Inglise leksikoloogia 2012 (4)

Review questions
English lexicology
Size of English vocabulary . Average speaker 45,000-60,000 words , a total of about 200,000.
Core and periphery. English has been heavily influenced by other languages . 31.8 % comes from Old English, 45% comes from French, 16,7% comes from Latin , 4,2% other germanic languages and 2,3 other languages. The very core is mono - syllabic (93 of the first 100 words and the other seven are two-syllabic). The core vocabulary is predominantly germanic.
Native and foreign element. Native words belong to very important semantic group (modal verbs -shall, will, can, may; pronouns - I, you, he, my, his; preps- in, out, under; numerals and conjunctions ::but, till , as. Native words are head, arms, back ; mother, brother , son, wife ; snow, rain, wind, sun; cat, sheep , cow; old, young, cold, hot, dark ; do, make, go, come , see. Many native words have developed many meanings (nt, hand, man, head). Most native words have become parts of set expressions , borrowed words haven’t. (nt, heart - to break a heart, to take to heart, to have heart in one’s mouth). Most native words make up large groups of derived and compound words (nt, heart-ly, heart-less, to heart-en, hard hearted, sad hearted) The native elements play a very important role in English. Influence of borrowings – some say that English is so rich mainly due to loan words. The first effect of foreign influences is of course the volume of the vocabulary. Borrowings influence native words stilistically and semantically. If we have 2 words in the language : one native, other borrowed, then they become different in meaning and usage (nt, to meet or to encounter - meaning’s the same , but stilistically different) Under the influence of borrowings native words narrowed their meaning (nt stool-iste, chair was borrowed, chair infuenced stool and it is now a taburet). Borrowings have influenced the English language a lot but native elements should not be disregarded or overlooked.
Latin borrowings cheap , pepper, street , mile, butter, cheese, wine , inch, ounce, pound, kitchen , plum, cup, dish , mint, Leicester , Clocester, colonia, lincoln, fossbrok, mass, monk , nun, bishop, abbot, minster , apostle, pope, altar, hymn, democratic, juvenile, sophisticated, abortion, enthusiasm, permissions, imaginary, allusion, anachronism, dexterity, nucleus, formula , vertebra, corpuscle, atomic, carnivorous, incubate, molecule, i.e- that is, viz- videlicet, etc- et cetera, c.f- confer Latin adjectives for english nouns- nose -nasal, mouth-oral, sun- solar ,
Greek borrowings abbot, angel , apostle, bishop, school, cilinder, cycle, dialogue , cardiac, phonetic , gymnasium, biathlon, pentathlon, decathlon, olympic, diagnosis, prognosis, analysis , technology, epic , drama, poem , tragedy, comedy , theatre, epilogue, prologue, metaphor
Celtic borrowings welsh, walloon, walnut, bannock , bin, brock , badger, caln, whiskey, lock, slogan, arthur , donald and mac.
Scandinavian borrowings take, taken, grasp , catch , call , cast, hit, thrive, want, raise , endow, husband , fellow, gate , sky, ski, skirt, skin, plough, ill, ugly , law, thrall, beck, tharp, breed, and sorgasbord
French borrowings law, culture, fashion, religion , odour, slent, king, queen , lord, lady , duke, duchess, baron, count , countess, page, marquis, prima, leisure, cards, chess, conversation , sport, veal , beef, mutton, venison, brown , parta, ham, gammon, question, mount , vapor, valentine , lone
Spanish borrowings armada, comrade, renegade, flotilla, don, negro, cockroach, embargo , mosquito, vanilla , cargo, sombrero, siesta, anchovy, bonito, castanet, bonanza, salsa , cafeteria, canyon , cigar, cocoa, chocolate, tomato , cannibal, canoe , maize, potato , avocado, female , tobacco, hurricane , barbeque, tortilla , tango, chicle, gringo, tequila , aficionado, patio , cigarillo.
Italian borrowings opera , piano, solo , soprano, baritone, trio, concert , violin, allegro , andante, adagio , a cappella, studio , fresco, miniature, attitude, corridor, balcony, cupola, sonnet, motto, umbrella, parasol, costume, squadron, squad, alarm , brigade, battalion, cartridge, cavalry, infantry, colonel , fiasco, bimbo, influence, mafia , graffito, paparazzo, pizza, pasta , macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, broccoli, tutti-frutti, tiramisu, asti ,
Dutch borrowings boom, buoy, caboose, sloop , skipper, smack, yacht, dock , cruise, freight, scow, spool, kink, easel, etch, landscape , isinglass, dollar , brandy, geneves, tattoo, newizer, gherkien, buckwheat, wagon, boor , pumpkin, walnut, boss, cookie , coleslaw, Santa Clause, the Bronx , Harlem, Brooklyn , Coney Island
Borrowings from Asian languages wallah, curry, coolie, juggernaut, bungalow, pundit, jungle, bandana, toddy, punch , verandah,
Etymological doublets Words that have the same etymological roots but have entered the language differently. One, two or more words derived from one source. E.g. Cattle-chattle, road-raid, guarantee-warranty- guaranty.
Folk etymology 1 - commonly held misunderstanding of the original word. Rosmarine- rosemary, somblind- sand -blind. 2 - when people themselves have made the word up- changed the grammar through time- naperon became apron, nadre-adder.
