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Varities of English Sirelin Koval YORKSHIRE ENGLISH  Introduction  The history of the Yorkshire variety, sometimes known as The Broad Yorkshire, or Tyke, can be traced back to 400 AD, with the arrival of Angles, Saxons, and other Germanic tribes on the mainland of Britain. Yorkshire is located in the north of today's Britain and even though allowing for boundary changes, has remained the biggest county in England. The English language has become one of the most known lingua franca. Language is used for trading,   diplomatic   and   academic   context,   as   well   as   other   social   channels   built   on communication.   Yorkshire dialect has remained a peculiar pronunciation and grammar as well as its connection to early English and some other North Germanic languages, which makes it appealing to research about. Talking about the English language, we often hear more about   the   southern   dialects   and   the   Standard   British   dialect.  (Waddington-Feather,   1970; McArthur, n. d) Therefore this essay will look more into northern dialects, specifically Yorkshire English, comparing it to Standard British English. Since the singular characteristics of the Yorkshire accent  are  quite   significant,   this   paper   will   compile   the   main   phonological,   lexical,  and grammar features, which might sound the most strange even for a native English speaker.  Brief History of Yorkshire English  As with all English dialects, the origins can be traced back to the Saxon  era, but The Yorkshire dialect contains some of the most obvious traces of Old English. It is heavily influenced by the Vikings, who settled heavily in that region and have incorporated into the development of this dialect. It is important to note that the Viking invaders were referred to by the   Anglo-Saxons   as  “Danes”,   but   they  mainly  consisted  of  Danes   and   Norwegians only. (Waddington-Feather, 1970) When   the   industrial   revolution   came,   large   numbers   of   people   all   over   the   country migrated into Yorkshire (then referred to as West Riding). This, together with all of the other historical incursion of other nations and moving language groups, maybe the reason for this peculiar variety of speech in Yorkshire. Historically, these Northern dialects in Yorkshire are mostly socially stigmatized and culturally inferior, a “working class” dialect. Oftentimes how we are perceived  is  heavily influenced by our geographical location or region. As Jackson


Varities of English Sirelin Koval (1989) mentioned, “To refer to a dialect is to make a political rather than a strictly linguistic judgment”.  The   whole  non-standard  language   topic   has  definitely  deepened   the   social contrast between the working and middle/upper class who are influenced more by Received Pronunciation. (McArthur, n. d) Sociolinguistic Factors Sociolinguistics is a vast area of study. Among other factors, this orientation includes social problems involving language and the use of language and  foreign-language  didactics (Hymes, 1974, p. 14). Sociolinguistic studies can also focus on what language is used for, including  functional linguistics, discourse analysis,  and pragmatics(Hymes, 1974).  The four main sociolinguistic variables are  gender, age, social class,  and social networks.  Age and gender are  quite important  variables  when it comes to  how accents vary. but it can also be influenced by their  mobility and attitudes. A person’s accent becomes  relatively fixed once they have passed into their mid-twenties (Meyerhoff, 2011). When   thinking   about   the   social   class   factor,   Yorkshire   English   was   seen   as   less intelligent to the people from southern parts of England. With the coming of industrialization in  the  19th  century,  this  northern  working-class had  an  awakening  of  consciousness  and regional pride. , which was noticed in various forms of dialects writings: poetry, dialogues, music. Together with industrialization, towns appeared and that brought education closer for locals.  Many traditional dialects got replaced with more modern, urban vernacular, and the influence of this "town speech" spread. Even though this clear leveling happened with several dialects, many distinctive factors in these Northern dialects remained. (Kortmann, 2008) I believe gender might be an influential factor in this situation as well. Since historically, men have traveled around more and communicated with others, allowing them to exchange their speech and mix dialects. Labov (1990) found that women use more  prestigious  forms compared to men, and, conversely, men use more nonstandard forms than women. So we can see how gender can have influenced the development of the Yorkshire dialect.  Phonetic Features Given the geographical proximity to Scotland, most Northern England dialects have more in common with Scots than with the dialects of the South. That’s why broad Northern dialects


