English literature from the
Baroque to the Romanticism
1. The Jacobean Masque
The development of the cultural scene in England brought about the Jacobean masque. The
courtly culture became gradually more distant and isolated from the public. Ben Jonson was to
become the poet who would write masques for the court. He would, in his masques, try to
represent the idea of kingship as it resided in the Platonic realm, and not its reality. Jonson’s aim
was also to be educative. Inigo Jones, Jonson’s collaborator, was the one to revolutionize in the
field of visual perception, also adding moving machinery and a manipulation of artificial light to
the scenery. Jones also viewed the masque as something to be used in educating people. This idea
of art as an educative vehicle soon affected all the different areas of courtly life. Jones’s masque
sets, for example, educated the audiences about classical antiquity and classical architecture.
Jonson and Jones were the ones who gave the Stuart court an entertainment which linked poetry
and moral philosophy to art. This was achieved by tying together the art of music, dance, poetry,
and visually representing them in lavish illusionistic scenic display. In this way, kingship was
portrayed as divine along with its doctrines, as it was also carefully formed into an educational
experience. (Coursebook, pp. 5-7)
2. The Caroline Masque
The Caroline masque, above all, emphasized the interdependence of the arts and the Crown. The
masques covered the years of Charles’s personal rule without summoning the Parliament. The
court was staking a claim to everlasting fame through its patronage of the arts. Culture and
political ideology became more and more entangled with each other. The arts were supposed to
create an image for the nobility to follow and to present ideals to which one should adhere. This
also meant that the king and the queen were supposed to be seen as personifications of these
ideals. Charles I adopted the Roman imperial style when it came visually presenting his own
reign. The association between this kind of political philosophy and art was summed up in
Thomas Carew’s masque Coelum Britannicum. Peace became the recurring theme of courtly
celebrations. Masques were at the heart of the court’s cultural life, and thus they were used to
portray the king and the queen as something more than mere human, for example, the queen
acquired the role of a Platonic love goddess. The masques provided a valuable way to influence
the subjects, and the fact that they were perceived as important is proved by their cost, in fact, the
money that went into organising a single celebration could have paid for a small army.
(Coursebook, pp. 38-42)
3. The 17th-century 'metaphysical' poetry (Donne, Quarles, Herbert,
Crashaw, Vaughan, Marvell).
It could be said that it was John Donne who laid the foundations for the development of
metaphysical poetry. When compared to the poets of the past, Donne’s style was unique. His
works are filled with vivid metaphors and religious references. In his poems, Donne focused
mainly on thoughtful argumentation. Francis Quarles was another important figure in the
development of metaphysical poetry. His most famous works include books like Emblemes,
Hieroglyphikes, Life of Man. While Quarles continued in the steps of Donne, George Herbert
focused more on religion in terms of theme. His body of work is filled with Christian imagery,
ideas, and influence. Richard Crashaw was a metaphysical poet whose works are full of
emotional intensity. His main theme was, similarly to Herbert, was religion. Another poet whose
works are thematically similar to Herbert’s was Henry Vaughan. The latter’s work could be
described as reserved, and he made use of secular and natural imagery. Andrew Marvell was
another poet who used natural and religious imagery in his poems. Marvell also made references
to politics. He managed to combine the influences of different metaphysical poets while keeping
his own originality. (Coursebook, pp. 8-10; Sanders, pp. 194-209, 235-238)
4. The arrival of classicism in England. The impact of the art
collections of the Earl of Arundel and Charles I.
The arrival of classicism had a huge impact on the cultural identity of the British. One of the most
remarkable things that happened was the further sophistication of the cultural output.
Architecture, art and literature received more emphasis. Different areas to do with culture drew
inspiration from the age of classicism. This movement was greatly influenced by many important
figures. Perhaps the greatest proponents of this movement were the Earl of Arundel and Charles
I, both of whom possessed great collections of Italian antiquities and artwork. Their art
collections definitely left an impact, as they represented the pursuit of a greater ideal through art.
(Coursebook pp. 25-31)
5. The Caroline court culture and Cavalier poetry (Carew, Suckling,
Lovelace, Waller, Cowley, Herrick).
Thomas Carew was a known figure in the Caroline court because of his masques and poems.
Perhaps his most well-known masque is Coelum Britannicum, which was written in 1634. In it,
the court witnessed the progression from Romano-British classicism to Renaissance. Sir John
Suckling was a Cavalier poet known for his wit and gaiety. Suckling’s most popular poem is
Ballade upon a Wedding. Richard Lovelace was a Caroline poet, who manages to paint a picture
of the lovelorn Cavalier in war, while still celebrating the beauties of his graceful heroine.
