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Differential Psychology (0)

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Individual   Differences  ( Differential  Psychology)
Psychology 1 
It is generally assumed that:
Differential Psychology
• People  vary  on a range of psychological attributes 
Ian Deary
• It is possible to  measure  and  study   these  individual differences
• Individual differences are useful for explaining and predicting 
behaviour and  performance  
Differential psychology reading
Human
Human
• General
Personality Intelligence
– Schacter, D. et al. (2012). Psychology.
–  Chapters  13 (personality) and 9 (intelligence).
– READ these Chapters!
Psychology
• Personality  extra  reading
Differential
Developmental
– Funder, D.C. (2010). The Personality Puzzle (5th  edition ). New 
York : Norton. (Earlier editions are fine.)
Perception
Biological
• Intelligence extra reading
Cognitive
– Deary, I.J. (2013). Intelligence Current  Biology23, 673-676.
( Memory )
Social
– Deary, I.J. (2001). Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford
Methodology Cognitive
Oxford  University  Press. 
( Language
and  thinking )

Personality
Personality
characteristic   patterns  of thought, emotion, and behaviour, 
together with the psychological mechanisms— hidden  or not—
Nomothetic
Idiographic
behind  those patterns.”
David Funder
Trait
Psycho -
Humanistic
Social
The Personality Puzzle
theories
analytic
-cognitive
Page 
Nomothetic  approachTraits
Idiographic approaches:
psychoanalytic, humanistic, and behavioural/cognitive
• Nomothetic: relating to, involving, or dealing with general or 
universal  statements or  laws  
• Idiographic: relating to or dealing with  something , concrete, 
individual or  unique
• All people are  described  on  same  set of dimensions (traits), but
will  differ  by  degree  
• Theories propose that  person  develops in conjunction with own 
individual  experience
•  Usually  measured by questionnaire; descriptive
• ‘Why and how’ of  development  are  important
• ‘Why and how’ are not so important
• Standard  measures  difficult or impossible to obtain
Measuring Personality
Personality
• Self- report   tests
– Questionnaires (yes/no, true-false,  agree -disagree)
Nomothetic
Idiographic
– Adjectives
– E.g. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality  Inventory  (Schacter p. 492)
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
• Rating scales
Trait
theories
analytic
-cognitive
– As  above , completed by  others  
• Projective tests
– Inkblots (Rorschach)
Eysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
– Thematic Apperception Test
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
Big  Five
Mischel
•  Objective  tests (limited success) 
– Behavioural ( amount  of laughter, rapid/inaccurate  responses )
– Physiological (heart  rate , skin conductance,  brain  imaging)
Personality traits
Developing a satisfactory personality trait theory
• A characteristic or distinguishing feature
• Consistent  ways  of thinking, behaving, or feeling
• Trait ‘theories’ are classifications of people’s  characteristics
• Can’t be accepted at face  value
• People can be placed on a continuum (e.g. extraversion-introversion)
•  Needs  to be a  scientific  approach to understand their  nature
Key Assumptions
• Stability: a person’s level on a trait is relatively stable over time
• Differences:  composition  of dispositions varies from person to person
• Causation: trait differences cause differences in behaviours
Page 
The Grandfathers of Trait Theory
Structure of personality descriptors
Allport  and Odbert (1936)
•  Found  17,953  words  to describe behavioural and psychological 
Dimensions (traits!)
characteristics
(e.g. introversion-extraversion)
•  Examples  of trait  terms :
Shy
Anxious
Trait ( facet )
Trustworthy
Witty
(e.g. shy,  rigid )
Kind
Extravert
Conscientious
Worrier
• Condensed the list to 4,500 trait terms and arranged in meaningful 
Habitual response patterns
subsets
(e.g. don’t like parties;
• Cattell condensed  further  to form questionnaires  based  on these
don’t act on impulse)
Specific  responses
(individual  bits  of behaviour)
This is Hans Eysenck’s model.
Correlation
M
Major personality trait theories
?
?
• Eysenck’s three  factor /dimension model
?
–  Neuroticism , extraversion, psychoticism
• Five Factor Model ( Costa  &  McCrae ; Goldberg)
– Neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, 
agreeableness, conscientiousness 
?
?
?
• Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors
– Warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, 
liveliness,  rule   conscious , social boldness,  sensitivity
vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, 
openness to  change , self-reliance, perfectionism, tension
Read sections of Schacter’s book on:
correlation, pp. 55-63; and factor  analysis , pp. 495-496.
A bit about factor analysis…
Factor analysis of multiple scales: example
M
(Schacter pp. 495-496)
Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 3
• Administer questionnaires to a large group 
Hardworking
Industrious

• Factor analysis: test for which  items  group together with the others 
by  looking  at the correlations  between  items
Conscientious
Meticulous

• Groups of  similar  items are  known  as factors 
Compassionate
• Decisions about the number of factors can vary: hence, researchers 
Tender-hearted
have  ended  up with  different  ‘solutions’ to the problem of personality 
Loving
description
Mild
Brainy
Knowledgeable
Wise
Intelligent

