Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
YORKSHIRE ENGLISH
Introduction
The history of the Yorkshire variety, sometimes known as The Broad Yorkshire, or Tyke,
can be traced back to 400 AD, with the arrival of Angles, Saxons, and other Germanic tribes
on the mainland of Britain. Yorkshire is located in the north of today's Britain and even
though allowing for boundary changes, has remained the biggest county in England. The
English language has become one of the most known lingua franca. Language is used for
trading, diplomatic and academic context, as well as other social channels built on
communication. Yorkshire dialect has remained a peculiar pronunciation and grammar as
well as its connection to early English and some other North Germanic languages, which
makes it appealing to research about. Talking about the English language, we often hear more
about the southern dialects and the Standard British dialect. (Waddington-Feather, 1970;
McArthur, n. d)
Therefore this essay will look more into northern dialects, specifically Yorkshire English,
comparing it to Standard British English. Since the singular characteristics of the Yorkshire
accent are quite significant, this paper will compile the main phonological, lexical, and
grammar features, which might sound the most strange even for a native English speaker.
Brief History of Yorkshire English
As with all English dialects, the origins can be traced back to the Saxon era, but The
Yorkshire dialect contains some of the most obvious traces of Old English. It is heavily
influenced by the Vikings, who settled heavily in that region and have incorporated into the
development of this dialect. It is important to note that the Viking invaders were referred to by
the Anglo-Saxons as “Danes”, but they mainly consisted of Danes and Norwegians
only. (Waddington-Feather, 1970)
When the industrial revolution came, large numbers of people all over the country
migrated into Yorkshire (then referred to as West Riding). This, together with all of the other
historical incursion of other nations and moving language groups, maybe the reason for this
peculiar variety of speech in Yorkshire. Historically, these Northern dialects in Yorkshire are
mostly socially stigmatized and culturally inferior, a “working class” dialect. Oftentimes how
we are perceived is heavily influenced by our geographical location or region. As Jackson
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
(1989) mentioned, “To refer to a dialect is to make a political rather than a strictly linguistic
judgment”. The whole non-standard language topic has definitely deepened the social
contrast between the working and middle/upper class who are influenced more by Received
Pronunciation. (McArthur, n. d)
Sociolinguistic Factors
Sociolinguistics is a vast area of study. Among other factors, this orientation includes
social problems involving language and the use of language and foreign-language didactics
(Hymes, 1974, p. 14). Sociolinguistic studies can also focus on what language is used for,
including functional linguistics, discourse analysis, and pragmatics(Hymes, 1974). The four
main sociolinguistic variables are gender, age, social class, and social networks. Age and
gender are quite important variables when it comes to how accents vary. but it can also be
influenced by their mobility and attitudes. A person’s accent becomes relatively fixed once
they have passed into their mid-twenties (Meyerhoff, 2011).
When thinking about the social class factor, Yorkshire English was seen as less
intelligent to the people from southern parts of England. With the coming of industrialization
in the 19th century, this northern working-class had an awakening of consciousness and
regional pride. , which was noticed in various forms of dialects writings: poetry, dialogues,
music. Together with industrialization, towns appeared and that brought education closer for
locals.
Many traditional dialects got replaced with more modern, urban vernacular, and the influence
of this "town speech" spread. Even though this clear leveling happened with several dialects,
many distinctive factors in these Northern dialects remained. (Kortmann, 2008)
I believe gender might be an influential factor in this situation as well. Since historically,
men have traveled around more and communicated with others, allowing them to exchange
their speech and mix dialects. Labov (1990) found that women use more prestigious forms
compared to men, and, conversely, men use more nonstandard forms than women. So we can
see how gender can have influenced the development of the Yorkshire dialect.
Phonetic Features
Given the geographical proximity to Scotland, most Northern England dialects have more
in common with Scots than with the dialects of the South. That’s why broad Northern dialects
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
are so difficult to understand. Yorkshire English is non-rhotic. It's often described as broad
with elongated vowels, as well as having a strong Scottish accent. Here are some of the most
common markers in northern English pronunciations:
Foot-strut split
This marker seems to be noticed across northern England and more specifically, in
Yorkshire. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the "unsplit" /ʊ/ was already recognized
as one of the northern characteristics. Northerners used /ʊ/ where southerners had /ʌ/.
