English literature (0)

1. Beowulf . The dating of Beowulf is still controversial. The poem is one of the earliest and greatest monuments of the Germanic literatures. The main stories of the poem (the fights of B.) are versions of common folk-tales, but the poet also introduces many incidental stories, some of which belong to the world of ancient Germanic legend. He writes his folk-tales and legends in a web of other events , mainly set in the Baltic Kingdoms. He shows a very rich and leisurely portrayal of this Baltic world, providing many customs like the close relationship between lord and man in the war- band and others . All this encouraged the supposition that the unknown author of the poem was himself a bard of the ancient type portrayed within the poem (a lord’s scoop ). However , many people propose that the author could be Christian poet, perhaps a monk, versed not only in old native traditions, but also in the culture and literature of the Latin Church , and whose purpose of writing was highly moral. For example, the fate is a ‘providentia’ and the monster Grendel is an embodiment of evil fighting against Christian militant. This contrast corresponds to the poem itself. The poet is looking back from his own Christian times to an old society with different customs and beliefs . The poem is set, as it is announced in the very first line: ‘in days gone by’. For instance , the poet and his fellow Christians who can know that Grendel belongs to the race of monsters descended from Cain. For the Danish king he is the only a mysterious creature, for he doesn’t know the Bibel . Again , when aged B. is killed by the dragon , the poet observes that his soul departs from the body . Yet the hero ’s people, the Geats, in the pagan manner burn his body and bury his ashes with much treasure. This is what В commanded in a dying speech of a pagan who cannot hope for anything more than earthly remembrance after death . Important thing about В is that both the characters and the narrator continually look before and after and this can sometimes seem difficult to the reader – to make clear what in the narrative present is actually happening. For example, after his defeat of Grendel, young В receives from grateful Danish host the gift of a rich collar . Instead of describing what the collar looked like, the poet first compares it to a collar in ancient legend, and then, looking forward , says that it was later carried by В lord and lost by him on his disastrous raid against the Franks. In the poem it is considered very essential to bear in mind both past and future, it is wisdom . But true understandings, and especially a correct anticipation of future events, are things not easy to achieve in an uncertain world. For example, as a young man of little experience В determines to give the unarmed Grendel a sporting chance by himself using no weapons (which proved to be a fortunate decision , since Grendel is protected by magic against all weapons). Things go Beowulf’s way. Conversely, as an old man fighting with the dragon, he is wrong expecting that he can survive as he always did. They both are doomed to death. ‘Fate goes ever as it must’ says the poet. The course of life cannot be predicted with any certainty. One can hope only to foresee what is able and meet the unforeseen with dignity and resolution. That’s the poem’s deepest wisdom. A similar view of life is to be found in many other OE poems .
2. Chrst. Elem. In OE lit. The dream of the road . This poem stands supreme with its peculiar boldness and brilliancy. It describes not the biblical event itself but a vision or dream in which that event, the Crucifixion, is both symbolically represented and narrated by a participant . The functions of both symbol and narrator are performed by the rood , Christ ’s Cross . It first appears as a visionary symbol of overpowering mystery . It is a towering tree, at one moment covered in gold and jewels , at the next soaked in blood . But then the Cross begins to address the dreamer as an ordinary tree which got involved long ago in events which passed its own comprehension. This narrative of the Crucifixition is even more forceful and the death is also a victory. Using the old language of heroic poetry , The Cross represents itself as the loyal follower of a lord who inexplicably wills his own death. In a normal battle to obey your leader’s command is to help defend his life, but for this follower it is to serve his lord’s absolute will for death by remaining rigidly upright (to stand fast). The Cross speaks for the bewildered humanity of the dreamer, but also for the suffering humanity of Christ. The Cross himself participates in Christ’s sufferings and it can also participate in his glory. After the Crucifixion he is first buried and then raised up and honored (like Christ). The vision has come full circle and now the dreamer can also hope to participate, as one ordinary tree has done , in that victory. The poem ends in a mood of confidence. Now the dreamer can bear solitude and the loss of friends on earth though he sees the way open to a ‘heavenly home’.