From Matthews, Deary &  Whiteman  (2009) Personality Traits (3rd Edn).  Cambridge  University Press.
Page 
Cattell’s 16  Basic  Traits
Cattell’s (1905-1998) Personality Theory
Outgoing —reserved
More intelligent—less intelligent
• Origins
Emotionally stable—unstable
– Personality trait terms in the language
Assertive—humble
» lexicon of trait descriptive words
Cheerful— sober
» personality questionnaire items
Strong  conscience— lack  of  internal  standards
• Test development
Adventuresome—shy
– revisions of the 16PF 
Tough  minded —tender-minded
– widely used in selection and  clinical   work
Trusting—suspicious
• Comments
Imaginative— practical
– can be reduced to fewer, broader dimensions
Shrewd—forthright
– 16 factors seldom found in factor analyses
Guilt- prone —resilient
Radical—conservative
Group-dependent—self-sufficient
Undisciplined—controlled
Relaxed—tense
Eysenck’s (1916-1997) Trait Theory
Eysenck’s Personality Theory
Dimension
Constituent Traits (correlated)
• Biological  bases  of traits
– E: and cerebral cortex arousal levels
Neuroticism
Anxious, depressed, guilty,
– N: and autonomic nervous system reactivity
low self- esteemmoody , etc.
• Clinical & social relevance
Extraversion
Sociable,  lively , assertive,
– N: proneness to neuroses,  anxiety  and  depression
sensation-seeking, etc.
– P: proneness to psychoses,  antisocial  behaviour, & drug addiction
Psychoticism
Aggressivecold ,
• Universality
egocentric,impersonal,
impulsive, anti-social, 
– same dimensions found in over 20 different  cultures / languages
creative , etc.
Eysenck’s Three Factor Theory
Hippocrates & Galen: the  four  humours
Unstable
Neuroticism
Melancholic
Choleric
Introversion
Extraversion
Introverted
Extraverted
Phlegmatic
Sanguine
Psychoticism
Stability
Stable
Page 
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R)
Five-factor model
Sample  questions  (from 100)
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae (from 1985 to  date )
• Neuroticism
– do you often feel ‘just miserable’ for no  reason ?
• OCEAN
– do you  worry  about your health?
• Extraversion
• O penness
– can you get a  party   going ?
• C onscientiousness
– do  other  people think of you as being very lively?
• E xtraversion
• Psychoticism
• A greeableness
– would being in  debt  worry you?
• N euroticism
– would you like other people to be afraid of you?
• Lie  Scale
– do you always wash  before  a meal?
– have you ever cheated in a  game ?
The Five Factor Model
Evidence for the Five Factor Model
The five factor model has  provided  a unified 
• Different personality schemes (theory-based questionnaires)  contain  
framework for trait research: it is the  Christmas  tree 
factors closely  related  to the big five
on which findings of stability, heritability, consensual 
– Costa and McCrae
validation,  cross -cultural invariance and predictive 
utility are hung like ornaments.”
• The same personality questionnaire gives the same traits in different 
languages
– e.g. NEO-PI
Paul Costa (1993)
• Different languages and cultures tend to contain personality 
adjectives that  cluster  into five groups (usually N, E, O, A, C)
– Goldberg
NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised
Five Factor Model: personality-related adjectives as 
(Costa & McCrae)
markers of the Big Five traits (Goldberg)
• EXTRAVERSION: Bold , extraverted, -introverted, -quiet, -reserved, -
N
E
O
A
C
shy, talkative, -timid, -untalkative, -withdrawn
Anxiety
Warmth
Fantasy
Trust
Competence
Angry 
Gregarious
Aesthetics  Straight -
Order
• EMOTIONAL STABILITY: anxious, emotional, envious, fearful,  highly  
hostility
forward
strung, irritable, jealous, moody, self-pitying, touchy
Depression
Assertive
Feelings
Altruism
Dutifulness
• CONSCIENTIOUSNESS:-careless, -disorganised, efficient, -inefficient, 
neat , organised, -sloppy, systematic, thorough, -unsystematic
Self-
Activity
Actions
Compliant
Achievement  
conscious
striving
• AGREEABLENESS: -cold, considerate, -harsh, kind, - rude
Impulsive
Excitement    Ideas
Modesty
Self discipline
sympathetic, -unco-operative, -unkind, -unsympathetic,  warm
seeking
Vulnerable
Positive  
Values
Tender-
Deliberation
• INTELLECTartisticcomplex , creative, deep, imaginative, 
emotion
minded
philosophical, -uncreative, -unimaginative, -unintellectual, -unintelligent
Page 
Stability of personality traits
Heritability and the five factor model of personality
 
Genetic 
• Overall stability of traits for  average   period  of 6.7  years  as follows
contribution  
– Childhood = .31
Extraversion 
36-49% 
– College years = .54
– Age 30 = .64
Neuroticism 
31-41% 
–  Ages  50 to 70 = .74
Conscientiousness 
28-35% 
Agreeableness 
28-35% 
Openness 
45-46% 
 
