Individual Differences ( Differential Psychology)Psychology 1 It is generally assumed that:
Differential Psychology• People
vary on a range of psychological attributes
Ian Deary
• It is possible to
measure and
study these individual differences
• Individual differences are useful for explaining and predicting
behaviour and
performance Differential psychology readingHumanHuman•
GeneralPersonality Intelligence– Schacter, D. et al. (2012).
Psychology.
–
Chapters 13 (personality) and 9 (intelligence).
–
READ these Chapters!Psychology•
Personality extra readingDifferentialDevelopmental– Funder, D.C. (2010).
The Personality Puzzle (5th edition ). New
York : Norton. (Earlier editions are fine.)
Perception Biological •
Intelligence extra reading Cognitive – Deary, I.J. (2013).
Intelligence.
Current Biology,
23, 673-676.
( Memory ) Social – Deary, I.J. (2001).
Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction.
Oxford :
Methodology CognitiveOxford
University Press.
( Language
and thinking )PersonalityPersonality“
characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour,
together with the psychological mechanisms—
hidden or not—
NomotheticIdiographicbehind those patterns.”
David Funder
Trait Psycho -
Humanistic
Social
The Personality Puzzletheories
analytic
-cognitive
Page
Nomothetic approach : Traits Idiographic approaches:psychoanalytic, humanistic, and behavioural/cognitive•
Nomothetic: relating to, involving, or dealing with general or
universal statements or
laws •
Idiographic: relating to or dealing with
something , concrete,
individual or
unique • All people are
described on
same set of dimensions (traits), but
will
differ by
degree • Theories propose that
person develops in conjunction with own
individual
experience •
Usually measured by questionnaire; descriptive
• ‘Why and how’ of
development are
important • ‘Why and how’ are not so important
• Standard
measures difficult or impossible to obtain
Measuring PersonalityPersonality•
Self- report tests – Questionnaires (yes/no, true-false,
agree -disagree)
NomotheticIdiographic– Adjectives
– E.g. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (Schacter p. 492)
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
•
Rating scalesTrait
theories
analytic
-cognitive
– As
above , completed by
others •
Projective tests– Inkblots (Rorschach)
Eysenck Freud Maslow Bandura – Thematic Apperception Test
Cattell Rogers Rotter
Big
Five Mischel
•
Objective tests (limited success) – Behavioural (
amount of laughter, rapid/inaccurate
responses )
– Physiological (heart
rate , skin conductance,
brain imaging)
Personality traitsDeveloping a satisfactory personality trait theory• A characteristic or distinguishing feature
• Consistent
ways of thinking, behaving, or feeling
• Trait ‘theories’ are classifications of people’s
characteristics • Can’t be accepted at face
value • People can be placed on a continuum (e.g. extraversion-introversion)
•
Needs to be a
scientific approach to understand their
nature Key Assumptions• Stability: a person’s level on a trait is relatively stable over time
• Differences:
composition of dispositions varies from person to person
• Causation: trait differences cause differences in behaviours
Page
The Grandfathers of Trait TheoryStructure of personality descriptors Allport and Odbert (1936)•
Found 17,953
words to describe behavioural and psychological
Dimensions (traits!)characteristics
(e.g. introversion-extraversion)
•
Examples of trait
terms :
Shy
Anxious
Trait ( facet )Trustworthy
Witty
(e.g. shy,
rigid )
Kind
Extravert
Conscientious
Worrier
• Condensed the list to 4,500 trait terms and arranged in meaningful
Habitual response patternssubsets
(e.g. don’t like parties;
• Cattell condensed
further to form questionnaires
based on these
don’t act on impulse)
Specific responses(individual
bits of behaviour)
This is Hans Eysenck’s model.
CorrelationMMajor personality trait theories??•
Eysenck’s three factor /dimension model?–
Neuroticism , extraversion, psychoticism
•
Five Factor Model ( Costa & McCrae ; Goldberg)– Neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness, conscientiousness
???•
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors– Warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance,
liveliness,
rule conscious , social boldness,
sensitivity ,
vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension,
openness to
change , self-reliance, perfectionism, tension
Read sections of Schacter’s book on:
correlation, pp. 55-63; and factor
analysis , pp. 495-496.
A bit about factor analysis…Factor analysis of multiple scales: exampleM(Schacter pp. 495-496)Factor 1Factor 2Factor 3• Administer questionnaires to a large group
Hardworking
Industrious•
Factor analysis: test for which
items group together with the others
by
looking at the correlations
between items
Conscientious
Meticulous• Groups of
similar items are
known as factors
Compassionate• Decisions about the number of factors can vary: hence, researchers
Tender-heartedhave
ended up with
different ‘solutions’ to the problem of personality
Lovingdescription Mild
Brainy
Knowledgeable
Wise
IntelligentFrom Matthews, Deary &
Whiteman (2009)
Personality Traits (3rd Edn).
Cambridge University Press.