Archaisms Is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current, many nursery rhymes contain archaisms. Archaic elements that occur only in certain fixed expressions are not considered to be archaisms - be that as it may. For example lyre- music instruments
Neologisms A new word, expression, or usage (a word that is not yet in the dictionary). Soccer-mom, botox , speed -dating, fashionista
Affixation The adding of a grammatical element that is an integral part of a word, but is not the main meaning-bearing part ( known as the ‘ root ’). The -ed of walked and the dis- of dislike are examples .
Prefixes an element placed in the beginning of the word to adjust or to qualify its meaning. (Become, forget , within, dismiss)
Suffixes an element placed in the end of the word to form a derivative. (maker, actor , artist, vixen)
Infixes an element placed in the middle of the word. Almost no true infixes in English, except for colloquial speech and chemical terminology. (Shiznit)
Combining forms A modified form of an independent word that occurs only in combination with words, affixes, or other combining forms to form compounds or derivatives, as electro - in electromagnet or geo- in geochemistry.
Back- formation new words are formed by taking away affixes. (nt, connection , to connect). This process is based on analogy. Back-form is word building and it means coining verbs. (nt, butcher, to butch; sculptor, to sculpt, television, to televise). Rarely some other parts of speech are found (nt, nasty, to nast )
Alphabetisms, initialisms, acronyms words made up of the initial letters (nt, USA, WC)
Clippings, fore clippings, back clippings, ambiclippings Clipping is the word formation process which consists of the reduction of a word to one of its parts- shortening. Three types of clipping:
Fore clipping- retain the final part of the word- racoon - coon, telephone- phone
Back clipping- retains the beginning crocodile- croc, doctor- doc, gasoline-gas
Ambiclipping - middle part is retained- influenza - flu
Clipping means beginning plus beginning, situation comedy- sitcom
Blends blends form if you take beginning plus the end- money plus energy=monergy
Clipped compounds compounds formed by clipping.
Conversion A type of derivation where no suffix is used to change the word class. Catch as a verb and catch as a noun , break-down as a verb and break-down as an adjective .
Compounds Are formed by joining two or more root morphemes. Compounds are often idiomatic in meaning or at least not entirely transparent. Coffe plus pot equals coffeepot
Solid , hyphenated, and open compounds An open compound means that the words of the compound are written separately ( credit card), a hyphenated compound separates the words by hyphen(s) (brother-in-law), a solid compound is formed when the two words are written as one word (typewriter), solid compounds typically begin as two separate words, then become hyphenated words, and finally become solid compounds.
Endocentric and exocentric compounds An endocentric compound consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifiers, which restrict this meaning , doghouse. Exocentric compounds are hyponyms of some unexpressed semantic head (e.g. a person, a plant , an animal...), and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. White-collar.
Meaning change A word typically has not one meaning but several . Fading- an old sense of a word fades away- dies; Radiation - a new sense of words are created. Denotative shift is movement in sideways, a combination of extension and specialization. e.g. gossip— godfather and idle talk.
Metaphor and metonymy Metaphor- based upon a perception of similarity. Mouse - computer mouse and quiet as a mouse. Metonymy- is a word that is not called by its own name but by the name it is associated with – Hollywood.
Meaning restriction and extension. Specialization of meaning- means narrowing the meaning, extended - widened meanings. Generalization.
Meaning degradation and elevation Pejoration (worsening of meaning) deterioration. Amelioration- improvement of meaning.
Monosemy Word only has one meaning.
Polysemy the meaning of the word depends on the sentence. The content- where the word is placed in the sentence.
Homonyms words with the same spelling and pronunciation but a different meaning. Skate , mouth
Homophones words that are pronounced the same. Rose, to-two-too
Homographs words that are spelled the same. Lead, close , wind.
Synonyms words that share the same denotative, different spelling and pronunciation but the same meaning. e.g. male masculine
Opposites (antonyms) words with opposite meanings, e.g. long-short, dead-alive, buy-sell
Hyponyms a word phrase or lexeme of narrower or more specific meaning that comes under another - a wider or more general meaning. A rose is a hyponym but a flower is a hypernym.
Hypernyms (hyperonyms) a word phrase or lexeme of wider or less specific meaning.
Meronyms Semantic relation used in linguistics. Meronymy means a part of a whole. Tree/forest, finger /hand
Holonyms Holonymy defines the relationship between a term denoting the whole and a term denoting a part of, or a member of, the whole.
Collocations Sequence of words or terms which co-occur ore often than words be expected by chance . There are 14 types of collocations. Types of collocations