 
Matthews, Deary & Whiteman (2009) Personality Traits (Ch. 3). Cambridge University Press.
Matthews, Deary & Whiteman (2009) Personality Traits (Ch. 6). Cambridge University Press.
Biological bases of personality trait differences
(Schacter pp. 498-501)
•  Genes  and environment
– usually  twin  studies
– also now ‘genome- wide   association  studies’ using DNA
• Personality of  animals
• Brain  basis  of traits
– E.g., Eysenck’s arousal ideas
– More recently research uses  functional  magnetic resonance brain 
imaging
Plomin et al. (2008) Behavioral Genetics (5th Edition). Worth Publishers.
Neuroticism and Health Outcomes
• Anxiety & depression,  sexual  problems,  poor   body   image
cognitive failures, driver  stress , emotion-oriented coping, 
physical  symptoms
• “It is now well established that people who are neuroticoften 
anxious, occasionally depressed, regularly disgruntled—are 
more likely to report feeling lousy and to  seek   medical  care.”
– Paul Costa
Page 
Personality traits and ‘consequential outcomes’
(Schacter p. 497-498)
Early
Lowest N
40s
• Subjective wellbeinghigher  E,  lower  N
• Physical health: not up to date
Late
•  Friends : higher E, higher A
60s
• Job performance: higher C
Highest  N
Weiss,  Gale , Batty & Deary (2009) Psychosomatic Medicine71, 385-394.  Vietnam  Experience Study.
Personality
Nomothetic
Idiographic
Trait
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
theories
analytic
-cognitive
Eysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
Big Five
Mischel
Friedman  et al. (1993)  Journal  of Personality and Social Psychology65, 176-185.
Basics of Freudian psychoanalytic theory: 4 assumptions
Freud:  landmarks
1. Psychic  Determinism
•  1856  - Born in Freiberg, Moravia
• 1860 - Family settles in  Vienna
2. Internal structure of the mind
• 1881 - Graduates in medicine
• 1884-87 - Research on clinical uses of cocaine
3. Psychic conflict
• 1887-88 Begins  to use hypnosis in hysteria
• 1893 - Publishes  trauma  theory of hysteria & 
4.  Mental  energy (‘ libido ’)
cathartic treatment
Page 
Freud: landmarks
Freud: Basic theses of psychoanalysis
• 1896 - Introduces term ‘psychoanalysis’
• “mental  processes  are in themselves unconscious and that of all 
mental life it is only certain individual acts and portions that are 
• 1900 - ‘The  Interpretation  of Dreams’
conscious”
• 1901 - ‘The psychopathology of Everyday Life’
• 1906 Jung  begins psychoanalysis
• “instinctual impulses can only be described as sexual, both in the 
• 1909 - to USA to lecture
narrower and wider  sense  of the word, play an extremely large and 
• 1914 - secession of Jung
never  hitherto appreciated  part  in the causation of nervous and 
mental diseases”
• 1923 - Division of mind into Id, Ego,  Superego
• 1939 Death  in London
Freud: Key  themes
Freud’s Structure of Mind
• Structure of mind
• Id
– Entirely unconscious. Irrational and emotional part of the mind.
– Id, Ego & Superego
Consists of basic needs and feelings. Operates via the “ pleasure  
• Psychosexual development theory
principle”.
– Oral, Anal, Phallic,  Latency  and  Genital  stages
• Ego
• Methods of  inquiry
–  Partly  conscious. Deals with  reality  by conscious perception, 
– Parapraxes
reasoning, problem-solving, etc. Operates via the “reality 
–  Dream  analyses
principle”. Regulates internal forces by defence mechanisms. 
– Free association
• Superego
– Transference
– Partly conscious. Moral part of the mind. Internal representation of 
• Mechanisms of defence
the  ideals  learned from parents and society. The source of guilt
(conscience).
– E.g.  Repression , Projection, Intellectualisation, Denial 
Examples of Freudian Conflicts
Environment
Conflict
Example
Realistic anxiety
Id vs. ego
Delayed gratification
Ego
Id vs. superego
Admit to undercharging
Moralistic anxiety
Neurotic anxiety
Ego vs. superego
Telling a white lie
Superego
Id
Page 
Freudian Ego Defence Mechanisms
Freud: Description of Personality
Purpose : to defend against anxiety produced by psychic conflict
"...basically a battlefield. He is a  dark -cellar in which 
a well-bred spinster  lady  [the superego] and a sex-
Repression
crazed  monkey  [the id] are  forever  engaged in 
mortal combat, the  struggle  being refereed by a 
Projection
rather  nervous  bank  clerk [the ego]."
Reaction formation
Denial
Don Bannister (clinical psychologist)
Sublimation
Intellectualisation
many more…
Freud’s psychosexual Theory of Personality Development
Freud’s methods of inquiry
• Oral stage (0-18 months)
– Early: sucking and swallowing (passive)
• Free association
–  Later : biting and chewing (more aggressive)
• Anal stage (18-36 months)
• Transference
– Expressive period: excreting  faeces
• Parapraxes
– Retentive period: retaining faeces
• Phallic stage (3-6 years)
• Dream analysis
– Oedipus complex ( boys ); Electra complex ( girls )
• Latency period (6 years-puberty)
– Sexual instincts become submerged for  several  years
• Genital stage (puberty)
Read up on pp. 506-508 of Schacter.
Freud: Parapraxes
Examples of parapraxes
• Slips of the tongue
• Forgetting
• Mishearing 
– e.g. the date of an  exam  or a  deadline  
• Misreading or misspelling
• Slips
• Temporary forgetting
– Accidentally breaking something which belongs to someone 
• Mislaying
else —leakage of hostility
• Some (most?) examples have a ‘sense,’ ‘intention’ or ‘purpose’