Page
Cattell’s 16 Basic TraitsCattell’s (1905-1998) Personality Theory Outgoing —reservedMore intelligent—less intelligent•
OriginsEmotionally stable—unstable– Personality trait terms in the language
Assertive—humble» lexicon of trait descriptive words
Cheerful— sober » personality questionnaire items
Strong conscience— lack of internal standards•
Test developmentAdventuresome—shy– revisions of the 16PF
Tough minded —tender-minded– widely used in selection and
clinical work Trusting—suspicious•
CommentsImaginative— practical – can be reduced to fewer, broader dimensions
Shrewd—forthright– 16 factors seldom found in factor analyses
Guilt- prone —resilientRadical—conservativeGroup-dependent—self-sufficientUndisciplined—controlledRelaxed—tenseEysenck’s (1916-1997) Trait TheoryEysenck’s Personality TheoryDimensionConstituent Traits (correlated)•
Biological bases of traits– E: and cerebral cortex arousal levels
Neuroticism
Anxious, depressed, guilty,
– N: and autonomic nervous system reactivity
low self-
esteem ,
moody , etc.
•
Clinical & social relevanceExtraversion
Sociable,
lively , assertive,
– N: proneness to neuroses,
anxiety and
depression sensation-seeking, etc.
– P: proneness to psychoses,
antisocial behaviour, & drug addiction
Psychoticism
Aggressive ,
cold ,
•
Universalityegocentric,impersonal,
impulsive, anti-social,
– same dimensions found in over 20 different
cultures /
languages creative , etc.
Eysenck’s Three Factor TheoryHippocrates & Galen: the four humoursUnstable
Neuroticism
Melancholic
Choleric
Introversion
Extraversion
Introverted
Extraverted
Phlegmatic
Sanguine
Psychoticism
Stability
Stable
Page
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R)Five-factor model
Sample questions (from 100)Paul Costa & Robert McCrae (from 1985 to
date )
•
Neuroticism– do you often feel ‘just miserable’ for no
reason ?
•
OCEAN– do you
worry about your health?
•
Extraversion• O penness
– can you get a
party going ?
• C onscientiousness
– do
other people think of you as being very lively?
• E xtraversion
•
Psychoticism• A greeableness
– would being in
debt worry you?
• N euroticism
– would you like other people to be afraid of you?
•
Lie Scale – do you always wash
before a meal?
– have you ever cheated in a
game ?
The Five Factor ModelEvidence for the Five Factor Model“The five factor model has
provided a unified
• Different personality schemes (theory-based questionnaires)
contain framework for trait research: it is the
Christmas tree
factors closely
related to the big five
on which findings of stability, heritability, consensual
– Costa and McCrae
validation,
cross -cultural invariance and predictive
utility are hung like ornaments.”
• The same personality questionnaire gives the same traits in different
languages – e.g. NEO-PI
Paul Costa (1993)• Different languages and cultures tend to contain personality
adjectives that
cluster into five groups (usually N, E, O, A, C)
– Goldberg
NEO-Personality Inventory-RevisedFive Factor Model: personality-related adjectives as (Costa & McCrae)
markers of the Big Five traits (Goldberg)•
EXTRAVERSION:
Bold , extraverted, -introverted, -quiet, -reserved, -
N
E
O
A
C
shy, talkative, -timid, -untalkative, -withdrawn
AnxietyWarmth Fantasy TrustCompetenceAngry GregariousAesthetics Straight -Order•
EMOTIONAL STABILITY: anxious, emotional, envious, fearful,
highly hostility forward strung, irritable, jealous, moody, self-pitying, touchy
DepressionAssertive Feelings Altruism Dutifulness•
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS:-careless, -disorganised, efficient, -inefficient,
neat , organised, -sloppy, systematic, thorough, -unsystematic
Self-Activity Actions Compliant Achievement consciousstriving•
AGREEABLENESS: -cold, considerate, -harsh, kind, -
rude ,
Impulsive Excitement Ideas ModestySelf disciplinesympathetic, -unco-operative, -unkind, -unsympathetic,
warm seekingVulnerable Positive Values Tender- Deliberation •
INTELLECT:
artistic ,
complex , creative, deep, imaginative,
emotionmindedphilosophical, -uncreative, -unimaginative, -unintellectual, -unintelligent
Page
Stability of personality traitsHeritability and the five factor model of personality Genetic • Overall stability of traits for
average period of 6.7
years as follows
contribution – Childhood = .31
Extraversion 36-49%
– College years = .54
– Age 30 = .64
Neuroticism 31-41%
–
Ages 50 to 70 = .74
Conscientiousness 28-35%
Agreeableness 28-35%
Openness 45-46%
Matthews, Deary & Whiteman (2009)
Personality Traits (Ch. 3). Cambridge University Press.
Matthews, Deary & Whiteman (2009)
Personality Traits (Ch. 6). Cambridge University Press.