3. The Gen. Charst. Of OE poetry and prose . The distinction between verse and prose is by no mean always clear in that period of time. Anglo- Saxon verse is the product of a tradition which reached far back into pre-literate times and which was challenged and eventually replaced after the Conquest by a quite different tradition, so to say Eng poetry began with an end. But by contrast, the earliest monuments of English prose represent the true beginning of a tradition of written prose. But indeed the only work of prose which can claim a foothold of English literature is ‘Mandeville’s Travels’ and it’s translated from the French . With the religious works bulk much larger and important writers are Thomas More, Jeremy Taylor, etc. The main tradition of vernacular prose began in England in late 800s with the Anglo-Saxon chronicle and with the group of translations made or inspired by the king himself. However, the best of Anglo-Saxon prose was produced a century later by the monks Wulfstan and Ælric, who left a large number of writings devoted to the exposition of Christian faith . That includes homilies and Saint’s Lives. It is now believed that these monks were responsible for developing the form of written English known as Late West Saxon. Ælric was a grammarian, he wrote the first Latin grammar in English. One of the main characteristics is immediacy.
4. The medieval and eliz . world picture . The Elizabethan age was the age of the renaissance , but the Elizabethans were much closer to a medieval way of thinking . Above all earthly and cosmic laws or orders there is Law in general. The divine reason is beyond our understanding , yet we know it’s there. God’s law is eternal. St. Paul’s scheme of sin and salvation: the revolt of the bad angels under Lucifer because of their pride , the creation , the temptation and fall of man, the incarnation, the atonement, the regeneration through Christ. When God had made the world he found it good and he created man in his own image but with the Fall of Man both man and the universe were corrupted. So the disorder and chaos are products of sin and are perpetually striving to come again. Man’s only way to salvation is through God’s grace . The chain of being is a metaphor served to express the unimaginable plenitude of God’s creation, its order and unity . The chain stretched from the foot of God’s throne to the meanest inanimate objects. Every tiny part of creation was a link in the chain and there could be no gap. First there is mere existence, the inanimate class : the elements , liquids and metals , next- existence and life, the vegetative class, next- existence, life and feeling , they lead up to man, who has not only existence, life and feeling, but understanding. But as there had been an inanimate class, so to balance it there must be a purely rational or spiritual one: the angels. Every class in the chain may excel in a single particular . Beasts are stronger than men, men have the power of learning (angels don’t). Within every class there is the most excellent specimen the dolphin-fishes, the eagle -birds, the lion -beasts, the emperor -men, God-angels, the sun, the justice, the head. The 4 elements (earth, water, air, fire ) formed the ladder of the own, the highest -heavenly fire, God. The elements were the material for the whole universe. The air above the moon was considered as the 5th element, called ether. The angels are arranged in a definitive order, 3 main orders are: highest is contemplative, consists of Seraphs, Chembs and Thrones . Second is more active- Dominations, Virtues, Powers. Third-the most active-Principalities, Archangels, Angels, they form the medium between the angelic hierarchy and man. Each order of angels had to regulate one of the spheres-primum mobile , the fixed stars and planets. Nature is a direct and involuntary tool of God. Elements: the Earth, centre of the universe ( cold and dry), the Water (cold and moist), the air (hot and moist), the Fire (hot and dry). The elements were always mixed and in a war with each other. Man’s anatomy corresponded with the physical ordering of the universe. Vital heat , the energy inside him is like fires in the centre of the earth.