– arise from competing intentions
– ‘disturbed’ and ‘disturbing’ intentions
– “often used to fulfil wishes which one ought to deny oneself”
Page 
Freud: Parapraxes
Freud – Dreams
• Social democratic  newspaper  describes Kronprinz (Crown  Prince ) as
• “The  royal   road  to the unconscious”
– Kornprinz ( corn -)
• Guardians of  sleep
– Knorprintz (protruberance-)
• Manifest dream content
•  Professor ’s lecture
• Dream work
– “with regard to the  female  genitals in spite of many Versuchungen; 
• Latent content
I beg your pardon, Versuche”
– Sensory stimulation
» Versuchungen = temptations
– Current  concerns
» Versuche = experiments
– Unconscious impulses of the id
•  Woman  to  doctor
– “My  husband  asked his doctor what  diet  he ought to  follow ; but the 
doctor told him he had no need to diet; he  could  eat and  drink  
what I want”
Freud – Dream Symbols
Freud: Criticisms
• Over  emphasis  on sexual drive
• Not a wide range
• Concepts poorly defined
• Lack of scientific proof
• Human body =  houses
– Ambiguous terms
• Parents =  King /queen;  emperor /empress, etc.
– Metaphors
•  Children  and siblings = vermin
• Difficult to test or refute; ‘explains everything’
• Birth = water
• Neglects social nature of  humans
• Death = departure
• Case study  method
• Nakedness = Clothes &  uniforms
– Select sample; recall  bias , influenced patients
•  Little   proven  success as  therapy
After Freud…
Freud: positive aspects
• Neo-analytic theorists:  Adler , Horney,  Erikson , Jung, etc.
•  Complete  theory of personality
• Too little on culture and social factors; too much infantile sexuality
• Emphasises  role  of unconscious mind and early life  experiences
• Erikson: personality develops  through  life: specific, age-related 
challenges
• Ego defence mechanisms
• Adler: motivation of social  interestidea  of inferiority complex
• Interest in treatment of mental  disorders
• Jung: libido not just sexuality; collective unconscious
Page 
Personality
Humanistic Approach
(NB existential/phenomenological)
Nomothetic
Idiographic
• Psychodynamic
– looks on people as having problems
Trait
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
• Behaviourist
theories
analytic
-cognitive
– people as robots to stimuli
• Trait
Eysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
– pigeon-holing and lack of richness
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
Big Five
Mischel
• Need to emphasise  growth  and potential in the person’s personality
Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Approach: Basic assumptions
(existential/phenomenological)
• Three closely-related approaches
• Emphasis on the individual’s self  concept
• Phenomenology
• Human  choice , creativity and self actualisation are important
• the study of conscious experience
• Meaning precedes objectivity in research
• Existentialism
• Value is placed on the  dignity  of the person
• philosophy emphasising personal choice and the  importance  of 
existence ‘now’ rather  than  what was past or what might be in 
• Need to emphasise growth and potential in the person’s personality
future
• Humanistic approach
• focuses on uniquely human experience; on human potential for 
growth
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) 
Carl Rogers: Person-centred theory
Person-centred theory
• Self congruence
• Actualisation
– Congruence between the  ideal  and actual self
– all humans  motivated  to “expand, extend, become 
– Congruence between ideal self and experience
autonomous,  develop , mature”
– Incongruence leads to defence
– i.e. all motivated by a  single  positive force
– Criticism only for specific bad behaviour
– all aim to actualise inner benign potentials
– Introjection of  conditions  of worth
– cruel, destructive behaviour usually due to  external  forces
–  Condition  positive regard puts one at  odds  with true self
• Need for positive regard
– Q-sort
– especially from significant others
• Fully functioning person
– no conditions of worth
– becomes learned need for positive self-regard
– unconditional positive self-regard
– biggest impediment to actualisation
– self is congruent with totality of experience
– unconditional positive regard from parents helps 
– “live wholly and freely in each moment”
development of the self-concept
– El  Greco , Hemmingway,  Einstein
Page 
Rogers:  client -centred therapy
Rogers: research  relevant  to his ideas…
• Therapist creates safe atmosphere; to (re-)obtain unconditional 
• Research on self-esteem
positive self-regard
• Stable
– Genuine acceptance, expression of unconditional positive regard,
• Related to important life outcomes
empathy 
• Is it just Neuroticism in disguise?
– Non-judgmental 
– Reduces anxiety; can start to experience denied feelings and 
express  true desires; therapist as  mirror
• Research on self-verification/self-enhancement
– Helps client to stop trying to act to fulfil conditions of worth (to 
recognise this)
• The positive psychology  movement
– Does it work? 
– Self-concept: Ideal and actual self
Description of needs
Maslow (1908–1970)
• Self-actualisation
• Other schemes emphasise deficiency needs
- Becoming fully self;  learning  who that is
– behaviour/personality as escape from ‘deficiency’
• Aesthetic
– D motives
- Symmetry, order,  beauty
• But humans do things for positive purposes
• Cognitive