Nowadays, both pronunciations exist but most of the time STRUT words are pronounced the
same as FOOT words. (Kortmann, 2008) The most accurate characterization of the STRUT
vowel in the North of England, according to Strycharczuk et al. (2020) data is that the vowel
is considerably raised compared to Southern British English [ʌ], but the quality is not
necessarily identical to FOOT. (Strycharczuk et al. 2020)
Bath and Strut
The BATH vowel is shorter and relatively more front in the North, compared to the
South, whereas the STRUT vowel is higher in the North compared to the South(Strycharczuk
et al. 2020). The vowel /a:/ exists as a contrastive phoneme in Northern English dialects, it is
notably absent from the BATH set. Nowadays, the short northern /a/ is stigmatized and
described as a flat vowel. The short vowel in BATH words is a feature of all northern English
dialects, having gained the pride of the majority of the north. (Strycharczuk et al. 2020; Castro
2008)
Mouth
Especially in the north part of Yorkshire as well as Scotland, there is a tendency to
pronounce the diphthong /aʊ/ (as in mouth) as a monophthong [aː] (mahth). It is seen as the
same as Middle English. This is seen as characteristic of informal speech and can often
coexist with the more formal /aʊ/. (Haigh, 2015)
Square and Nurse
In RP, SQUARE is pronounced with /ɜ:/ and NURSE with the central vowel /ə:/, In dialects
of Yorkshire, these two different sets have merged. So, words like heard, nurse is often
pronounced the same as in square and dare. (Kortmann, 2008)
Unstressed vowels (happy, letter)Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
The unstressed vowel at the of HAPPY and other words in this set varies between tense
and lax realizations. In most parts of Yorkshire lax realizations of this vowel as /, I/ or /
ɛ/ are
heard. It is sometimes described as a southern feature, which has spread to the north. The
HAPPY vowel is relatively retracted and lowered, whereas LETTER is somewhat retracted.
In often cases LETTER words are lowered. (Kortmann, 2008; Strycharczuk et al. 2020)
Initial /h/
Initial /h/ tends to be dropped (e.g. 'appy, 'orrible), which refers to not pronouncing 'h' at
all, whether in stressed or unstressed positions. . H-dropping is noticed by Wells (1982) as a
feature of accents in the middle north, where he also places Yorkshire. (Syvertsen, 2016)
/r/
The most common R sound, when pronounced in Northern England, is the typical English
postalveolar approximant but an alveolar tap is also well used. The north is largely non-rhotic,
meaning the /r/ is pronounced only before a vowel or between vowels but not after a vowel
(word like car, fear). (Syvertsen, 2016)
Clear vs dark /l/
A consonant feature found in Yorkshire, as well as the rest of the north of England, is a
weak distinction between clear and dark /l/ (Wells, 1982). There isn't a clear distinction between
the clear 'l' and dark 'l' and Northern accents pronounce all L sounds with some moderate
amount of velarization.
Yorkshire assimilation
Yorkshire assimilation results in a final voiced consonant becoming devoiced when
followed by a voiceless consonant. For instance, the /d/ at the end of the word "wide" (waɪd)
becomes /t/ in "wide trousers". As a result of this, the initial /t/ in the second word can be heard
as "white trousers"(Wells, 1982). It's a phenomenon where voiced consonant sounds when
occurring in syllable-final position and also being followed by voiceless consonant sounds, are
assimilated by the following of voiceless consonant sounds and change into the corresponding
voiceless consonant sounds. Thus, /b/, /d/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /dZ/, /Z/ and /g/ change into /p/,/t/, /f/,
/θ/, /s/, /tS/, /S/ and /k/, respectively. (Akamatsu, 2009)
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
Lexical Features in Grammar
There are found some non-standard grammatical features of Yorkshire English, which is
mostly used among older speakers and the working class. Singular verbs are sometimes used
where plurals would be used when comparing it to Standard British English. Also, were can
be used in place of was when it's connected to a singular pronoun. Oftentimes, nouns
describing units of value, distance, height, or weight have no plural marker (for instance 100
pounds becomes 100 pound). Secondly, the overuse of negative markings is noticed in the
language, making it hard to grasp what was being said as well as the article being shortened to
just t. When making comparisons (like greater or smaller than), the word nor can be used in
the place of than. The dialect itself is consists of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Norman
origin words. (Yorkshire Dialect. n.d.)
Idiomatic Features and prepositions
In this section, a short overview of some most common Yorkshire idiomatic expressions
will be given together with their explanations. A lot of people living in the Yorkshire region
also use and understand classical English idioms and make their modifications from them,
some of their own have stayed on the surface. Here are some I have come in contact with
while living there or my friends living there sometimes use themselves. It is important to
notice that there are several ways to write these phrases, I'll be giving the closest writing on
how they are pronounced.