Biological bases of personality trait differences(Schacter pp. 498-501)•
Genes and environment
– usually
twin studies
– also now ‘genome-
wide association studies’ using DNA
• Personality of
animals • Brain
basis of traits
– E.g., Eysenck’s arousal ideas
– More recently research uses
functional magnetic resonance brain
imaging
Plomin et al. (2008)
Behavioral Genetics (5th Edition). Worth Publishers.
Neuroticism and Health Outcomes• Anxiety & depression,
sexual problems,
poor body image ,
cognitive failures, driver
stress , emotion-oriented coping,
physical symptoms
• “It is now well established that people who are neurotic
—often
anxious, occasionally depressed, regularly disgruntled—are
more likely to report feeling lousy and to
seek medical care.”
– Paul Costa
Page
Personality traits and ‘consequential outcomes’(Schacter p. 497-498) Early Lowest N40s•
Subjective wellbeing:
higher E,
lower N
•
Physical health: not up to date
Late•
Friends : higher E, higher A
60s•
Job performance: higher C
Highest NWeiss,
Gale , Batty & Deary (2009)
Psychosomatic Medicine,
71, 385-394.
Vietnam Experience Study.
PersonalityNomotheticIdiographicTrait
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
theories
analytic
-cognitive
Eysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
Big Five
Mischel
Friedman et al. (1993)
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
65, 176-185.
Basics of Freudian psychoanalytic theory: 4 assumptionsFreud: landmarks 1. Psychic
Determinism •
1856 - Born in Freiberg, Moravia
•
1860 - Family settles in
Vienna 2. Internal structure of the mind
•
1881 - Graduates in medicine
•
1884-87 - Research on clinical uses of cocaine
3. Psychic conflict
•
1887-88 -
Begins to use hypnosis in hysteria
•
1893 - Publishes
trauma theory of hysteria &
4.
Mental energy (‘
libido ’)
cathartic treatment
Page
Freud: landmarksFreud: Basic theses of psychoanalysis•
1896 - Introduces term ‘psychoanalysis’
• “mental
processes are in themselves unconscious and that of all
mental life it is only certain individual acts and portions that are
•
1900 - ‘The
Interpretation of Dreams’
conscious”
•
1901 - ‘The psychopathology of Everyday Life’
•
1906 -
Jung begins psychoanalysis
• “instinctual impulses can only be described as sexual, both in the
•
1909 - to USA to lecture
narrower and wider
sense of the word, play an extremely large and
•
1914 - secession of Jung
never hitherto appreciated
part in the causation of nervous and
mental diseases”
•
1923 - Division of mind into Id, Ego,
Superego •
1939 -
Death in London
Freud: Key themes Freud’s Structure of Mind•
Structure of mind•
Id– Entirely unconscious. Irrational and emotional part of the mind.
– Id, Ego & Superego
Consists of basic needs and feelings. Operates via the “
pleasure •
Psychosexual development theoryprinciple”.
– Oral, Anal, Phallic,
Latency and
Genital stages
•
Ego•
Methods of inquiry –
Partly conscious. Deals with
reality by conscious perception,
– Parapraxes
reasoning, problem-solving, etc. Operates via the “reality
–
Dream analyses
principle”. Regulates internal forces by defence mechanisms.
– Free association
•
Superego– Transference
– Partly conscious. Moral part of the mind. Internal representation of
•
Mechanisms of defencethe
ideals learned from parents and society. The source of guilt
(conscience).
– E.g.
Repression , Projection, Intellectualisation, Denial
Examples of Freudian ConflictsEnvironmentConflictExampleRealistic anxietyId vs.
egoDelayed gratification
EgoId vs.
superegoAdmit to undercharging
Moralistic anxietyNeurotic anxietyEgo vs. superego
Telling a white lie
SuperegoIdPage
Freudian Ego Defence MechanismsFreud: Description of PersonalityPurpose : to defend against anxiety produced by psychic conflict
"...basically a battlefield. He is a
dark -cellar in which
a well-bred spinster
lady [the superego] and a sex-
Repressioncrazed
monkey [the id] are
forever engaged in
mortal combat, the
struggle being refereed by a
Projection
rather nervous
bank clerk [the ego]."
Reaction formation
Denial
Don Bannister (clinical psychologist)
Sublimation
Intellectualisation
many more…
Freud’s psychosexual Theory of Personality DevelopmentFreud’s methods of inquiry•
Oral stage (0-18 months)
– Early: sucking and swallowing (passive)
• Free association
–
Later : biting and chewing (more aggressive)
•
Anal stage (18-36 months)
• Transference
– Expressive period: excreting
faeces • Parapraxes
– Retentive period: retaining faeces
•
Phallic stage (3-6 years)
• Dream analysis
– Oedipus complex (
boys ); Electra complex (
girls )
•
Latency period (6 years-puberty)
– Sexual instincts become submerged for
several years
•
Genital stage (puberty)
Read up on pp. 506-508 of Schacter.