– humans seek positive, enriching experiences
- knowing, understanding, exploring
– curiosity, unselfish giving of love
• Esteem
– B motives
- Competence,  approval , recognition; self and others
• Devised a hierarchy of needs
• Belongingness and love 
– strive for higher  ones ... 
- Affiliation and acceptance – similar to  Roger ’s positive regard
– ...after lower-order ones are met
•  Safety  
- Shelter, comfort, security,  freedom  from  fear  and  danger
• Physiological 
- Food, water,  oxygen , sleep, sex
Maslow – Self-actualised people
Maslow: Self-actualised people (2)
• Very few, about 1%
• Freshness of appreciation
–  Thomas   Jefferson , Einstein,  Eleanor   Roosevelt , William James
• More accurate perception of reality
– ‘appreciate  again  and again the wonders of our existence’
•  Greater   frequency  of  peak  experiences
– Less unwarranted optimism and pessimism
– ‘mystical  moments  of absolute perfection’
• Greater acceptance of self and others
– More  tolerant , less judgemental, less shame and anxiety
– Creativity, love, music, etc.
• Greater social interest
• Greater spontaneity and self-knowledge
– Genuine desire to help others
– More ‘natural’, own  code  of ethics
• Greater problem-centering
– gemeinschaftsgefühl
• Deeper, more loving personal relationships
– Consuming life problem or ‘mission’, devoted to excellence
• Unusual sense of humour
• Greater need for  privacy
– ‘healthy detachment’, can appear stand-offish
– philosophical, instructive
• Greater creativity
• Autonomy/ resistance  to enculturation
–  Criteria  are personal rather than external,  avoid  fashions
Page 
Maslow: comments
Personality
• Adhered to some of Freud’s ideas but not the pessimism that  went  
Nomothetic
Idiographic
with  them
• Self-actualisation just own idiosyncratic values?
• Small sample
Trait
Psycho-
Humanistic
Social
• No empirical analyses
theories
analytic
-cognitive
• Vague and imprecise
• Allows  exceptions  in his theory that make testability difficult
Eysenck
Freud
Maslow
Bandura
• Not stimulated much empirical work
Cattell
Rogers
Rotter
• Well-regarded by general public and non psychologists
Big Five
Mischel
• Research on self-esteem and the ‘positive psychology’ movement
Social-cognitive ideas and reciprocal determinism
Behavioural-Cognitive Approach
• Stresses interaction between thinking person and social environment
•  Modified  social-learning approach allows some 
mental processes absent in behaviourism
• Thinks debate about strength of environment versus person on 
– social learning theory
behaviour is meaningless
–  Albert  Bandura
–  Walter  Mischel
• We are free to some degree to choose environments
– accepts ‘person’ and ‘situation’ factors
– expresses person aspects as ‘cognitive’
• Person, environment and behaviour interact reciprocally
qualities rather than traits
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory 
• Self-efficacy
• Performance experiences
• Observational learning
• Verbal  persuasion
• Emotional arousal
Page 
Mischel’s Behavioural-Cognitive Approach
Cognitive-Affective Personality System ( CAPS )
• Encodings
• Expectancies and  beliefs
• Goals and values
• Affects ( emotions )
• Competencies and self-regulation
•  Diagrams  of…
– CAPS
– Behavioural signatures
Social-cognitive approach
The Self
• Attributional style
• Read up from Schacter pp. 514-521.
• degree that  events  are under one’s  control
• Attributional Style Questionnaire
•  imagine  situation and its  causes
• e.g. failing exam, car  accident , job loss
• depression  linked  to bad events’ causes as
• internal (something in self caused it)
•  global  (generalise to other situation)
• stable (unlikely to change)
• compare trait (neuroticism)  account  with above
Personality: summing up
Strengths
Weaknesses
• Traits and Learning (situational)/Behavioral-cognitive approaches are 
Trait 
Good  individual 
Mostly relies on self-
the main scientific approaches to the study of personality
theories
assessments;
reports
– all now  accept  that  there  are lasting individual differences in 
Scientific method
personality dispositions
Psychoanalytic
Addresses 
Unverifiable? 
– all accept the  influence  of the situation
unconscious 
Lacks scientific rigour
– ‘interactionism’: the person and the situation influence behaviour
processes
–  difference  mainly in emphasis
Humanistic
Optimistic;
Ignores scientific method; 
– difference in approach: ‘correlational’ versus ‘experimental’
Growth-oriented
difficult to measure 
psychology
individual differences
– social learning theorists look on traits as an outcome of learning 
Social
Scientific approach; 
Over-emphasises 
-cognitive
practical applications influence of environment; 
ignores stable differences
• Psychodynamic and humanistic/existential approaches have little 
place  in academic departments of psychology: but they are  popular
Page 
Intelligence lectures:  outline
Human
Human
Personality
Intelligence
• Historical origins: Galton, Binet, Spearman
•  Spread  of IQ  testing
• Models of intelligence: Spearman,  Thurstone , Guilford, Cattell
Psychology
• Multiple intelligences? ( Gardner )
Differential
Developmental
• Tests:  Stanford -Binet and  Wechsler   Adult  Intelligence Scale
Perception
• Applications of  ability  tests: medical, educational, occupational
Biological
• Stability of intelligence and ageing
Cognitive
(Memory)

