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1. First social psychology experiment  1897 the first published social psychology experiment: ● by Norman Triplett ● Better results in cycling than when cycling alone Social facilitation effect: presence of others acts as a stimulation to the performer    2. Social identity theory; differences between personal, social and collective identities Stems from in-group/out-group categorization, tires to explain intergroup behaviour based on social identities. People are motivated to have a positive concept of selves. To increase self- esteem we enhancing the status of in-group status. Personal identity - personal ideas are self-designated and self-attributed Social identity - based on social roles, status and groups, always present (ex. culture, i’m a student at TLU) Collective identity - identity action-oriented groups as a whole (going to a song festival, i’m a festival goer)  3. Causal attribution: dispositional vs situational; attribution bias Causal attributions: Situational attributions (external) - we attribute causes to external factos (the road was icy so the car crashed) Dispositional attributions  (internal) - we attribute causes to internal factors (he is a bad driver so he crashed) Attribution errors (biases) : Fundamental attribution errors - tendency to emphasize internal dispositions and minimize external factors  - focusing on behaviour - we want behaviours to be predictable - we lack time to analyse the situation - ex. we are most like to blame the driver of being stupid for crashing, not because the


road was icy The actor-observer bias - we are more likely to infer external causes to our own behaviour (the actor) and internal to the behaviour of others (observer) - ex. car accident caused by others (they’re stupid), car accident caused ourselves (the road was icy) Self-serving bias - we tend to make dispositional attributions for our success and situational for ourselves  - ex. i pass the test (i’m smart), i fail the test (the test was stupid) The ultimate attribution error - combination of all the attributions - ex. THEY do something good - external attr. THEY  do something bad - internal attr.  WE do something good - internal attr. WE do something bad - external attr.  4. Mental heuristics Mental  shortcuts help us to cope with the complex  world by simplifying  it and making judgements.  The availability heuristics - we assess probability of  an event based on it’s availability in memory - ex. i think my country will not succeed in the upcoming Olympics based on how they did in the last Olympics - events that occur in mind more easily are considered to be more likely to occur - the more easily we recall smthg, the more likely it seems Biases - we remember things based on how important or vivid the memories are - ex. dramatic accidents, traumas, the virus rn - ex.  people  are  scared to  fly  because recently  there  was a plane crash, even tho statistics show planes are way safers than cars Attitude   heuristic  -   responding   either   positively   or   negatively   to   others   based   on   our attitudes towards them - ex. i don’t like her because i think she’s rude - attitude directs our info processing


- we process info differently based on our attitude towards someone - attitudes can be wrong The   representative   heuristic  -   for   quicker   processing   of   info   we   judge   particular   case matches a prototype or group - ex. racism, stereotypes  The anchoring and adjustment heuristic - info we use to establish a starting value (anchor) tend to be more influential in our decision than any subsequent info that we use to adjust value - ex. first impressions, on a job interview you try to look good to sent a standard  - ex. employer doesn’t like old people because they think old people don’t work well, on a job interview they ask you how old you are and if you’re 55+, they may get a bad impression even if you do work well The simulation heuristics - judging the probability of an event by the ease of difficulty of mentally picturing it - events that we can picture happening seem more frequent and likely to happen - ex. we expect to get the job, we’re sure we’ll get it but then we don’t and we’re more shocked because we were so sure 5. Social psychology classical experiments: Zimbardo, Milgram, Asch – what were they  about?  Zimbardo prison experiment - student participated in an prison experiment - half of the students were assigned a role as a guard, the other half were assigned to be the prisoners  - planned for 2 weeks but ended at day 6  - the guards became sadistic and the prisoners had mental breakdowns - when people are given roles they can forget themselves Milgram’s obedience experiment - How much pain an ordinary person would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered by an authority.  - authority conformity Asch experiment