Freud: ParapraxesExamples of parapraxes• Slips of the tongue
•
Forgetting• Mishearing
– e.g. the date of an
exam or a
deadline • Misreading or misspelling
•
Slips• Temporary forgetting
– Accidentally breaking something which belongs to someone
• Mislaying
else —leakage of hostility
• Some (most?) examples have a ‘sense,’ ‘intention’ or ‘purpose’
– arise from competing intentions
– ‘disturbed’ and ‘disturbing’ intentions
– “often used to fulfil wishes which one ought to deny oneself”
Page
Freud: ParapraxesFreud – Dreams• Social democratic
newspaper describes Kronprinz (Crown
Prince ) as
• “The
royal road to the unconscious”
– Kornprinz (
corn -)
• Guardians of
sleep – Knorprintz (protruberance-)
• Manifest dream content
•
Professor ’s lecture
• Dream work
– “with regard to the
female genitals in spite of many Versuchungen;
• Latent content
I beg your pardon, Versuche”
– Sensory stimulation
» Versuchungen = temptations
– Current
concerns » Versuche = experiments
– Unconscious impulses of the id
•
Woman to
doctor – “My
husband asked his doctor what
diet he ought to
follow ; but the
doctor told him he had no need to diet; he
could eat and
drink what I want”
Freud – Dream SymbolsFreud: Criticisms• Over
emphasis on sexual drive
•
Not a wide range• Concepts poorly defined
• Lack of scientific proof
• Human body =
houses – Ambiguous terms
• Parents =
King /queen;
emperor /empress, etc.
– Metaphors
•
Children and siblings = vermin
• Difficult to test or refute; ‘explains everything’
• Birth = water
• Neglects social nature of
humans • Death = departure
• Case study
method • Nakedness = Clothes &
uniforms – Select sample; recall
bias , influenced patients
•
Little proven success as
therapy After Freud…Freud: positive aspects• Neo-analytic theorists:
Adler , Horney,
Erikson , Jung, etc.
•
Complete theory of personality
• Too little on culture and social factors; too much infantile sexuality
• Emphasises
role of unconscious mind and early life
experiences •
Erikson: personality develops
through life: specific, age-related
challenges
• Ego defence mechanisms
•
Adler: motivation of social
interest ;
idea of inferiority complex
• Interest in treatment of mental
disorders •
Jung: libido not just sexuality; collective unconscious
Page
PersonalityHumanistic Approach(NB existential/phenomenological)NomotheticIdiographic•
Psychodynamic– looks on people as having problems
Trait
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
•
Behaviouristtheories
analytic
-cognitive
– people as robots to stimuli
•
TraitEysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
– pigeon-holing and lack of richness
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
Big Five
Mischel
• Need to emphasise
growth and potential in the person’s personality
Humanistic ApproachHumanistic Approach: Basic assumptions(existential/phenomenological)• Three closely-related approaches
• Emphasis on the individual’s self
concept •
Phenomenology• Human
choice , creativity and self actualisation are important
• the study of conscious experience
• Meaning precedes objectivity in research
•
Existentialism• Value is placed on the
dignity of the person
• philosophy emphasising personal choice and the
importance of
existence ‘now’ rather
than what was past or what might be in
• Need to emphasise growth and potential in the person’s personality
future
•
Humanistic approach• focuses on uniquely human experience; on human potential for
growth
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Carl Rogers: Person-centred theoryPerson-centred theory•
Self congruence•
Actualisation– Congruence between the
ideal and actual self
– all humans
motivated to “expand, extend, become
– Congruence between ideal self and experience
autonomous,
develop , mature”
– Incongruence leads to defence
– i.e. all motivated by a
single positive force
– Criticism only for specific bad behaviour
– all aim to actualise inner benign potentials
– Introjection of
conditions of worth
– cruel, destructive behaviour usually due to
external forces
–
Condition positive regard puts one at
odds with true self
•
Need for positive regard– Q-sort
– especially from significant others
•
Fully functioning person– no conditions of worth
– becomes learned need for positive self-regard
– unconditional positive self-regard
– biggest impediment to actualisation
– self is congruent with totality of experience
– unconditional positive regard from parents helps
– “live wholly and freely in each moment”
development of the self-concept
– El
Greco , Hemmingway,
Einstein Page
Rogers: client -centred therapyRogers: research relevant to his ideas…• Therapist creates safe atmosphere; to (re-)obtain unconditional
• Research on self-esteem
positive self-regard
• Stable
– Genuine acceptance, expression of unconditional positive regard,
• Related to important life outcomes
empathy
• Is it just Neuroticism in disguise?
– Non-judgmental
– Reduces anxiety; can start to experience denied feelings and
express true desires; therapist as
mirror • Research on self-verification/self-enhancement
– Helps client to stop trying to act to fulfil conditions of worth (to
recognise this)
• The positive psychology
movement – Does it work?
