Inglise keele variandid (Varieties of English) (1)

• 16-18th century the spread took place .
  
• By the beginning of the 19th century English had spread to virtually every part of the world.
  
• 19-20th century the number of speakers only grew.
  

• 12th century - the Normans established a territory called “the Pale ” in Ireland.  A great influence on the territory of Ireland.
  
• 1535 - A Statute of Wales (law) that required people in Wales to speak English.
  
• - there was trade going on between English ships and West Africa. A decade later slave trade started .
  
• 1580s - The first 2 English settlements in North America were established.
  
• - James I of England became king . Scotland and England merged politically together as Great Britain .  English spread to Scotland.
  
• 1607 - the first lasting settlement in North America was established in Virginia, Jamestown .
  
• 1609 - the colonisation of Ulster. (first tried out by Queen Elizabeth I and later continued officially by James I). Ulster was colonised to prevent further rebellion. The Irish were forced to become protestants.  Due to these events, we can now see some common features in speech between lowland Scotland and Northern Ireland.
  
• 1620 - the English ship Mayflower sailed to North America from England. The ship failed to reach Virginia and landed in Plymouth instead. Jamestown and Plymouth were now the 2 settlements and grew rapidly.
  
• 17th century - the English began to spread in Southern America as a result of slave trade. New kind of Englishes developed so that slaves and captors could understand eachother. This happening is called the Pidgin (Pidgin English).
  
• 18th century - Large scale immigration from Ireland to North America. Parts of Canada were settled by the French , but Britain also had it’s interest there.
  
• 1763 - Canada (French speaking areas ) was conceded to the British.
  
• 1776 - the Declaration of Independence of the United States. England didn’t want to let the United States go, but people who were born in North America considered themselves as Americans.
  
• 1769 - Captain James Cook reached the coastline of new Zealand.
  
• 1770 – James Cook discovered Australia. Australia and New Zealand were claimed for the British Crown.
  
• 1788 – James Cook landed in Queensland . 1788 was also the first penal colony . 160000 prisoners were transported from England and Ireland.
  
• 1820 - New settlers began to arrive in New Zealand in larhe numbers . As a result, the dialects mixed.
  
• 1840 – The first official colony in New Zealand. Immigrants arrived there in 3 stages. (from Britain; from Australia and Ireland; from UK). This also resulted in the mixture of dialects. There was also a great influence of Maori.
  
• 1795 – The British arrived in South Africa and later began to settle in larger numbers.
  
• 1822 – English was declared as the official language is South Africa.
  

• 1795 – South Asia is occupied
  
• 18th and 19th century – English in west Africa is tied to slave trade.
  
• From 15th century – British travel to and from West Africa
  
• 18th century – first settlement in West Africa. English was emplored as lingua franca to be used between the English traders and the people living there. One by one the East African countries were declared independent, but in some of them English still remains. If it is not the official, it is the 2nd language to be learnt.
  
• From 1850s – Many East African countries were settled by English colonies. There were many expeditions and explorers
  
• 18th century – English was introduced in the subcontinent of South Asia.
  
• 1765-1947 – British sovereignty in India. (the Raj)
  
• 1803 – Louisiana, was bought from the French.
  
• 1890 – Florida was bought from Spain .
  
• 1835 – English educational system was introduced in India
  
•  Hindi , the official language, has influenced English spoken in India and it now has a distinctive national character .
  
• Late 18th century – more English influence was seen in Asia and in the South Pacific.
  
• Beginning of 19th century - English had spread to virtually every corner of the world. In the course of the 19 and 20 centuries , the number of speakers only grew.
  

• English-English
  
• Southern English dialect, spoken in the south
  
• West Country Dialect, spoken in the west
  
• Midland English dialect, spoken in the midland counties
  
• Northern English dialects, spoken in the north
  

• Public school English
  
• King’s English
  
• Queen’s English
  
• Posh
  

• The /i:/ of bee, rather than the /ɪ/ of be, occurs in the final syllable of very, many, etc.
  
• The vowel /ɪ/ in unstressed syllables (in RP) often corresponds to /ə/ (in near-RP accents).
  

• The consonant /t/ may be realized as a glottal stop [?].
  

• Most EngEng accents have lost the original contrast.
  
• Some English accents are „rhotic“ or „r-ful“ and others are „non-rhotic“ or „r-less“.
  