• Genes, environment, and neurobiology
Social
• Sex differences
Methodology Cognitive
(Language
and thinking)

• Read all of  Chapter  9 in Schacter’s book.
Intelligence
What do differential psychologists study about intelligence?
• What is intelligence?
• The nature and number of cognitive abilities on which people show 
“A global concept that involves an individual's ability to act 
differences
purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the 
environment.” (Wechsler, 1958)
• The  construction  of tests to measure cognitive differences
“A very general mental capability that,  among  other things, involves 
• The origins of cognitive differences: biological and social
the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, 
comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from 
experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, 
• Whether cognitive differences predict  anything  about  real  life
or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper 
capability for comprehending our surroundings—’catching on’, 
making  sense’ of things, or ‘figuring out’ what to do.” (Gottfredson, 
1994)
Alfred  Binet (1857-1911)
Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)
Father  of IQ testing
•  Half  cousin of Charles Darwin
• Tests on his children
• Meteorology ( weather  map, anticyclone), 
– senses as  fast /acute as adult
Fingerprinting (system adopted by  Scotland  Yard)
– poorer on  attention , abstraction, use of language
• Developed ideas by studying  families  & ‘eminence’
– immature versus mature intelligences differ in 
• Hereditary  Genius  (1869)
complex not  simple  mental operations
• Inquiries into Human Faculty (1883)
• ‘Individual psychology’
• ‘General mental ability’
– discover processes that vary between people
– heritable
– how do they covary  across  individuals?
– basis in simple  functions  (discrimination, head 
• Work with Henri to devise test of mental functions
size , reaction time)
– to study differences between people on complex 
– normal distribution
mental functions
• Revival of his intelligence ideas
Page 
interested in more physical aspects of intelligence
-give children a mental age 
-if you start at age 6 and  notice  they have MA differences, these differences will magnify
over time. 
Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
The idea of the IQ
• 1899: work with Simon on subnormality
• William  Stern
– new  French  education laws; commission into mental subnormality
– develops Binet’s ‘intellectual level’ formally as 
• Idiots, imbeciles & morons
‘mental age’ (MA)
– test to improve diagnosis; not linked to education; related to basic 
–  notes  that low MA progress slower than their CA 
and high MA faster
familiarity with life; aptitude not achievement
– intellectual differences magnified over time
• Binet & Simon test in 1905
– idea of expressing ability as ratio of MA to CA 
– key insight related to age and abilities
rather than absolute difference
– 30 tasks of increasing difficulty; attention, social interaction, 
– MA/CA = Intelligence quotient
vocabulary , requests, reasoning, judgement, memory
– by 1911 extended for age 3 to adult
•  Lewis  Terman
• Not concerned with  definition  of intelligence
– suggests the  following  in 1916…
• Binet & ‘intellectual level’ = mental age?
– MA/CA * 100 = IQ
– Stanford-Binet
– 2+ years behind = educational problems
– ( Note : deviation IQ for adults; not based on age)
IQ is arbitrary 
Goddard worked at "mental retardations" institutions 
Frequency distribution of IQ scores
The spread of mental testing
•  Henry  Goddard
IQ test
– takes Binet’s test to the USA
used at
Ellis   Island
– by 1915 sent out >22,000 copies of Binet’s tests
for 
– Binet’s papers  translated
french- english
immigration
– wide uptake in clinical settings
– over-application of tests
– ‘Moron’ (51-70), ‘imbecile’ (26-50), and ‘ idiot ’ (0-25)
• Robert  Yerkes  (& Terman)
– testing of US  Army  recruits in WW1: group tests
– Army alpha (literates) and  beta  tests (illiterates)
–  millions  tested in group tests
Profoundly
Mildly 
Borderline
Average IQ
Superior
Very superior 
retarded
retarded
retarded
to gifted
USA needed a system with a fast  process
Over millions tested
General intelligence - "g"
How many types of intelligence? 
People who were good at one  thing , tend to be good at everything else (mentally)
What do intelligence tests measure?
Charles Spearman (1863-1945)
• Experiments on children’s abilities
• Two different theories
– school  subjectsteacher ’s estimates, sensory 
discrimination
• General intelligence (g)
• Positive  manifold  of correlations
mental energy -
– e.g. Galton, Spearman
– idea of single factor; general intelligence or g
speculation 
• Found positive manifold in Binet-type tests too
• Different types of intelligence
– described as ‘hotchpot’ with no theory
– e.g. Thurstone, Guilford, Sternberg, Gardner
• Thought was a type of mental (physiological) energy
• Ability tests  since  then all correlate positively
Spearman tended to be right, everyone who  came  
after him  discovered  that if the tests varied in style
and it was tested on a massive group, then all would
correlate positively 
Page 
Some tests varied on how much they tap into general intelligence
For every mental test Spearman came across, there were two parts:
First  you  draw  upon your general intelligence but also, every test needs a 
high specific ability only for that test. 
Spearman’s positive manifold of correlations 
M
Spearman’s 2-factor theory
 