– Self-concept: Ideal and actual self
Description of needsMaslow (1908–1970)•
Self-actualisation•
Other schemes emphasise deficiency needs- Becoming fully self;
learning who that is
– behaviour/personality as escape from ‘deficiency’
•
Aesthetic– D motives
- Symmetry, order,
beauty •
But humans do things for positive purposes•
Cognitive– humans seek positive, enriching experiences
- knowing, understanding, exploring
– curiosity, unselfish giving of love
•
Esteem– B motives
- Competence,
approval , recognition; self and others
•
Devised a hierarchy of needs•
Belongingness and love – strive for higher
ones ...
- Affiliation and acceptance – similar to
Roger ’s positive regard
– ...after lower-order ones are met
•
Safety - Shelter, comfort, security,
freedom from
fear and
danger •
Physiological - Food, water,
oxygen , sleep, sex
Maslow – Self-actualised peopleMaslow: Self-actualised people (2)• Very few, about 1%
•
Freshness of appreciation–
Thomas Jefferson , Einstein,
Eleanor Roosevelt , William James
•
More accurate perception of reality– ‘appreciate
again and again the wonders of our existence’
•
Greater frequency of peak experiences– Less unwarranted optimism and pessimism
– ‘mystical
moments of absolute perfection’
•
Greater acceptance of self and others– More
tolerant , less judgemental, less shame and anxiety
– Creativity, love, music, etc.
•
Greater social interest•
Greater spontaneity and self-knowledge– Genuine desire to help others
– More ‘natural’, own
code of ethics
•
Greater problem-centering– gemeinschaftsgefühl
•
Deeper, more loving personal relationships– Consuming life problem or ‘mission’, devoted to excellence
•
Unusual sense of humour•
Greater need for privacy – ‘healthy detachment’, can appear stand-offish
– philosophical, instructive
•
Greater creativity•
Autonomy/ resistance to enculturation–
Criteria are personal rather than external,
avoid fashions
Page
Maslow: commentsPersonality• Adhered to some of Freud’s ideas but not the pessimism that
went NomotheticIdiographicwith
them • Self-actualisation just own idiosyncratic values?
• Small sample
Trait
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
• No empirical analyses
theories
analytic
-cognitive
• Vague and imprecise
• Allows
exceptions in his theory that make testability difficult
Eysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
• Not stimulated much empirical work
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
• Well-regarded by general public and non psychologists
Big Five
Mischel
• Research on self-esteem and the ‘positive psychology’ movement
Social-cognitive ideas and reciprocal determinismBehavioural-Cognitive Approach• Stresses interaction between thinking person and social environment
•
Modified social-learning approach allows some
mental processes absent in behaviourism
• Thinks debate about strength of environment versus person on
– social learning theory
behaviour is meaningless
–
Albert Bandura
–
Walter Mischel
• We are free to some degree to choose environments
– accepts ‘person’ and ‘situation’ factors
– expresses person aspects as ‘cognitive’
• Person, environment and behaviour interact reciprocally
qualities rather than traits
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory •
Self-efficacy• Performance experiences
• Observational learning
• Verbal
persuasion • Emotional arousal
Page
Mischel’s Behavioural-Cognitive ApproachCognitive-Affective Personality System (
CAPS )
• Encodings
• Expectancies and
beliefs • Goals and values
• Affects (
emotions )
• Competencies and self-regulation
•
Diagrams of…
– CAPS
– Behavioural signatures
Social-cognitive approachThe Self•
Attributional style•
Read up from Schacter pp. 514-521.• degree that
events are under one’s
control • Attributional Style Questionnaire
•
imagine situation and its
causes • e.g. failing exam, car
accident , job loss
• depression
linked to bad events’ causes as
• internal (something in self caused it)
•
global (generalise to other situation)
• stable (unlikely to change)
• compare trait (neuroticism)
account with above
Personality: summing upStrengths Weaknesses • Traits and Learning (situational)/Behavioral-cognitive approaches are
Trait Good individual
Mostly relies on self-
the main scientific approaches to the study of personality
theoriesassessments;
reports
– all now
accept that
there are lasting individual differences in
Scientific method
personality dispositions
PsychoanalyticAddresses
Unverifiable?