• Non-rhotic
  

• They use intrusive / r /
  
• They use the broad / a: / sound
  
• They use glottal stop more often (instead of k/p/t)
  
• Use of / w /, recieved pronouncation will have / l / sound
  
• /l/ may disappear [vunnerable]
  
• /I/ -> /i:/
  
• Use of question tag – [Ain’t I? (einnai)]
  
• Yod coalescence – when two things come together. Like: /dʒ/ instead of /dj/
  

• Prolongs diphtongs
  

• H-dropping ( Tell him= [tellim])
  

• Apples and pears - stairs
  
• Bowl of water - daughter
  
• Rabbit and pork - to talk
  
• Trouble and strife - wife
  
• You and me- tea
  
• Butcher’s hook - to look
  
• Scooby doo - clue
  

• [θ] -> [f]
  
• [h] dropping
  
• Prolonging dipthongs
  
• /aI/ - > /ɒI/
  
• /ð/ -> /v/
  
• [e] -> [w]
  
• Done/seen, instead did/saw
  
• [ŋ]-[nk]
  
• Adding [h]
  
• [eI]-[aI]
  
• [au]-[a]
  
• Intrusive r
  
• Double negation
  
• Tag questions
  

• Last, dance , etc. often have /æ/ rather than /a:/
  
• Unstressed orthographic a tends to be /æ/ rather than
  
• Unstressed orthographic o tents to be rather than
  
• There is no contrast between
  
• There is, in many varieties, an additional contrast between and between
  
• The vowels do not occur in many varieties in WEng
  
• Educated WEng is not rhotic
  
• Tendency to lengthen intervocalic consonants before unstressed syllables (butter, money)
  

• For some speakers, /g/ is absent in the words language and longer.
  
• For some speakers /ʊ/ occurs in the words comb and tooth.
  

• Generalisation of word forms (I likes , they sees)
  
• Non-standard use of „never“ (I never did it)
  
• Participles are often proceeded by „a“ (I sat there a-watching)
  
• Universal tag „isn’t it“ is used disregarding the main person, tense or auxiliary (You are going now, isn’t it?)
  
• In North-Wales Welsh use „yes“ (You are studying Welsh, yes?)
  
• Fronting of a constituent ( Singing they were; Coming tomorrow he is)
  
• Negative use of the word „too“ (They can’t do that too)
  
• Repetition of an adjective or an adverb for emphasis (It was a high high building )
  
• Use of „do“ to assure (I do go to chappel every Sunday)
  
• The use of „there“ for exclamations (There strange it was! Meaning : How strange it was!)
  

• „Del“ and „ Bach “- terms of endearment
  
• Welsh use „ delight “ in the meaning of „interest“
  
• „ Rise “ in the meaning of „get“ or „buy“ (I’ll rise the drinks )
  
• „Tidy“ in the meaning of „nice“ or „ good “ (It’s a tidy car)
  
• Bara brith – a loaf of bread
  
• Words with double “l” (Llymru – porridge dish)
  
• Eisteddfod – a competitive arts festival
  

Pronounciation:

• Velar fricative [x] (loch, night )
  
• Dark „l“ : fu ( full ), saut ( salt ), ca (call)
  
• Short vowels are longer (jacket= [jaykit]
  
• Bright [breht]
  
• Rhotic „r“
  
• Absence of dipthongs before r (cheers -> chers )
  
• There’s a rule that determines when vowels are pronounced short or long
  
• Distinction between [ ] and [w]
  
• No distinction between / æ/ / ʊ/ / ɒ/ and /a:/ /u:/ / ɔ:/
  

Grammar:

• Have does not need „do“ support
  
• Using „will“ with first person subjects in questions (Will I put out the light ?)
  
• Certain stative verbs (want;need) use progressive form
  

Vocabulary:

• Cheerio just now! – goodbye for now!
  
• To go to the messages- to go shopping
  
• How are you keeping ?- How are you ?
  
• That’s me away - I’m going now
  
• Aye – yes
  
• Folk- people
  
• Pinkie- little finger
  
• Loch- lake
  
• Wee- small
  
• Syne – goal
  

• A rhotic language
  
• Wide range of vowels preceding „r“
  
• Dental stops [d] and [t] are used to replace fricatives [th] (think- tink)
  
• [t] between vocals is pronounced [d] (water-wader)
  
• Words with „ea“ pronounced [i:] also merge and retain the historical [e:]; in informal speech [ei] (tea- tei)
  
• A little contrast between [ä] and [a:]
  
• „many“ and „any“ are pronounced with [ä]
  
