covered paste boards, they had a flap that wrapped the book up when not in use. As paper was less reactive to humidity, the heavy boards were not needed. The production of books became a real industry and cities like Marrakech, Morocco, had a street named Kutubiyyin or book sellers which contained more than 100 bookshops in the 12th century; the famous Koutoubia Mosque is named so because of its location in this street. In the words of Don Baker :
The world of Islam has produced some of the most beautiful books ever created. The need to write down the Revelations which the Prophet Muhammad, may peace be upon him, received , fostered the desire to beautify the object which conveyed these words and initiated this ancient craft. Nowhere else, except perhaps in China , has writing been held in such high esteem. Splendid illumination was added with gold and vibrant colours, and the whole book contained and protected by beautiful bookbindings.
The medieval Islamic world also developed a unique method of reproducing reliable copies of a book in large quantities, known as check reading, in contrast to the traditional method of a single scribe producing only a single copy of a single manuscript, as was the case in other societies at the time. In the Islamic check reading method, only "authors could authorize copies, and this was done in public sessions in which the copyist read the copy aloud in the presence of the author, who then certified it as accurate." With this check-reading system, "an author might produce a dozen or more copies from a single reading," and with two or more readings, "more than one hundred copies of a single book could easily be produced."
Modern paper books are printed on papers which are designed specifically for the publication of printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off white or low white papers ( easier to read), are opaque to minimize the show through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (usually) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for case bound books. Typically , books papers are light weight papers 60 to 90 g/m² and often specified by their caliper/substance ratios ( volume basis ). For example, a bulky 80 g/m² paper may have a caliper of 120 micrometers (0.12 mm) which would be Volume 15 (120×10/80) where as a low bulk 80 g/m² may have a caliper of 88 micrometers, giving a volume 11. This volume basis then allows the calculation of books PPI (printed pages per inch ) which is an important factor for the design of book jackets and the binding of the finished book. Different paper qualities are used as book paper depending on type of book: Machine finished coated papers, wood free uncoated papers, coated fine papers and special fine papers are common paper grades.

Wood block printing

The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang Dynasty China, 868 AD ( British Museum )
In woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. This method originated in China, in the Han dynasty (before 220AD), as a method of printing on textiles and later paper, and was widely used throughout East Asia. The oldest dated book printed by this method is The Diamond Sutra (868 AD).
The method (called Woodcut when used in art) arrived in China in the early 14th century. Books (known as block-books), as well as playing -cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page; and the wood blocks tended to crack, if stored for long. The monks or people who wrote them were paid highly.

Movable type and incunabula

"Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters", the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque nationale de France .
The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045 , but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Metal movable type was invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty (around 1230), but was not widely used: one reason being the enormous Chinese character set. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe , along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce, and more widely available .
A 15th century incunabulum. Notice the blind -tooled cover , corner bosses and clasps.
Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before the year 1501 in Europe are known as incunabula. A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330.

Modern world

Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour , but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour.
Monotype and linotype typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once .
The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws . See also intellectual property, public domain , copyright . In mid- 20th century, European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.

Book structure

Scheme of common book design

Belly band

Flap

Endpaper

Book cover

Top edge

Fore edge

Tail edge

Right page, recto

Left page, verso

Gutter
The common structural parts of a book include :

• Front cover: hardbound or softcover (paperback); the spine is the binding that joins the front and rear covers where the pages hinge.
  
• Front endpaper
  
• Flyleaf: The blank leaf or leaves following the front free endpaper.
  
• Front matter
  
  • Frontispiece
    
  • Title page
    
  • Copyright page: typically verso of title page: shows copyright owner / date , credits, edition /printing, cataloguing details
    
  • Table of contents
    
  • List of figures
    
  • List of tables
    
  • Dedication
    
  • Acknowledgments
    
  • Foreword
    
  • Preface
    
  • Introduction
    

• Body: the text or contents, the pages often collected or folded into signatures; the pages are usually numbered sequentially, and often divided into chapters.
  