– all accept the
influence of the situation
unconscious
Lacks scientific rigour
– ‘interactionism’: the person and the situation influence behaviour
processes
–
difference mainly in emphasis
HumanisticOptimistic;
Ignores scientific method;
– difference in approach: ‘correlational’ versus ‘experimental’
Growth-oriented
difficult to measure
psychology
individual differences
– social learning theorists look on traits as an outcome of learning
SocialScientific approach;
Over-emphasises
-cognitivepractical applications influence of environment;
ignores stable differences
• Psychodynamic and humanistic/existential approaches have little
place in academic departments of psychology: but they are
popular Page
Intelligence lectures: outline HumanHumanPersonalityIntelligence• Historical origins: Galton, Binet, Spearman
•
Spread of IQ
testing • Models of intelligence: Spearman,
Thurstone , Guilford, Cattell
Psychology• Multiple intelligences? (
Gardner )
DifferentialDevelopmental• Tests:
Stanford -Binet and
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Perception• Applications of
ability tests: medical, educational, occupational
Biological• Stability of intelligence and ageing
Cognitive
(Memory)• Genes, environment, and neurobiology
Social• Sex differences
Methodology Cognitive(Language
and thinking)•
Read all of Chapter 9 in Schacter’s book.IntelligenceWhat do differential psychologists study about intelligence?•
What is intelligence?• The nature and number of cognitive abilities on which people show
“A global concept that involves an individual's ability to act
differences
purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the
environment.” (Wechsler, 1958)
• The
construction of tests to measure cognitive differences
“A very general mental capability that,
among other things, involves
• The origins of cognitive differences: biological and social
the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly,
comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from
experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill,
• Whether cognitive differences predict
anything about
real life
or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper
capability for comprehending our surroundings—’catching on’,
‘
making sense’ of things, or ‘figuring out’ what to do.” (Gottfredson,
1994)
Alfred Binet (1857-1911)Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) Father of IQ testing•
Half cousin of Charles Darwin
• Tests on his children
• Meteorology (
weather map, anticyclone),
– senses as
fast /acute as adult
Fingerprinting (system adopted by
Scotland Yard)
– poorer on
attention , abstraction, use of language
• Developed ideas by studying
families & ‘eminence’
– immature versus mature intelligences differ in
•
Hereditary Genius (1869)
complex not
simple mental operations
•
Inquiries into Human Faculty (1883)
• ‘Individual psychology’
• ‘General mental ability’
– discover processes that vary between people
– heritable
– how do they covary
across individuals?
– basis in simple
functions (discrimination, head
• Work with Henri to devise test of mental functions
size , reaction time)
– to study differences between people on complex
– normal distribution
mental functions
• Revival of his intelligence ideas
Page
interested in more physical aspects of intelligence
-give children a mental age
-if you start at age 6 and
notice they have MA differences, these differences will magnify
over time.
Alfred Binet (1857-1911)The idea of the IQ•
1899: work with Simon on subnormality•
William Stern – new
French education laws; commission into mental subnormality
– develops Binet’s ‘intellectual level’ formally as
•
Idiots, imbeciles & morons‘mental age’ (MA)
– test to improve diagnosis; not linked to education; related to basic
–
notes that low MA progress slower than their CA
and high MA faster
familiarity with life; aptitude not achievement
– intellectual differences magnified over time
•
Binet & Simon test in 1905– idea of expressing ability as ratio of MA to CA
– key insight related to age and abilities
rather than absolute difference
– 30 tasks of increasing difficulty; attention, social interaction,
– MA/CA = Intelligence quotient
vocabulary , requests, reasoning, judgement, memory
– by 1911 extended for age 3 to adult
•
Lewis Terman•
Not concerned with definition of intelligence– suggests the
following in 1916…
•
Binet & ‘intellectual level’ = mental age?– MA/CA * 100 = IQ
– Stanford-Binet
– 2+ years behind = educational problems
– (
Note : deviation IQ for adults; not based on age)
IQ is arbitrary
Goddard worked at "mental retardations" institutions
Frequency distribution of IQ scoresThe spread of mental testing•
Henry GoddardIQ test
– takes Binet’s test to the USA
used at
Ellis Island – by 1915 sent out >22,000 copies of Binet’s tests
for
– Binet’s papers
translated french-
english immigration
– wide uptake in clinical settings
– over-application of tests
– ‘Moron’ (51-70), ‘imbecile’ (26-50), and ‘
idiot ’ (0-25)
•
Robert Yerkes (& Terman)– testing of US
Army recruits in WW1: group tests
– Army alpha (literates) and
beta tests (illiterates)
–
millions tested in group tests
Profoundly
Mildly
Borderline
Average IQSuperior Very superior
retarded
retarded
retarded
to gifted
USA needed a system with a fast
process Over millions tested
General intelligence - "g"
How many types of intelligence?
People who were good at one
thing , tend to be good at everything else (mentally)
What do intelligence tests measure?Charles Spearman (1863-1945)• Experiments on children’s abilities
• Two different theories
– school
subjects ,
teacher ’s estimates, sensory
discrimination
• General intelligence (
g)
• Positive
manifold of correlations
mental energy -
– e.g. Galton, Spearman
– idea of single factor; general intelligence or
gspeculation
• Found positive manifold in Binet-type tests too
• Different types of intelligence
– described as ‘hotchpot’ with no theory
– e.g. Thurstone, Guilford, Sternberg, Gardner
• Thought
g was a type of mental (physiological) energy
• Ability tests
since then all correlate positively
Spearman tended to be right, everyone who
came after him
discovered that if the tests varied in style
and it was tested on a massive group, then all would
correlate positively
Page
Some tests varied on how much they tap into general intelligence
For every mental test Spearman came across, there were two parts:
First you
draw upon your general intelligence but also, every test needs a
high specific ability only for that test.