5. The cult . Impact of the Norman Conquest on the eng.lit. trad . The circumstances of writers changed greatly in the years after Conquest. The West -Saxon written standard collapsed and English writings were excluded, native traditions lost much of the status . During this period the English poetry and prose flourished mainly towards the margins of society. One of the most obvious changes was the introduction of the Latin- based Anglo-Norman language, displacing the Germanic-based Anglo-Saxon. Because the language of ruling classes . Brought the domination of French. But the natural tradition survived, vernacular literature is saved, since most of it was transmitted orally. Anglo-Saxon gradually evolved into ME. Several poems had survived, ‘Orrmulum’ – verse translation of parts of the Gospels, ‘the Owl and the Nightingale ’- the first example of debate – opposed positions , use every argument to attack and defend. Owl- monastic, strict; nightingale – free, amorous spirit. Agree only in admiring the man, who is to judge between them . One of the first comic poems. England itself is shown for the first time.
6. Chivalry. In it narrow sense denotes collectively all those warriors who had formally and ceremonially taken up Knighthood. Wider – the obligations, estate and style of life of those entitled, from their childhood, to reach the knighthood, but who may or not be knights in fact, The classic virtues of good knighthood are honour , courage, hardiness, truthfulness, loyalty, generosity. Later, as the warrior rose on the social seal, nobility, courtesy and his role as the protector of the community became pronounced. First duty was to defend the faith of Christ against unbelievers, second – to protect his temporal lord and the territories entrusted to him. Had to be wise , able to see justice, administer his estates. He had to be in constant training, motives for seeking knighthood should be pure. Honour had to be prized over everything. A knight should be without blemish, avoid pride, false-swearing, treason- the darkest crime. Slaying one’s lord, adultery with his wife or surrendering his castle . Cowardness in the field , like treason, was punished by death. Another crimes-dishonourable conduct toward women , beating, raping. No robber, pirate, murder , violater of church could be knight.
7. Courtly love. The favour to be found with ladies is one of the main topics of the competitions. With the improved standards of living , war band had to rethink their attitude to women. Marriage could be only between people of one rank , there was loyalty between relatives, which often brought to intermarriage. The prime functions were dynastic alliance and purity of the lineage. So sexual relationships were strictly watched, so there had to be found a way to protect noblewomen and to change the sexual energies of hot-headed young into socially acceptable behavior. The culture of courtly love removed the lady from within the reach of her social interiors by putting her on a pedestal. The men around her are allowed to focus their desire on her person in an asexual and controlled way. Man could become her champion in tournaments or dedicate his heart to her in poetry and song . The knight’s service of the object of his secret desire, the cult of the lady became very important. In the 12th century there was a revolution in sensibility in Europe . Human emotions were no longer regarded as a disease . Human love- could be seen as an image of what it meant to love God. The Mother of God, a gracious lady and loving mother could be also worshipped. The cult of Mary emerges and runs parallel with the chivalric idealization of women. For the change of sexual passion into a cult of an idealized woman the warrior had to undergo a cultural transformation. This became possible when he was taken to the king or a great nobleman’s court . The courts were run by well-educated clerics who spread the idea of courtier manners and morals. The virtues prized were: no boasting, gentleness, friendliness, moderation, temperate moods . In this times literature and culture of ancient Rome was paid much attention . The works of Virgil, Horace, and Ovid were read, students studied them. Trained in the classics, but in touch with the aspirations and realities of medieval society, the clerks created the chivalric romance of love-new attitude to women. Before, the chansons that were written about war bands had ignored relationships between sexes. The chivalric romance of lobe is influenced by works of Ovid, the favourite Latin poet in the MA. The philosophy of Courtly Love perceives sexual love as ennobling, owes its idealism to Plato and his Neo- Platonist followers. 2 worlds 1) eternal, ‘ ideas ’. 2)sense- world of time and change. Soul – cosmic and human, is an intermediary between them. The soul is constantly struggling while the intellect is changeless and eternal. C.L as a set of ideas appears in the songs of the troubadours in Provence. C.L is the privilege of the knightly class. The relationship between the lover and his lady is similar to feudal service, he seeks her love not for personal enrichment or dynastic considerations, but because he desires her as a person and hopes to be judged by his achievements. It can never lead to marriage, because either they are married , or socially don’t suit , the secrecy is vital. But the lover should love only one lady.