Varities of English Sirelin Koval are so difficult to understand. Yorkshire English is non-rhotic. It's often described as broad with elongated vowels, as well as having a strong Scottish accent. Here are some of the most common markers in northern English pronunciations: Foot-strut split This   marker   seems   to   be   noticed   across   northern   England   and   more   specifically,   in Yorkshire. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the "unsplit" /ʊ/ was already recognized as   one   of   the   northern   characteristics.   Northerners   used   /ʊ/   where   southerners   had   /ʌ/. Nowadays, both pronunciations exist but most of the time STRUT words are pronounced the same as FOOT words. (Kortmann, 2008)  The most accurate characterization of the STRUT vowel in the North of England, according to Strycharczuk et al. (2020) data is that the vowel is   considerably   raised   compared   to   Southern   British   English   [ʌ],   but   the   quality   is   not necessarily identical to FOOT. (Strycharczuk et al. 2020) Bath and Strut  The BATH vowel is shorter and relatively more front in the North, compared to the South, whereas the STRUT vowel is higher in the North compared to the South(Strycharczuk et al. 2020). The vowel /a:/ exists as a contrastive phoneme in Northern English dialects, it is notably   absent  from   the  BATH  set.  Nowadays,   the  short  northern   /a/   is  stigmatized   and described as a flat vowel. The short vowel in BATH words is a feature of all northern English dialects, having gained the pride of the majority of the north. (Strycharczuk et al. 2020; Castro 2008) Mouth Especially in the north part of Yorkshire as well as Scotland,  there is a tendency to pronounce the diphthong /aʊ/ (as in mouth) as a monophthong [aː] (mahth). It is seen as the same as Middle English.  This is  seen as  characteristic  of informal  speech and  can often coexist with the more formal /aʊ/. (Haigh, 2015) Square and Nurse In RP, SQUARE is pronounced with /ɜ:/ and NURSE with the central vowel /ə:/, In dialects of   Yorkshire,   these   two   different   sets   have   merged.   So,   words   like  heard,   nurse  is   often pronounced the same as in square and dare. (Kortmann, 2008) Unstressed vowels (happy, letter)


Varities of English Sirelin Koval The unstressed vowel at the of HAPPY and other words in this set varies between tense and lax realizations. In most parts of Yorkshire lax realizations of this vowel as /, I/ or /ɛ/ are heard. It is sometimes described as a southern feature, which has spread to the north.   The HAPPY  vowel is relatively retracted and lowered, whereas LETTER is somewhat retracted. In often cases LETTER words are lowered. (Kortmann, 2008; Strycharczuk et al. 2020) Initial /h/ Initial /h/ tends to be dropped (e.g. 'appy, 'orrible), which refers to not pronouncing 'h' at all, whether in stressed or unstressed positions. . H-dropping is noticed by Wells (1982) as a feature of accents in the middle north, where he also places Yorkshire. (Syvertsen, 2016) /r/ The most common R sound, when pronounced in Northern England, is the typical English postalveolar approximant but an alveolar tap is also well used. The north is largely non-rhotic, meaning the /r/ is pronounced only before a vowel or between vowels but not after a vowel (word like car, fear). (Syvertsen, 2016) Clear vs dark /l/ A  consonant feature found in Yorkshire, as well as the rest of the north of England, is a weak distinction between clear and dark /l/ (Wells, 1982). There isn't a clear distinction between the  clear   'l'   and   dark   'l'  and  Northern   accents   pronounce   all L sounds   with   some   moderate amount of velarization. Yorkshire assimilation Yorkshire   assimilation  results   in   a   final   voiced   consonant   becoming   devoiced  when followed by a voiceless consonant.  For instance, the  /d/ at the end of  the word "wide" (waɪd) becomes /t/ in "wide trousers". As a result of this, the initial /t/ in the second word can be heard as   "white   trousers"(Wells,   1982).   It's  a   phenomenon   where  voiced  consonant   sounds   when occurring in syllable-final position and also being followed by voiceless consonant sounds, are assimilated by the following of voiceless consonant sounds and change into the corresponding voiceless  consonant  sounds.  Thus,  /b/, /d/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /dZ/, /Z/  and  /g/  change into  /p/,/t/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /tS/, /S/ and /k/, respectively. (Akamatsu, 2009) 