Lovelace’s most well-known works are To Lucasta, going to the Wars and To Althea from
Prison. Waller was another Cavalier poet, who during his lifetime was quite renowned. Like the
other Cavalier poets, Waller’s work celebrates the king and queen as a heroic couple. His poems
are dedicated to Henrietta Maria as ‘Queen of Britain, and the Queen of Love’. Robert Herrick
was another famous poet of the time. His most famous work is a book of poems called
Hesperides. The beginning of this book of poems expressed clear defiance regarding the
execution of the king that year. Cowley was a well-known poet of the time, whose works
gathered a lot of popularity during his lifetime. (Coursebook, pp. 38-48)
6. The Caroline "beauty of holiness".
The Caroline “beauty of holiness” regarded the profoundness of Caroline piety and its beauty. In
the context of the Caroline era, the sermon was perhaps comparable to the theatre, in terms of the
attention it received from the public. The most important poet whose creation carried heavy
themes of piety was George Herbert. His poetry is considered to be the monument to “beauty of
holiness”, that practice of the liturgy with good order and ritual which was the essence of the
king’s religious policy and the object of loathing by his Puritan opponents. Herbert gives praise
to the things that the Puritans wished to do away with. For example, he emphasizes the
importance of ritual, the mystery of the sacraments offering praise to the angels and so forth.
Although the churches had fallen into disrepair by the 1620s, the state of the church as a holy
place was resumed eventually by the movement which put importance on this aspect of “beauty
of holiness”. Eventually, even a beautification and restoration programme was launched in which
painting and sculpture returned as aids to the liturgy. (Coursebook, pp. 45-47)
7. 17th century philosophical writings (Burton, Browne, Hobbes)
Robert Burton was an English writer, whose most famous work is considered to be The Anatomy
of Melancholy. It discusses and tries to analyze the nature of melancholy, but also human emotion
in general. It is written in a style that could also be described as poetic, filled with several
references to Greek mythology. Regarding religion, Sir Thomas Browne’s Religio Medici holds
an important place. In it he tries to establish the validity of both Protestant and Catholic views,
having experienced both sides of the argument. The main conclusion that he reaches is that no
one should be condemned based only on religious views. Perhaps one of the most important
philosophers of the17th century, Thomas Hobbes, is mainly known for his highly influential The
Leviathan. In it, he analyzes society, how it is structured, how it should work and why such a vast
structure is needed. He puts a lot of emphasis on what is called the “social contract theory”.
Concerning the political situation of his time, the Commonwealth Government is represented as a
Leviathan that should not tolerate rebellion, while not being tyrannical, and rule over its people
with this “contract” in mind. (Sanders, pp. 216-220)
8. The political prose of the Civil War period
There are a few main themes that the political prose of the Civil War period deals with. Perhaps
the most prominent of those themes is the topic of civil rights, but also the role of government,
military, freedoms of the people and religion. Additionally to prose, the political messages and
ideas were also spread by pamphlets. Conformity and propaganda played a big role in all that had
to do with politics. This was one of the signs of the chaotic period that England was suffering
from during the time. (Sanders, pp. 220-225)
9. Milton. Paradise Lost.
John Milton is one of the most celebrated English authors. He has been compared to the likes of
Shakespeare and Dante. It is apparent that Milton’s works were motivated by religious
convictions, which must be understood if one wants to avoid misreading him. The ingenuity of
Milton lies in the fact that he deliberately set out to write about things that no one had yet
attempted to write about. He also held a firm belief regarding his own poetry: that it must teach,
not only instruct the mind, but also purify and elevate the heart. He was devoted to justifying the
ways of God to men, more specifically, that in order to understand God’s message, men must
open and purify their hearts. Paradise Lost, which is perhaps Milton’s most well-known poem, is
a prayer addressed to God from all mankind. Thus Milton attempts to prepare the hearts of men
for the coming of the Spirit who will lead men to the truth about God and themselves. The
experience that the reader gets from Paradise Lost relies heavily on how well acquainted he is
with Milton’s doctrine. (Coursebook, p. 11; Sanders, pp. 231-235)
10.
17th century autobiographical writing (Pepys, Evelyn)
Pepys was one of the most celebrated English diarists of the 17th century. A view at his work and
the events of his life clearly tells us that he was a supporter of the Crown. His century saw an
increase in autobiographical writing, which was accredited to a rise in interest regarding self-
analysis and individual experience. Pepys’s diary closely records his experience in court politics
and aristocratic manners. He also wrote down the distinctions between the tastes of “Citizens”
and those of the Restoration court. Samuel Pepys’s diary covers the period of 1660-1669,
breaking off on May 31 1669 with a mournful reflection on “all the discomforts” that would
accompany what he had reason to believe was the onset of blindness. However, he never went
blind, but he also did not start another diary. Regarding his work, it can be said he was not simply
self-indulgent, but wrote fairly of his daily affairs and the life surrounding him. He wrote on
topics such as gossip, everyday comforts, politics, disasters (for example, such as the plague of
1665), medical progress, novelty in poetry, and much more. John Evelyn was another diarist and
a friend of Pepys. Compared to the latter’s, the diary of Evelyn, however, seems staid, self-
consciously pious, and even reserved. It is a far more formal record of public events. Evelyn’s
work also included informed reflections on the high culture and scientific enterprise of the period.