Spearman’s positive manifold of correlations MSpearman’s 2-factor theory Classic French English Maths Pitch Music Classics -
s1
Test 1French .83
-
English .78
.67
-
s2
Maths .70
.67
.64
-
Pitch .66
.65
.54
.45
-
Test 2gMusic .63
.57
.51
.51
.40
-
s3
NB
Test 3* All correlations positive
* Hierarchy of correlations: idea of single general factor, ‘
g’
Counter arguments to Spearman
David Wechsler devised the most well known internationally intelligence tests
We all differ in g (Thurstone)
Accomodates both Thurstone and Spearman
Louis Thurstone and Primary Mental AbilitiesGroup factors in mental abilities?An example from the Wechsler scales
• Found closer correlations between some tests
• Idea that there were 7 or so stable, basic mental ability
Information Vocabulary Block design factors: the Primary Mental Abilities
(verbal) (verbal) ( spatial ) – Verbal comprehension: vocabulary
Information - – Word fluency: rhymes, anagrams, etc.
Vocabulary – Number: computation
.83 - – Space: complex shape in different orientations
Block .47 .47 - – Memory: sentence recall, word pairs
design – Perceptual
speed : seeing
visual detail quickly
Object .49 .49 .69 – Reasoning: general rule from few instances
assembly
(spatial) • PMA tests still used
• All correlate positively & show a
g factor
NB
* All tests correlate positively
* Some subgroups show especially high correlations: group factors?
Everyone is right to a certain extent
There is a "g" but also many
activities (
carroll )
J. P. GuilfordJohn B. CarrollThe ‘structure of intellect’
The hierarchy of human cognitive abilities (1993)• Suggested 120-150
separate mental abilities
• Structure of Intellect
– operations
–
products – contents/materials
• Attempted to devise tests
for them
• Almost all correlated
positively
• Introduced tests of
creativity
Carroll (1993)
Human Cognitive Abilities. Cambridge University Press.
…redrawn by
Harris & Deary (2011)
Trends in Cognitive Sciences,
15, 388-394.
Page
Raymond Cattell and John HornFluid and crystallised intelligenceCrystallised and Fluid Intelligence• Primary Mental Abilities correlated
Crystallised ability
• But get more than one higher order (general) factor
Test
• Crystallised intelligence (
gc)
score
– tests measuring learning, schooling acculturation
– holds OK with age
Fluid ability
• Fluid intelligence (
gf)
– tests assessing
limits of information
processing ,
especially with novel,
abstract material –
affected by biological factors, e.g. brain damage &
nutrition
Young
Old
adulthood
age
– declines with age
• Fluid and crystallised correlate above 0.5
Multiple intelligences: Howard Gardner•
Studies of,– Exceptional ability, ‘idiot savants,’ brain damage and
neuropsychology
•
The Intelligences– Linguistic,
Logical -mathematical, Spatial, Musical
– Body-kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
– Naturalistic
• Each is subserved by a brain system
• Conventional IQ tests focus on the first three
• Ignores inter-test correlations
• Little evidence
• Read ‘What intelligence tests
omit ’ in Schacter’s book pp. 355-356.
– Covers Sternberg, Gardner, and emotional intelligence
Hedden & Gabrieli (2003)
Nature Reviews Neuroscience ,
5, 87-96.
Stanford-Binet TestStanford Binet: hierarchy of abilities•
Age 3–
string 4 beads;
build bridge with 3
General
cubes; copy a
circle ; name pictures of
simple objects
intelligence
•
Age 6– differences (e.g. wood &
glass );
mutilated pictures; simple number
Abstract
tasks; analogies (“a
bird flies; a
Verbal
Quantitative
Short-term
visual
fish …?”); maze tracing
reasoning
reasoning
memory
reasoning
•
Age 9–
paper cutting; verbal absurdities;
Vocabulary
Number series
Paper folding
Memory for
memory for designs; rhymes (e.g.
Comprehension
colour with head); 4 digits reversed
Quantitative tests
Copying
sentences Memory for
Digits
Page
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IIIEducational/occupational applications of intelligenceHierarchy of abilities (p. 346 of Schacter)(Schacter pp. 346-349)•
School performanceGeneral
– IQ correlates about .5 with school grades & years of education
intelligence
– Also with educational achievement* & knowledge, up to .8
– Other factors important: motivation & culture
Perceptual-
Processing
Working •
Social status and income Verbal
organisational
speed
memory
– IQ and parental socioeconomic status (SES) correlated
– Both have some
effect on own SES and income
Vocabulary
Picture Coding speed
Arithmetic
Similarities
completion
Symbol search
Digit span
•
Job performanceInformation
Block design
Letter -number
– IQ correlated with supervisors’ ratings and job samples (about .5)
Comprehension
Matrix reasoning
series
– IQ often ‘best
available predictor’; also personality and social skills
Picture
arrangement
*Deary et al. (2007)
Intel igence,
35, 13-21.