Classic  French  English  Maths   Pitch   Music 
Classics  
 
 
 
 
 
s1
Test 1
French 
.83 

 
 
 
 
English  .78 
.67 

 
 
 
s2
Maths 
.70 
.67 
.64 

 
 
Pitch 
.66 
.65 
.54 
.45 

 
Test 2
g
Music 
.63 
.57 
.51 
.51 
.40 

 
 
s3
NB
Test 3
* All correlations positive
* Hierarchy of correlations: idea of single general factor, ‘g
Counter arguments to Spearman
David Wechsler devised the most well known internationally intelligence tests
We all differ in g (Thurstone)
Accomodates both Thurstone and Spearman
Louis Thurstone and  Primary  Mental Abilities
Group factors in mental abilities?
An example from the Wechsler scales
• Found closer correlations between some tests
• Idea that there were 7 or so stable, basic mental ability 
 
Information 
Vocabulary  Block design 
factors: the Primary Mental Abilities
(verbal) 
(verbal) 
( spatial
– Verbal comprehension: vocabulary
Information 

 
 
– Word fluency: rhymes, anagrams, etc.
Vocabulary 
– Number: computation
.83 

 
– Space: complex shape in different orientations
Block 
.47 
.47 

– Memory: sentence recall, word pairs
design 
– Perceptual  speed : seeing  visual  detail quickly
Object 
.49 
.49 
.69 
– Reasoning: general rule from few instances
assembly 
(spatial) 

• PMA tests still used
 
 
• All correlate positively & show a factor
NB
* All tests correlate positively
* Some subgroups show especially high correlations: group factors?
Everyone is right to a certain extent
There is a "g" but also many  activities  
( carroll )
J. P. Guilford
John B. Carroll
The ‘structure of intellect’
The hierarchy of human cognitive abilities (1993)
• Suggested 120-150 
separate mental abilities
• Structure of Intellect
– operations
–  products
– contents/materials
• Attempted to devise tests 
for them
• Almost all correlated 
positively
• Introduced tests of 
creativity
Carroll (1993) Human Cognitive Abilities. Cambridge University Press.
…redrawn by  Harris  & Deary (2011) Trends in Cognitive Sciences15, 388-394.
Page 
Raymond Cattell and John Horn
Fluid and crystallised intelligence
Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence
• Primary Mental Abilities correlated
Crystallised ability
• But get more than one higher order (general) factor
Test
• Crystallised intelligence (gc)
score
– tests measuring learning, schooling acculturation
– holds OK with age
Fluid ability
• Fluid intelligence (gf)
– tests assessing  limits  of information  processing
especially with novel,  abstract   material
–  affected  by biological factors, e.g. brain damage & 
nutrition
Young
Old
adulthood
age
– declines with age
• Fluid and crystallised correlate above 0.5
Multiple intelligences: Howard Gardner
• Studies of,
– Exceptional ability, ‘idiot savants,’ brain damage and 
neuropsychology
• The Intelligences
– Linguistic,  Logical -mathematical, Spatial, Musical
– Body-kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
– Naturalistic
• Each is subserved by a brain system
• Conventional IQ tests focus on the first three
• Ignores inter-test correlations
• Little evidence
• Read ‘What intelligence tests  omit ’ in Schacter’s book pp. 355-356.
– Covers Sternberg, Gardner, and emotional intelligence
Hedden & Gabrieli (2003) Nature  Reviews   Neuroscience 5, 87-96.
Stanford-Binet Test
Stanford Binet: hierarchy of abilities
• Age 3
–  string  4 beads;  build  bridge with 3 
General
cubes; copy a  circle ; name pictures of 
simple objects
intelligence
• Age 6
– differences (e.g. wood &  glass ); 
mutilated pictures; simple number 
Abstract
tasks; analogies (“a  bird  flies; a 
Verbal
Quantitative
Short-term
visual
fish …?”); maze tracing
reasoning
reasoning
memory
reasoning
• Age 9
–  paper  cutting; verbal absurdities; 
Vocabulary
Number series
Paper folding
Memory for
memory for designs; rhymes (e.g. 
Comprehension
colour with head); 4 digits reversed
Quantitative tests
Copying
sentences
Memory for
Digits
Page 
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III
Educational/occupational applications of intelligence
Hierarchy of abilities (p. 346 of Schacter)
(Schacter pp. 346-349)
• School performance
General
– IQ correlates about .5 with school grades & years of education
intelligence
– Also with educational achievement* & knowledge, up to .8
– Other factors important: motivation & culture
Perceptual-
Processing
Working
• Social  status  and  income
Verbal
organisational
speed
memory
– IQ and parental socioeconomic status (SES) correlated
– Both have some  effect  on own SES and income
Vocabulary
Picture
Coding speed
Arithmetic
Similarities
completion
Symbol  search
Digit span
• Job performance
Information
Block design
Letter -number
– IQ correlated with supervisors’ ratings and job samples (about .5)
Comprehension
Matrix reasoning
series
– IQ often ‘best  available  predictor’; also personality and social skills
Picture
arrangement
*Deary et al. (2007) Intel igence35, 13-21.
Age 16
13,000+ school  students
Age 11
Scottish  Mental  Survey  of 1932
English
.86
• June 1st 1932: almost all Scottish children born in 1921
• N = 87,498
CAT
English Lit. .82
?
.83
Verbal
• Scottish  Council  for Research in Education
• Godfrey Thomson’s Moray House Test No. 12
Maths .84
.81
CAT
• IQ-type: verbal, spatial, numerical, abstract
F1
F2
Non-verbal
.87
.73
Science
CAT
.88
Quantitative
Geography .80
French
Deary et al. (2007) Intel igence, 35, 13-21.
Deary et al. (2004) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology86, 130-147.
Health and intelligence
(Schacter pp. 347-348)
•  Mortality
• Illness
• Health
• Health behaviours
Whalley & Deary (2001)  British  Medical Journal322 (7 April), 1-5.
Deary (2008) Nature456, 175-176.
Whalley & Deary (2001) British Medical Journal322 (7 April), 1-5.
Page 
Intelligence: Stability and development
• Children
– IQ at ages 6 and 18, r = .77
– IQ at ages 12 and 18, r = .89
Age 11
Age 79
Moray House
Moray House
Test
correlation = .66
Test
• Adults (Concordia study)
(N = 485)
– World War II veterans tested 40 years on
– Verbal IQ factor at ages 25 and 65, r = .93
– Non-verbal IQ at ages 25 and 65, r = .64
• Children to adults (Scottish Mental Survey)…
Deary et al. (2004) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology86, 130-147.
Intelligence: Environment and genes
140
• Differences in mental abilities apportioned to
– Genes: heritability
120
– Environment: shared (c2 ) and non-shared
rs
a
e