- Asch conformity experiments or the Asch paradigm were a series of studies 
directed by Solomon Asch studying if and how individuals yielded to or defied a 
majority group and the effect of such influences on beliefs and opinions. - Groups of eight male college students participated in a simple "perceptual" task. In 
reality, all but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was 
about how the remaining participant would react to the actors' behavior. - showed a line and asked which other 3 lines it matched.  - group conformity 6. Conformity  Conformity (passive) is when people adjust themselves to fit a group norm Conformity is generally regarded as a passive form of influence as groups do not actively attempt to influence others. - Normative influence     - we conform to others behaviour because they expect us to, we want to be liked   - ex. you don’t act up when you see someone being bullied because we don’t want to be bullied, maybe the bullied are popular kids and we want to be liked by them - Informational   influence      -   we   conform   to   others   behaviour   because   we   believe   it provides information about reality, we don’t know - ex. i didn’t know the answer in the test so i ask other and believe what they think is the answer is correct Why we conform? ● We don’t want to risk social disapproval, isolation. ● We want to be correct and right so we look up to what others do. When will be conform? What determines how we confrom? Strength - how important the group is to you Immediacy - how close is the group to you in space and time Number - how many people are in the group 7. Persuasion: ‘Weapons of influence’


➔ Reciprocation ➔ Commitment and consistency ➔ Social proof ➔ Liking  ➔ Authority ➔ Scarcity Reciprocation - we try to repay (you do something for me, i do something for you) - valid across culture, time and distance - it works, because you may feel responsible, satisfaction (a price is lowered) - when violated, sanctions are applied (you don’t invite me to your party, i don’t invite you to mine) - there is an obligation to receive, an obligation to give, obligation to repay ex. taste testing in supermarkets makes you feel, like now you need to buy something ex. receiving compliments makes you feel like you need to compliment them too - it’s not always equal repayments  ex. you are given a small sampler but asked to buy the whole thing - direct route: give gift - ask for a favor - receive the favor ex. you buy your friend a coffee, you ask them to drop you off at home, the drop you off at home - concession: ask for favor - make a concession (GIFT) - as for a smaller favor ex. ask to drop you off at home, they say they won’t, you ask if they could AT LEAST give 3 euros for a taxi  experiment by Denis Regan: subjects were asked to rate paintings, one was naive and one confederate.  A) during experiment  confederate  leaves  the  room and returns with Cokes, saying ‘I asked experimenter if I could get a Coke for myself, he said it was Okay, so I bought one for you too’. B) confederate leaves the room, but returns empty handed. After the experiment is over, confederate asks for a favor to buy from lottery tickets him. result: the ones who got Coke, bought twice as many tickets as the ones who did not. for those who owned a favor to confederate, it made NO difference whether they liked him or not, they sell felt sense of obligation to repay him, and they did! Commitment and consistency  - people have a general desire to appear consistent in their behavior/attitudes/beliefs/promises/words


- once we commit to someone then we feel the need to stay committed - inconsistency is seen as an undesirable trait - it’s an valuable and adaptable behaviour - help to predict behaviour, makes it easier to socially interact - foot in the door technique - start with a smaller request that is easy to agree to, so later it is easier to gain acceptance with much larger requests ex. as someone to put up a small sign and they do, later ask them to put up a huge poster and they will probably agree - commitment is stronger when it is written down, it is made public, people put effort into it, effected by the ,,inner voice’’ experiment by Thomas Moriarty: staged theft on a beach. no request - 4/20 tried to stop theft. request to watch your things - 19/20 tried to stop the theft ex. promising a child you will get them a specific toy so you will have to get it Social proof - we tend to do what others do, it seems right - not inherently bad, it’s adaptive - uncertainty     (we don’t know what to do) and similarity (ex. our peers) makes social proof stronger  ex. canned laughter in television ex. you go to the club where you see a line by the door ex. we follow what social media influencers do ex. social proof can also mean copycat suicides Liking - we tend to comply to people we like and know - a person we like has more influence over us - physical   attractiveness      -   we   associate   good   looks   with   good   humor, intelligence, kindness etc - similarity      - we like people similar (age, looks, background, interests) to us, makes us feel secure and comfortable - compliments     - getting compliments makes us like the person more - familiarity     - is something/someone is familiar we tend to like it more - cooperation     - we like people who cooperate with us - association     - we like others when we associate them with something we like