Age 1613,000+ school students Age 11 Scottish Mental Survey of 1932English
.86
• June 1st 1932: almost all Scottish children born in 1921
• N = 87,498
CAT
English Lit. .82
?.83
Verbal
• Scottish
Council for Research in Education
• Godfrey Thomson’s Moray House Test No. 12
Maths .84
.81
CAT
• IQ-type: verbal, spatial, numerical, abstract
F1
F2
Non-verbal
.87
.73
Science
CAT
.88
Quantitative
Geography .80
French
Deary et al. (2007)
Intel igence, 35, 13-21.
Deary et al. (2004)
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
86, 130-147.
Health and intelligence(Schacter pp. 347-348)•
Mortality • Illness
• Health
• Health behaviours
Whalley & Deary (2001)
British Medical Journal,
322 (7 April), 1-5.
Deary (2008)
Nature,
456, 175-176.
Whalley & Deary (2001)
British Medical Journal,
322 (7 April), 1-5.
Page
Intelligence: Stability and development• Children
– IQ at ages 6 and 18, r = .77
– IQ at ages 12 and 18, r = .89
Age 11
Age 79
Moray House
Moray House
Test
correlation = .66Test
• Adults (Concordia study)
(N = 485)
– World War II veterans tested 40 years on
– Verbal IQ factor at ages 25 and 65, r = .93
– Non-verbal IQ at ages 25 and 65, r = .64
• Children to adults (Scottish Mental Survey)…
Deary et al. (2004)
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
86, 130-147.
Intelligence: Environment and genes140
• Differences in mental abilities apportioned to
– Genes: heritability
120
– Environment: shared (c2 ) and non-shared
rs
a
e•
Techniques: families, adoption, twins (MZ & DZ together & apart)
y
0 100
•
Results 8
e– Combining all available studies: heritability = .50, c2 = .25
g
a– Many
involve children: genetic effect
increases and shared
80
IQenvironment effect decreases from infancy to adulthood
– Heritability varies with age and possibly with social background
MHT60
• Much of the environmental effect is non-shared environment at all ages
40
40
60
80
100
120
140
•
Read ‘…from DNA to SES’ part of Schacter book on pp. 356-360.
MHT IQ age 11 yearsDeary et al. (2004)
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
86, 130-147.
82 years
Petrill et al., 1998
Intelligence: Environment and genes66 years
Pedersen et al, 1992
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart65 years
Reynolds et al., 2005
35-71 years
Posthuma et al., 2001
18-35 years
Posthuma et al., 2001
18 years
Hoekstra et al., in
prep MZ twins reared MZ twins reared
18 years
Rijsdijk et al., 2002
apart
together
16 years
Rijsdijk et al., 2002
16 years
Luciano et al., 2006
Wechsler Full
.69
.88
12 years
Polderman et al., in press
Scale IQ
12 years
Bartels et al., 2002
11 years
Benyamin et al., 2005
Wechsler Verbal IQ
.64
.88
10 years
Bartels et al., 2002
9 years
Van Leeuwen et al., in prep
7 years
Van Baal et al., 2001
Wechsler
.71
.79
5 years
Polderman et al., in prep
Performance IQ
5 years
Van Baal et al., 2001
4 years
Petrill et al., 2004
3 years
Petrill et al., 2004
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Heritability
Shared Environment
Unique Environment
Posthuma, de
Geus , Deary (2009) in
The Genetics of Cognitive Neuroscience (MIT Press).
Bouchard et al. (1990).
Science,
250, 223-228.
Page
Davies et al. (2011)
Molecular Psychiatry,
16, 996-1005.
Deary et al. (2010)
Nature Reviews Neuroscience,
11, 201-211.
Intelligence, information processing and neuroscience•
Intelligence correlates with…• Working memory and reaction time (Schacter pp. 362-364)
• Speed of visual processing
• Brain size (measured using structural magnetic resonance imaging)
• Brain cortical thickness
• Brain white
matter integrity
• Some aspects of the brain’s electrical response
• Some aspects of the brain’s physiological response as measured
Jung and Haier’s parieto-frontal integration theory of intelligence (P-FIT).
using functional magnetic resonance imaging
The
figure shows
Brodmann Areas (BAs) involved in intelligence, as well
as the arcuate fasciculus (shown in yellow). BAs in
green are mostly
left hemispheric correlations and BAs in
pink are mostly right-hemispheric
correlations with intelligence.
Deary et al. (2010)
Nature Reviews Neuroscience,
11, 201-211.
Deary et al. (2010)
Nature Reviews Neuroscience,
11, 201-211.
Scottish Mental Survey 1932
60
Average IQ
Girls
Boys55
BoysGirls(40,033)(39,343)% 50
??45
40
60
80
100
120
140
Read up on group differences section in Schacter book, pp. 360-362.
IQDeary et al. (2003).
Intelligence,
31, 533-542.
Deary et al. (2003).
Intelligence,
31, 533-542.
Page
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