Varities of English Sirelin Koval Lexical Features in Grammar There are found some non-standard grammatical features of Yorkshire English, which is mostly used among older speakers and the working class.  Singular verbs are sometimes used where plurals would be used when comparing it to Standard British English. Also, were can be   used   in   place   of  was  when   it's   connected   to   a   singular   pronoun.   Oftentimes,   nouns describing units of value, distance, height, or weight have no plural marker (for instance 100 pounds  becomes  100 pound). Secondly, the overuse of negative markings is noticed in the language, making it hard to grasp what was being said as well as the article being shortened to just t. When making comparisons (like greater or smaller than), the word nor can be used in the place of  than.  The dialect itself is consists of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Norman origin words. (Yorkshire Dialect. n.d.) Idiomatic Features and prepositions In this section, a short overview of some most common Yorkshire idiomatic expressions will be given together with their explanations. A lot of people living in the Yorkshire region also use and understand classical English idioms and make their modifications from them, some of their own have stayed on the surface. Here are some I have come in contact with while living there or my friends living there sometimes use themselves. It is important to notice that there are several ways to write these phrases, I'll be giving the closest writing on how they are pronounced.  • "What can tha do when thi boots let watter?" translated to "What can you do when your boots let in water?", means that if you have bad luck and your situation can't be changed, you just have to accept it.  • "Were they born in a barn?’ is usually a phrase used by parents, when a child lets the cold in from the outdoors, translating "Were you born in a barn?" • "Tha' knows" meaning "you understand right?" or "you get it". There are some particular usages of prepositions in the Yorkshire accent. The preposition "with" is used instead of "by" in the sense of "through". For example "She lives with himself" instead of "She lives by himself". Some other prepositions that also differ from the standard British English usage are as  follows: Aboon = above, afoor=before, again=against, amang=among; wi/wiw=


Varities of English Sirelin Koval with, hearhand=near. There are some more but these are the ones I have come in contact within my personal life.  Contributions to culture For some people, the Yorkshire dialect might be known because of the famous words of  Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights in 1847. A tale about two aristocratic families living on the West Yorkshire moors. In Downton Abbey, set at a fictional country estate in North Yorkshire,  where a lot  of the servants and  almost  all of the local villagers have Yorkshire accents. In The Game of Thrones, there are characters from the North of Westeros speaking  with Yorkshire accents. The accent can be also be seen in  Hobbit, Harry Potter  films, and  The Secret of the Garden. There are many more authors who are from Yorkshire and have contributed with their writings to the general public. (Yorkshire dialect in ..., n.d; The Reader, 2016) Conclusion It is quite difficult to capture all linguistic features in this short paper, but I believe it offers   a   great   overview   of   how   the   variety   has   formed   and   what   are   differences compared to British English. One of the biggest differences from British English, as I have   heard,   is   how   people   in   Yorkshire   merge   the   definite   article   "the"   with   the following noun. This makes it quite hard to understand what was said. Yorkshire is one of those regions which still preserved the essence of the old  English language and has   resisted   the   influence   of   the   language   revolution.   Yorkshire   dialect   is   rich   in peculiarities and that's worth reading about. 


Varities of English Sirelin Koval List of References Akamatsu,   T.   2009.   Yorkshire   Assimilation. https://minerva.usc.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10347/5657/8%20Akamatsu.pdf? sequence=1&isAllowed=y Crystal, David 2004. The Stories of English. London: Penguin / New York: Overlook Press. Beal, Joan. "English dialects in the North of England: phonology". A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool. Volume 1: Phonology. Volume 2: Morphology and Syntax, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2008, pp. 113-133. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110197181-011 Castro. M. Á. B.2008. The degree of institutionalization and acceptance of certain English dialects. Retrieved 17 January 2022 from https://pdfcoffee.com/english-dialects-pdf-free.html Jackson, P. 1989. Maps of Meaning: An Introduction to Cultural Geography. London: Unwin Hyman.


Varities of English Sirelin Koval Meyerhoff, M. 2011. Introducing sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Strycharczuk,  P., López-Ibáñez, M., Brown, G., &  Leemann,  A. 2020. General Northern English. Exploring Regional Variation in the North of England With Machine Learning. In Frontiers   in   Artificial   Intelligence   (Vol.   3).   Frontiers   Media   SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2020.00048   Haigh, S. E. 2015. Investigating Regional Speech in Yorkshire: Evidence from the Millennium. Retrieved   16   January   2022    https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/10091/1/SHaigh%20Investigating %20Regional%20Speech%20in%20Yorkshire%202015.pdf  Hymes,   D.   1974.  Foundations   in   Sociolinguistics:   An   Ethnographic   Approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Kortmann, B., Upton, C., & Schneider, E. W. (Eds.). 2008. The British Isles. Mouton de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110208399 Labov, W. 1990. The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic change. Language Variation and Change. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394500000338  Mcarthur, T.  Yorkshire,    Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language.  Retrieved  17 January   2022  from   Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ yorkshire Syvertsen,   I.   2016.  Accent  leveling  in   a  “posh   pocket”  of   Yorkshire. https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/51579/Syvertsen_Master.pdf?sequence=1 The   Reader.   2016.   Top   five:   The   literary   Pride   of   Yorkshire.   Retrieved   from   18 January 2022  https://www.thereader.org.uk/top-five-the-literary-pride-of-yorkshire/ Waddington-Feather, J. 1970. Yorkshire Dialect, Clapham: Dalesman. Wells, J. C.  1982. Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press