• „ price “ and „choice“ are pronounced the same
  
• „i“ and „schwa“ have merged
  
• Epenthesis (sound, which is not there really , is inserted to the word)
  
• In the north [e] and [ä] have no distinction
  

Grammar:

• Unmarked plurality concerning measure and time
  
• Three dimensional demonstrative system
  
• Nominalisation - givin a word or phrase a noun -like status
  
• Distinction between singular and plural „you“ / „youse“
  
• Hot news perfect tense is expressed by preposition „after“ + -ing ( gerund form)
  
• Present tense instead of Pr.Perfect or Pr. Perf . Cont
  
• „It- clefting“ constructures (it’s very ill that he looked)
  
• Continuous forms with stative verbs (I’m seeing it very well)
  
• Past simple is used instead of Past perfect (If he saw him, he wouldn’t have done it)
  
• Distinction between habitual and non-habitual actions or states (I do bit drunk vs. I am drunk)
  
• Word „let“ can be used in second person ( Let you stay here )
  
• „Yes“ and „no“ are used less frequently
  

Vocabulary:

• Great part comes from English, Scots, Irish.
  
• Many English metaphors, idioms come from Irish
  
• Banshee – fairy woman
  
• Cairn – sacred stone mound (burial, worship place)
  
• Creel – basket
  
• Bannock – home made bread cake
  
• Number of Eng words have a different meaning in Irish (backwards- shy; doubt - believe or expect )
  
• „I’m not at myself“- I’m not feeling well
  

• [?] before n
  
• Final „t“ often unreleased
  
• Intervocalic „t“ – „d“
  
• Neutralization between „t“ and „d“
  
• Reducing [lj] into [j] (million)
  

• Falling vowels [i];[ä];[e]+ schwa
  
• [ai]- [a:]
  
• [e] and [i] sound identical in monosyllables (pen;pin)
  
• [z]-[d] (isn’t- idn’t)
  

• [o:]-[a:] (caught)
  
• [ä];[i:]-[e:][i] before „ r“ (mirror, marry )
  
• [a] and [e] merge before „r“ (hurry)
  
• [ju]-[u] (new)
  

• Closer to EngEng
  
• Upper classes have fewer local accents
  
• Non-rhotic
  
• Intrusive „r“
  
• Fricatives- t/d
  

Grammar:

• Some irregular verbs are regularized (learn-learned)
  
• Some regular verbs are irregularized (snuck; dove)
  
• Word formation with –ify and –ize are more productive (citify, uglify, burglarize)
  
• Changing word’s class (to host , to skyrocket)
  

• There are a number of countable nouns in both varieties, that don’t require the use of an article.
  
• Eng Eng doesn’t use an indefinite article in the future. US uses an article in the future.
  
• EngEng requires indefinite article with phrases beginning with half of sth. USEng can use this aswell but can also not.
  
• In EngEng attribute follows the name, in UsEng attribute comes in front of the name.
  
• Both varieties use the indefinite pronoun „one“ in formal styles
  
• Both varieties use the informal „you“
  
• The nominal form can be used as locative in EngEng. In USEng the modified form is used.
  
• Sometimes US Eng uses adjecitves instead of adverbs.
  
• The comparative adjective „different“ is usually followed by a preposition form in EngEng. In Us Eng it is more frquently followed by the word „than“.
  
• One particular ending is more productive in UsEng than in EngEng – wise.
  
• The adverbs „yet“ „just“ „already“ and „still“ are usually used with present perfect tenses. They are not possible in past simple in EngEng, but are so in UsEng.
  
• The ordinals (firstly, secondly etc) are used in both varieties in numbering or listing. The difference is „first of all“ when introducing next idea. Eng Eng uses „Secondly“, UsEng uses „second of all“, „third of all“.
  
• The adverb „presently means soon in both varieties.
  
• Time adverbs „ anymore “ is used in both varieties in negative context .
  
• There are some prepositions which differ in form in the two varieties. (EngEng – „out of“, „ around “; USEng – „out“, „ round “
  
• „ Through “ means up to and including in UsEng, but in EngEng „through“ means the time inbetween
  
• Prepositions in and on have some differences. In EngEng to be in a team . USEng to be on a team. EngEng to live in a street , UsEng to live on a street.
  
• Sometimes in UsEng prepositions can be omitted. (The sale started January the 1st)
  

• Canadian Raising – (found in lexical sets : price, mouth) Before voiced consonants: Diphtongs /aI/ /aʊ/ would be pronounced more like /əi/ /ʌI/ and /əʊ/.
  