8.Medev.lit.in the rom. Mode. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Nothing is known about the author, except that he probably wrote the 3 religious poems- Pearl , Patience and Purity. The dialect points to an origin in provincial England. The author was a most sophisticated and urbane writer , must have been contemporary of Chauser. S.G combines two plots: the beheading contest, in which 2 parties agree to an exchange of blows with a sword or ax, and the temptation, an attempted seduction of the hero by a lady. The motif of the green man’s decapitation originates in very ancient folklore , probably in a vegetation myth in which the beheading would have been a ritual death that insured the return of spring to the earth. The poet studies how successfully Gawain, as a man wholly dedicated to Christian ideals , maintains those ideals. Rare combination- a comedy- even a satire- of manners and a profoundly Christian view of character and destiny . The court of King Arthur is presented as the place where the ideal of chivalry has reached its zenith. But when it is invaded by the Green Knight, arrogant, monstrous, but reasonable , it suddenly becomes slightly unreal - as if the poets worked harder than the knights to enhance its glory. Sir Gawain was one of the best knights, his symbol was pentangle- truth, one of the most important qualities . Truth is put to the test in Gawain’s quest to seek out the Green Chapel where he will presumably die under the Green Knight’s return blow. On of the latest and certainly the best of the ME romances. Fiction full of comic touches, significant achievement . Belongs to Alliterative Revival, a sudden appearance of a body of poems in the alliterate meter of OE verse.
9. The story of the Holy Grail. The most mystical and spiritual. Rooted in the mythology of all races is the best belief in a land of peace and happiness , earthly paradise, once possessed by man, but now lost. When Lucifer was cast out of Heaven , one beautiful stone fell from his crown upon earth and from it was made a vessel, which came into the hands of Joseph. He offered it to Jesus who used it in the Last Supper. It was thought to have magical powers. After the cruxification it stayed in the hands of Joseph, Jews cast and water for a year . This time the Roma emperor heard the story of Christ’s passion and decided to bring some holy relic to cure his son. Went to dungeon, where Joseph was well and strong . Amazed he set him free. Departed with his sister her husband for a distant land, where the Holy Grail supplied all their needs until one of them committed a sin. Moses (sat on the place of Juda). The later history is variously related. Carried by Joseph to Glastonbury, where it long remained visible and vanished only when men became too sinful. Titurel- virtuous, chosen as a guardian, H.G showed only once, temple on that place –‘Templars’. H.G was freeing and curing them, giving God messages. Titurel was 400y old, married, 2 children.
10. Percival . Descendant of Titurel, his mother took him to the forest and brought up in solitude and ignorance. But back in the temple God’s message said that soon a hero appears to heal the sufferings and become a new guardian of H.G. Complete ignorance, met knights in brilliant amour , advised to go to king’s Arthur. Mother made him look like a fool and gave bad horse , P. didn’t care. Mother gave him ridiculous advises, died from sadness as he left. A kiss for every lady he meets. Kissed a lady, met a maiden whose lover was killed by Red knight. Went to study , after the year was complete knight. Saved the Queen , married, went to search for his mother. Arrived to the castle of his family, told to be expected , H.G. He should have asked for the cause of suffering of a king, Am fortas, but for amazement and politeness he didn’t. Gatekeeper cursed him. Maiden explained. Tried to go back, but couldn’t find . Defeated the husband of 1st lady. Travelled in search of H.G. Considered to be a madman. Was made a knight, but then the messenger of H.G appeared, blaming and cursing for failing in his duty. Went again in a quest followed by his admirer Gawain. Met his uncle , step - brother . Found the castle, broke the evil curse, king was healthy. Great grandfather Titurel placed a crown on his head and named the defender of H.G, Many versions, that it was sought to vain, carried up to heavens and never seen again, brought to Far East .