• Back matter
  
  • Appendix
    
  • Glossary
    
  • Index
    
  • Notes
    
  • Bibliography
    
  • Colophon
    
• Flyleaf: The blank leaf or leaves (if any) preceding the back free endpaper.
  
• Rear endpaper
  
• Rear cover
  

Binding of a book from separate papers
A bookmark is a thin marker , commonly made of paper or card, used to keep one's place in a book. Bookmarks were used throughout the medieval period , consisting usually of a small parchment strip attached to the edge of folio (or a piece of cord attached to headband). Bookmarks in the 18th and 19th centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound into the book and become widespread in the 1850s. They were usually made from silk, embroidered fabrics or leather. Not until the 1880s did paper and other materials become more common.
Some large reference books such as dictionaries may have a thumb index which is a round cutout in the pages with some printing, allowing the user to see approximately where the wanted entry may be, and open the book to the appropriate section , without looking at the table of context , or index.
The process of physically assembling a book from a number of folded or unfolded sheets of paper is bookbinding.

Sizes

Real- size facsimile of Codex Gigas
The world's largest book
The size of a modern book is based on the printing area of a common flatbed press. The pages of type were arranged and clamped in a frame , so that when printed on a sheet of paper the full size of the press, the pages would be right side up and in order when the sheet was folded, and the folded edges trimmed.

Types of books

Types of books according to their contents

A common separation by content are fiction and non-fictional books. By no means are books limited to this classification , but it is a separation that can be found in most collections, libraries, and bookstores.

Fiction

Many of the books published today are fictitious stories . They are in- part or completely untrue or fantasy. Historically, paper production was considered too expensive to be used for entertainment. An increase in global literacy and print technology led to the increased publication of books for the purpose of entertainment, and allegorical social commentary . Most fiction is additionally categorized by genre.
The novel is the most common form of fictional book. Novels are stories that typically feature a plot , setting , themes and characters . Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical, serious or controversial. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and publishing markets. A novella is a term sometimes used for fictional prose typically between 17,500 and 40,000 words, and a novelette between 7,500 and 17,500. A Short story may be any length up to 10,000 words, but these word lengths are not universally established.
Comic books or graphic novels are books in which the story is not told , but illustrated.

Non-fiction

In a library, a reference book is a general type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a story, essay , commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view. An almanac is a very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists of data and information on many topics. An encyclopedia is a book or set of books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book listing words, their etymology, meanings, and other information is called a dictionary. A book which is a collection of maps is an atlas . A more specific reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for professional use, is often called a handbook . Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain broad area may be called an index, such as Engineering Index, or abstracts such as chemical abstracts and biological abstracts.
An atlas
Books with technical information on how to do something or how to use some equipment are called instruction manuals. Other popular how-to books include cookbooks and home improvement books.
Students typically store and carry textbooks and schoolbooks for study purposes . Elementary school pupils often use workbooks, which are published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or homework.
There is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas , notes, and accounts . These books are rarely published and are typically destroyed or remain private. Notebooks are blank papers to be written in by the user. Students and writers commonly use them for taking notes. Scientists and other researchers use lab notebooks to record their notes. They often feature spiral coil bindings at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out.
A Telephone Directory, with business and residence listings.
Address books, phone books, and calendar /appointment books are commonly used on a daily basis for recording appointments, meetings and personal contact information.
Books for recording periodic entries by the user, such as daily information about a journey, are called logbooks or simply logs. A similar book for writing the owner's daily private personal events , information, and ideas is called a diary or personal journal .
Businesses use accounting books such as journals and ledgers to record financial data in a practice called bookkeeping.