• Techniques: families, adoption, twins (MZ & DZ together & apart)
 y
100
•  Results
 8
e

– Combining all available studies: heritability = .50, c2 = .25
g
 a

– Many  involve  children: genetic effect  increases  and shared 
80
 IQ
environment effect decreases from infancy to adulthood
– Heritability varies with age and possibly with social background
MHT
60
• Much of the environmental effect is non-shared environment at all ages
40
40
60
80
100
120
140
• Read ‘…from DNA to SES’ part of Schacter book on pp. 356-360.
MHT IQ age 11 years
Deary et al. (2004) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology86, 130-147.
82 years
Petrill et al., 1998
Intelligence: Environment and genes
66 years
Pedersen et al, 1992
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart
65 years
Reynolds  et al., 2005
35-71 years
Posthuma et al., 2001
18-35 years
Posthuma et al., 2001
18 years
Hoekstra et al., in  prep
MZ twins reared  MZ twins reared 
18 years
Rijsdijk et al., 2002
apart
together
16 years
Rijsdijk et al., 2002
16 years
Luciano  et al., 2006 
Wechsler Full 
.69
.88
12 years
Polderman et al., in press
Scale IQ
12 years
Bartels et al., 2002
11 years
Benyamin et al., 2005
Wechsler Verbal IQ
.64
.88
10 years
Bartels et al., 2002
9 years
Van Leeuwen et al., in prep
7 years
Van Baal et al., 2001
Wechsler 
.71
.79
5 years
Polderman et al., in prep
Performance IQ
5 years
Van Baal et al., 2001
4 years
Petrill et al., 2004
3 years
Petrill et al., 2004
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Heritability
Shared Environment
Unique Environment
Posthuma, de  Geus , Deary (2009) in The Genetics of Cognitive Neuroscience (MIT Press).
Bouchard et al. (1990). Science250, 223-228. 
Page 
Davies et al. (2011) Molecular Psychiatry16, 996-1005.
Deary et al. (2010) Nature Reviews Neuroscience11, 201-211.
Intelligence, information processing and neuroscience
• Intelligence correlates with…
• Working memory and reaction time (Schacter pp. 362-364)
• Speed of visual processing
• Brain size (measured using structural magnetic resonance imaging)
• Brain cortical thickness
• Brain white  matter  integrity
• Some aspects of the brain’s electrical response
• Some aspects of the brain’s physiological response as measured 
Jung and Haier’s parieto-frontal integration theory of intelligence (P-FIT). 
using functional magnetic resonance imaging
The  figure  shows  Brodmann  Areas (BAs) involved in intelligence, as well 
as the arcuate fasciculus (shown in yellow). BAs in  green  are mostly  left  
hemispheric correlations and BAs in  pink  are mostly right-hemispheric 
correlations with intelligence.
Deary et al. (2010) Nature Reviews Neuroscience11, 201-211.
Deary et al. (2010) Nature Reviews Neuroscience11, 201-211.
Scottish Mental Survey 1932
60
Average IQ
Girls
Boys

55
Boys
Girls
(40,033)
(39,343)
50
?
?
45
40
60
80
100
120
140
Read up on group differences section in Schacter book, pp. 360-362.
IQ
Deary et al. (2003). Intelligence31, 533-542. 
Deary et al. (2003). Intelligence31, 533-542. 
Page 
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