•
"What can tha do when thi boots let watter?" translated to "What can you do when your
boots let in water?", means that if you have bad luck and your situation can't be changed,
you just have to accept it.
•
"Were they born in a barn?’ is usually a phrase used by parents, when a child lets the cold
in from the outdoors, translating "Were you born in a barn?"
•
"Tha' knows" meaning "you understand right?" or "you get it".
There are some particular usages of prepositions in the Yorkshire accent. The preposition "with"
is used instead of "by" in the sense of "through". For example "She lives with himself" instead of
"She lives by himself". Some other prepositions that also differ from the standard British English
usage are as follows: Aboon = above, afoor=before, again=against, amang=among; wi/wiw=
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
with, hearhand=near. There are some more but these are the ones I have come in contact within
my personal life.
Contributions to culture
For some people, the Yorkshire dialect might be known because of the famous words
of Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights in 1847. A tale about two aristocratic families
living on the West Yorkshire moors. In Downton Abbey, set at a fictional country
estate in North Yorkshire, where a lot of the servants and almost all of the local
villagers have Yorkshire accents. In The Game of Thrones, there are characters from
the North of Westeros speaking with Yorkshire accents. The accent can be also be
seen in Hobbit, Harry Potter films, and The Secret of the Garden. There are many
more authors who are from Yorkshire and have contributed with their writings to the
general public. (Yorkshire dialect in ..., n.d; The Reader, 2016)
Conclusion
It is quite difficult to capture all linguistic features in this short paper, but I believe it
offers a great overview of how the variety has formed and what are differences
compared to British English. One of the biggest differences from British English, as I
have heard, is how people in Yorkshire merge the definite article "the" with the
following noun. This makes it quite hard to understand what was said. Yorkshire is
one of those regions which still preserved the essence of the old English language and
has resisted the influence of the language revolution. Yorkshire dialect is rich in
peculiarities and that's worth reading about.
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
List of References
Akamatsu,
T.
2009.
Yorkshire
Assimilation.
https://minerva.usc.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10347/5657/8%20Akamatsu.pdf?
sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Crystal, David 2004. The Stories of English. London: Penguin / New York: Overlook Press.
Beal, Joan. "English dialects in the North of England: phonology". A Handbook of Varieties
of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool. Volume 1: Phonology. Volume 2: Morphology and
Syntax, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter
Mouton,
2008, pp. 113-133. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110197181-011
Castro. M. Á. B.2008. The degree of institutionalization and acceptance of certain English
dialects. Retrieved 17 January 2022 from
https://pdfcoffee.com/english-dialects-pdf-free.html
Jackson, P. 1989. Maps of Meaning: An Introduction to Cultural Geography. London: Unwin
Hyman.
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
Meyerhoff, M. 2011. Introducing sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Strycharczuk, P., López-Ibáñez, M., Brown, G., & Leemann, A. 2020. General Northern
English. Exploring Regional Variation in the North of England With Machine Learning. In
Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence (Vol. 3). Frontiers Media SA.
https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2020.00048
Haigh, S. E. 2015. Investigating Regional Speech in Yorkshire: Evidence from the Millennium.
Retrieved 16 January 2022
https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/10091/1/SHaigh%20Investigating
%20Regional%20Speech%20in%20Yorkshire%202015.pdf
Hymes, D. 1974. Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Kortmann, B., Upton, C., & Schneider, E. W. (Eds.). 2008. The British Isles. Mouton de
Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110208399
Labov, W. 1990. The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic change.
Language Variation and Change
. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394500000338
Mcarthur, T. Yorkshire, Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Retrieved 17
January
2022
from
Encyclopedia.com:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/
yorkshire
Syvertsen, I. 2016.
Accent
leveling
in a
“posh pocket”
of Yorkshire.
https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/51579/Syvertsen_Master.pdf?sequence=1
The Reader. 2016. Top five: The literary Pride of Yorkshire. Retrieved from 18
January 2022
https://www.thereader.org.uk/top-five-the-literary-pride-of-yorkshire/
Waddington-Feather, J. 1970. Yorkshire Dialect, Clapham: Dalesman.
Wells, J. C. 1982. Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Varities of English
Sirelin Koval
Yorkshire Dialect. n.d. World Heritage Encyclopedia. 2016. Yorkshire Dialect. Retrieved 10
Janua
ry 2022 http://www.worldheritage.org/article/WHEBN0000462975/Yorkshire%20dialect
Yorkshire Dialect in Literature and Movies. n.d. Yorkshire dialect. Retrieved 18
January
2022 https://yorkshiredialect.wordpress.com/interesting-things/
Hymes, D. 1974. Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Kõik kommentaarid