adjective and noun – bright/harsh light

quantifier and noun - a beam/ray of light

verb and noun - cast light

noun and verb - light glows

noun and noun - a light source

preposition and noun - by the light of the moon

noun and preposition - the light from the window

adverb and verb - choose carefully

verb and verb - be free to choose

verb and preposition - choose between sth

verb and adjective - make/ keep safe

adverb and adjective - perfectly/ not entirely safe

adjective and preposition - safe from attack

short phrases including the headword - the speed of light, pick and choose, safe and sound
Idioms is a rendition of a combination of words that have a figurative meaning. The figurative meaning is comprehended in regard to a common use of the expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made. Drop a line. Break a leg.
Syntactic freezes (irreversible binomials, trinomials) refers to a pair or grouping of words that is used together as an idiomatic expression or collocation , usually conjoined by the words and or or. The order of elements cannot be reversed. Short and sweet . Lo and behold.
Phrasal verbs a verb and a particle and/or a preposition co-occur forming a single semantic unit . This semantic unit cannot be understood based upon the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it must be taken as a whole. Look after, look forward to.
Lexical fields There is diachronic (historical) lexicology that studies origin and development ; syncronic studies voc at a given historical period . There are general lexicology (studies words disregarding particular features of any particular language); special lexicology (studies specific features of a separate language); contrastive (compares vocabularies in different languages).
Componential analysis refers to the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as “present +”, “absent -” or “indifferent with reference to feature +/-”.
Corpus the study of language as expressed in samples of " real world" text. This method represents a digestive approach to deriving a set of abstract rules by which a natural language is governed or else relates to another language.
Concordance line A concordance is an alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or body of work, with their immediate contexts.
KWIC is an acronym for Key Word In Context, the most common format for concordance lines.