• Absence of distinction between cot/caught – pronounced alike, with an a (close to AmEng)
  
• T - flapping and T –deletion. Sound /t/ between vowels will be pronounced as /d/ - (water, ladder, latter ) = T-flapping. When the /t/ is deleted, usually after /n/ - (winter, („ winner “), interesting („ineresting“)) – we are dealing with = T-deletion
  
• Schedule, hostile and some other words are pronounced depending on social variation and region . (Great degree of influence from AmEng)
  
• Again (st), sometimes /əgen/, sometimes /əgeIn/
  
• Been [bin]
  
• Shone – [sho:n]  follows BrEng variant
  
• Tomato [tomæto]  different from both AmEng and BrEng
  

• Younger geneation follows AmEng forms and older BrEng forms.
  
• Canadians use the Q tag „eh?“
  
• Sneek – Snuk
  
• Dive – Dove
  

• General trend towards American vocabulary, but not fully, therefore there would be both variants in the dictionary. Candy= Sweet , for example.
  
• They developed a vocabualry that they needed to use in a special environment. The environment was different from Britain/US.
  
• Indian language borrowings (ex: moose)
  

• /i:/ rather than /I/ in /i:/ rather than /I/ in very, many, etc.
  
• rather than /I/ in unstressed syllables.
  
• /a:/ in laugh, path, grass , etc.
  
• in dance, sample, plant , branch
  
• RP smoothing of does not occur.
  
• Front vowels tend to be more close than in RP
  
• Some diphthongs are wider than in RP
  
• Tendency for diphthongs to be „slower“
  
• The is a very front /a:/
  
• Word-final is often very open
  
• The vowel usually receives more lip-rounding than in EngEng
  
• AusEng is non-rhotic and has linking and intrusive /r/
  
• Intervocalic /t/ might become the voiced flap as in NamEng.
  
• Often /l/ that is darker than in RP
  
• Assume may be pronounced with rather than s .
  
• Similarly, presume can have rather than /z/ or /zj/
  
• In some areas may be heard in off, often, etc. more than in RP.
  
• Australia, auction, salt have only in AusEng
  
• Days of the week tend to be pronounced with finaly
  
• Initial /tj/, /dj/ may be pronounced as
  
• /lj/ often becomes /j/ as in brilliant
  
• Memo is pronounced with /i:/ rather than
  

• Use of auxiliaries shall and should with first-person subjects as in I shall go
  
• The use of have in expressing possession is not so usual, got is preferred.
  
• Collective nouns usually don’t take plural verbs (The government has made a mistake)
  
• May use infinitive rather than participle in some constructions
  
• Some speakers use whenever to refer to a single occasion
  
• The past participle forms like known , blown, sown are often pronounced with final rather than /n/
  

• Footpath – pavement
  
• Frock – dress
  
• Goodday – hello
  
• Lolly – sweet
  
• Picture theatre – cinema
  
• Radiator – ( electric ) fire
  
• To chunder – to vomit
  
• Crook – ill, angry
  
• A sheila – a girl
  
• Hard yakka – hard work
  
• A wog – a germ
  
• A chook – a chicken
  

• Words as „ham“ and „pen“ are often heard as [hem] and [pin]
  
• when schwa is close to the /w/ sound, it sounds like /u/
  
• Words like “dance”, “ castle ”, have the sound /a/
  
• grown is pronounced as [growen]
  
• boot is pronounced as [beu:t]
  
• lengthening of the final „y“ [häpi:]
  
• flap „t“ approaching „d“ city- [ cidi ]
  

• Standard N-Z is the same as the standard British English with some minor differences for ex. roof -roofes vs. roof-rooves
  
• Uses „in the weekend “
  
• Uses „Will I close the window ?“ instead of „Shall.. ?“
  
• In words like „organize“ N-Z uses -ise „organise“
  
• Words of Maori origin appear without plural marker „s“
  
• The word for „ university “ is „varsity“; “ute” for “utility “
  
• „Can I have a cup of tea, thanks ?“
  

• tramping- hiking
  
• fair well- to say goodbye to
  
• to uplift- to pick up, to collect
  
• an identity - a character
  
• to flat - together with someone, to live in a same flat
  
• a joker- just a guy
  
• a Kiwi- a new-zealander
  

• Mounganui- a big mountain
  
• Waitangi- a waterfall
  
• Ahora- love
  
• Mana- power
  
• Oa- a village
  
• Rangatiratanga- a kingdom
  
• Tangata- people
  
• Tapu- sacred