(ex. our idol promotes something so we like it and buy it) ex. attractive people in sales departments Authority - we tend to obey to authority (automatically) - Milgram experiment (the electric shock test, previously talked about) - Strip-search case (fake authority called, previously talked about) - obedience can be linked religion (god) - obedience can be beneficial (not always) ex. in a dangerous public situation you have to listen to the police to act safely - symbols of authority can bring up obedience: - titles - physical size - clothes - trappings - expensive things and status ex. a doctor wears a white goat and has the title ‘dr. - doctor’ - to resist,  ask if the authority truly is an expert and if they are actually real and not fake Scarcity - if we can get something, we want it more, scare of shortage - the opportunities seem more valuable to us if their availability is less likely to us - we tend to think of potential losses ex. ,,if it’s rare, it’s valuable’’ ex. products have ,limited edition’ on it ex. marketing ,ONLY 2 ITEMS LEFT’ - when free choice (to get smthg) is threatened, we tend to fight for it  - small children fight over toys experiment: 2 yo kids and toys, one of the toys is behind the barrier of plexiglas. condition 1: the barrier is low and the kids can reach for the toy. condition 2: the barrier is high and the kids can’t get it - they want it more - in teenagers, the more certain actions are prohibited - the more they want to do it (drinking, doing drugs etc) maybe r&j wasn’t about love but instead scarcity - romeo and juliet wanted to be together because their families prohibited it


- we value more things that become less available to us recently - competition is important - the more people compete for it, the more we want it - to resist, calm down and ask what do i really want from this item 8. Principles of initial attraction  Proximity - physically close, we tend to like people with whom we have frequent contact Similarity - same interests, beliefs and values Geographical vs Functional distance - we live close/far and we gross roads often/rarely Physical appearance  - evolution (good looks relate to good health) and stereotypes (good looks means good personality qualities) 9. Matching phenomenon and equity theory  Matching   phenomenon  -   tendency   for   people   with   similar   levels   of   particular   trait   to succeed, such as attractiveness - we may think this person is too pretty to date us - this may also apply in friendships - this may come from fear of being rejected  - we substitute matching - old rich man and hot young girl, beauty and money may balance eachother - also, if we start to like someone they become more physically attractive or if they start to dislike them they become less attractive Equity  - equal distribution of resources and effort in relationships - cooking, housekeeping, parenting 10. Sternberg’s types of love Components: intimacy, passion, commitment 7 types:  ● Intimacy (Liking) - true friendships


● Passion (Infatuation) - love at first sight, you don’t know the person much ● Commitment (Empty) - arranged marriages ● Romantic love - emotional and physical bond ● Companionate love - passion is gone but emotional bond is strong (old people) ● Fatuous love - you don’t know them yet but there is commitment and passion ● Consummate love - complete form of love, all components 11. Aggression: hostile vs instrumental; frustration-aggression theory; influences on  aggression Physical or verbal behaviour that intents to hurt another person. ➔ Hostile - aims to injure, intended to harm
➔ Instrumental - harming another person in order to accomplish a goal, something you want to get Frustration-aggression theory: frustration triggers aggression - displacement - the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration ex. mom yells at child, child yells at dog - negative emotions trigger aggression Influences: Instinct theory - human nature, it’s an instinct (dismissed theory) Adaptive aggression - evolutionary perspective: defending yourself, indimitating rivals  Biological roots - neural systems: brain damage Genetic influence - aggressive parents > aggressive children Biochemical influence - hormones Environmental and cultural influence
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