Varities of English Sirelin Koval Yorkshire Dialect. n.d. World Heritage Encyclopedia. 2016. Yorkshire Dialect. Retrieved 10 January 2022 http://www.worldheritage.org/article/WHEBN0000462975/Yorkshire%20dialect Yorkshire   Dialect   in   Literature   and   Movies.   n.d.   Yorkshire   dialect.   Retrieved   18 January 2022 https://yorkshiredialect.wordpress.com/interesting-things/ Hymes,   D.  1974.  Foundations   in   Sociolinguistics:   An   Ethnographic   Approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
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Foneetika ja inglise keele variandid eksamiküsimused
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Foneetika ja inglise keele variandid eksamiküsimused

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Estuary English - A Controversial Issue
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Estuary English - A Controversial Issue?

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History of the English language

Suppletion Present in languages of different families. Present in Old, Middle and Modern English, though the general tendency is towards more regularity/iconicity so the number of suppletive forms has decreased.In the text: goon ­ to go wenden - to turn Gan was suppletive in Old English, past form: eode.Eode was supplanted by went (past form of wenden) at the end of the Middle English period.To wend has survived in Modern English in phrases such as to wend one's way, we wended homewards (ironic usage). Thus: suppletivity- suppletion ­ different parts of one and the same paradigm come from what were originally different paradigms (different words with close meanings or words in different but close dialects).Suppletion embraces verbs, adjectives, nouns. Be ­ was/were ­been (Old English beon/wesan) (am, art, is, are); in Old English some suppletive forms were used parallel to one another) Good ­better ­ best Bad ­ worse ­ worst Much ­ more ­ most Little ­ less ­ least Estonian

Inglise keel
History of english review questions and answers 2016
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History of english review questions and answers 2016

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OLD ENGLISH - 15 monophtongs, (7 long, 7 short, 1 central), 4 diphtongs, 17 consonants. Free variaton of R, and it was pronounced everywhere. Very much Germanic in character. Quite some special consonants that no longer exist. About morphology: synthetic with numerous aglutinating tendencies. System of tenses Germanic, but with a reduction of tenses. Paradigmatic leveling; Stress shift; Word order; Loan words (Old Norse, Old French). Dual pronouns. Determiners - no separate definite article. Strong and weak verbs. Word order relatively free with tendencies towards SVO. SVO, SOV, VSO most common. Adposition and podposition were both possible (eesliide ja tagaliide). About syntax: clauses were joined much simpler than nowadays, using and, then etc. Because of case syncretion the word order in a sentence became much more important to be able to tell the difference between words. FIRST CONSONANT SHIFT (GRIMM'S LAW) Grimm's Law (also known as the First Germanic

Inglise keele ajalugu
Phonetics Glossary Homework
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Phonetics Glossary Homework

CITATION FORM The citation form of the lexeme is the form that is employed to refer to the lexeme; it is also the form that is used for the alphabetical listing of lexemes in a conventional dictionary. In English, the citation form of a noun is the singular: e.g., mouse rather than mice. For multi-word lexemes which contain possessive adjectives or reflexive pronouns, the citation form uses a form of the indefinite pronoun one: e.g., do one's best, perjure oneself. In many languages, the citation form of a verb is the infinitive: French aller, German gehen, Spanish ir. In English it usually is the full infinitive (to go) although alphabetized without 'to' (go); the present tense is used for some defective verbs (shall, can, and must have only the one form). In Latin, Ancient Greek, and Modern Greek (which has no infinitive), however, the first person singular present tense is normally used, though occasionally the infinitive may also be seen. The pronunciation form in a dictionary

Inglise keele foneetika ja fonoloogia
English Phonetics and Phonology-Mid-term2
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English Phonetics and Phonology. Mid-term2

primary stress in that sentence (or phrase) and all the other syllables have a secondary stress. There are words in English that may be pronounced in two different ways ­ in weak forms, in strong forms. Function words (auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and certain pronouns) have weak forms. Strong forms replace the weak forms­ at the end of the sentence, being contrasted with another word, there is a co-ordinated use of prepositions, emphasis. Problems in phonemic analysis. Essay. There are two main areas of difficulty. The first can be called the problem of analysis: we may accept the principle of the phoneme as a fundamental unit in language, but we find difficulty in deciding what are the phonemes of English. The result of this is that different writers produce different analyses of the phonemic system of English. It is possible to treat each of the pair t, d as a single consonant phoneme - the one-phoneme analysis, and it is

Inglise keele foneetika ja fonoloogia




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