Other types

There are several other types of books which are not commonly found under this system. Albums are books for holding a group of items belonging to a particular theme, such as a set of photographs, card collections, and memorabilia. One common example is stamp albums, which are used by many hobbyists to protect and organize their collections of postage stamps. Such albums are often made using removable plastic pages held inside in a ringed binder or other similar smolder.
Hymnals are books with collections of musical hymns that can typically be found in churches. Prayerbooks or missals are books that contain written prayers and are commonly carried by monks, nuns, and other devoted followers or clergy.

Types of books according to their binding or cover

Hardcover books
Paperback books
Hardcover books have a stiff binding. Paperback books have cheaper , flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral-bound books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. Examples of spiral-bound books include: teachers' manuals and puzzle books (crosswords, sudoku).
Publishing is a process for producing pre-printed books, magazines, and newspapers for the reader/user to buy.
Publishers may produce low- cost , pre-publication copies known as galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale .

Collections of books

Celsus Library was built in 135 A.D. and could house around 12,000 scrolls.
Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) first appeared in classical Greece. In ancient world the maintaining of a library was usually (but not exclusively ) the privilege of a wealthy individual . These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for people who were interested in using them. The difference from a modern public library lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources . It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the 3rd century there were around 30 public libraries. Public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient Mediterranean region (e.g. Library of Alexandria). Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.
The beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate books to towns. The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a private library built in their homes .
The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.
In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as " Crown 8vo" to indicate the paper size from which the book is made.
When rows of books are lined on a book holder , bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.

Identification and classification

During the 20th century, librarians were concerned about keeping track of the many books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), they devised a series of tools including the International Standard Bibliographic Description ( ISBD ).
ISBN number with barcode
Each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number (ISBN), which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide . It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a check digit, and can take values from 0–9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit.
Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions . However many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs.
A large or public collection requires a catalogue . Codes called " call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves. Call numbers are based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom , and inside.
Institutional or national standards, such as ANSI/NISO Z39.41 - 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the title, or the name of the author) on book spines, and on "shelvable" book-like objects, such as containers for DVDs, video tapes and software.
Books on library shelves with bookends, and call numbers visible on the spines
One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the Dewey Decimal System. This system has fallen out of use in some places , mainly because of a Eurocentric bias and other difficulties applying the system to modern libraries. However, it is still used by most public libraries in America. The Library of Congress Classification system is more popular in university libraries.
Information about books and authors can be stored in databases like online general- interest book databases.
Metadata about a book may include its ISBN or other classification number (see above ), the names of contributors (author, editor , illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, and the language of the text.

Classification systems

• Bliss bibliographic classification (BC)
  
• Chinese Library Classification (CLC)
  
• Colon Classification
  
• Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
  
• Harvard-Yenching Classification
  
• Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
  
• New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries
  
• Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
  

Paper and conservation issues

Halfbound book with leather and marbled paper.
Though papermaking in Europe had begun around the 11th century, up until the beginning of 16th century vellum and paper were produced congruent to one another , vellum being the more expensive and durable option . Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market.
Paper was first made in China, as early as 200 B.C., and reached Europe through Muslim territories. At first made of rags, the industrial revolution changed paper-making practices , allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp.
Paper made from wood pulp became popular in the early 20th century, because it was cheaper than linen or abaca cloth-based papers. Pulp-based paper made books less expensive to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialized nations, and enabled the spread of information during the Second Industrial Revolution.
However pulp paper contained acid that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers, which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or alkaline paper. Libraries today have to consider mass deacidification of their older collections.
Stability of the climate is critical to the long-term preservation of paper and book material. Good air circulation is important to keep fluctuation in climate stable. The HVAC system should be up to date and functioning efficiently . Light is detrimental to collections. Therefore , care should be given to the collections by implementing light control . General housekeeping issues can be addressed, including pest control. In addition to these helpful solutions , a library must also make an effort to be prepared if a disaster occurs, one that they cannot control. Time and effort should be given to create a concise and effective disaster plan to counteract any damage incurred through “ acts of god” therefore a emergency management plan should be in place.
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