He was known as a connoisseur, an amateur antiquarian, and above all, as the author of Sylva: or
a Discourse of Forest Trees, a scientific disquisition on the art of arboriculture and the cultivation
of the informal garden. Evelyn’s diary covers the period of 1620-1706, from the reign of James I
to that of Queen Anne. The first part of the diary was an account of his family, his youth, and an
educational tour across Western Europe during the time of the Civil War was written
retrospectively in 1660. The second part dates from the early 1680s, and only the third part,
dealing with the years from 1684 onwards, is actually a contemporary diary. (Sanders, pp. 239-
242)
11.
17th century religious prose (Donne, Andrewes, Bunyan)
John Donne delivered his sermons in a way that was quite focused on helping the listener
visualize, while also relaying important information. Donne used plenty of metaphors, in
accordance with the vivid imagery that describes his general work. His work is witty, intelligent,
and paints a meaningful picture for the audience. His religious texts handle themes like sin,
judgement, and even death. He seems to hold a position that individual suffering could be
considered to be, in fact, collective suffering, as every human is part of God’s creation, thus the
loss that is experienced by one person affects us all. Regarding style, contrary to Donne,
Andrewes emphasized clear argumentation. He did not focus on using vivid language. The
religious prose of Lancelot Andrewes came in the form of sermons. The content itself oozes the
rigidness of the Puritan worldview, as opposed to that of the Catholic one. What makes the work
of Bunyan different from the previously mentioned authors is that in this case, the author was
actively confronting his own beliefs and spirituality. From this, it can be understood why
Bunyan’s work can be spiritually evoking. The Pilgrim’s Progress is a great example of this:
stylistically, it is vivid, while also certainly chaotic. His work is filled with allegory and
references to the religious texts and stories of the Christian faith. (Sanders, pp. 195-203, 245-247)
12.
The baroque style as the embodiment of the Restoration
ethos
Regarding the baroque style and its relation with the Restoration ethos, the aspects of order and
chaos, and the dynamic between the people and the monarchy bear great importance. An obvious
representation of order was the monarchy, while the continuing political turmoil brought chaos to
the table. The king represented an ideal, and this is apparent because the monarchy was the main
object of baroque art in general. The monarchy was associated with the divine, with power, and
with order. By extension, it was implied that without the monarchy, chaos, represented in the
baroque art by paradoxes and illusions, would dominate. In this way there existed a certain
balance, and the cultural development of the British society is strongly reflected in the ideas that
baroque art sought to represent. (Coursebook, pp. 74-78)
13.
Restoration poetry (Rochester, Sackville, Sedley, Dryden).
Out of all the poets of the Restoration era, Rochester is considered to be the most subtle, brilliant
and scurrilous. He was capable of adjusting and interfusing the seeming anomalies of tenderness
and cynicism, domesticity and debauchery, quick wit and meditative seriousness in his nature.
Rochester loved to write about speculative matters. He also delighted in pleasures that dulled and
unperplexed thought. For example, in Upon Drinking in a Bowl he proclaims Cupid and Bacchus
his patron saints, washes his cares with wine, and turns to Love again. His poem Upon Nothing
plays with the theological concept of a Nothing from which Something emerges, but it is also
haunted by a sense of futility and universal human hypocrisy and finally it sees Nothing as an
unholy trinity of sorts. Charles Sackville was an English poet known for his wit. He was a patron
to many and was also a friend of John Dryden. Sackville’s satires in heroic couplets anticipated
and influenced the style of Alexander Pope. Charles Sedley was another English Restoration poet
and dramatist. His plays span the period 1668-1687. Notable among them is Bellamira which is a
racy and amusing rehandling of the theme of the Eunuchus of the Roman playwright Terence.
However, he is well known for his lyrics and verse translations. One of his most famous work in
this department is Phillis is my only charm, which, in common with his other lyrics, possesses
grace and charm. John Dryden was one of the dominating figures in the literary life of England
during the Restoration period. In his poetry, Dryden strove for Latinate precision, control, and
clarity, but he also held other English poets, for example, Chaucer, in high regard. Dryden was
amongst the last influential writers to have sought and won discriminating court patronage and
advantageous royal promotion. In April 1668, he was appointed Poet Laureate and in 1670 he
also obtained the post of Historiographer Royal. Throughout his career he seems to have
projected himself as an official spokesman in poetry. For example, the two fulsome panegyrics
addressed to Charles II, Astraea Redux and To His Sacred Majesty, testify to a desire to be a
representative voice. The poem Annus Mirabilis, is both a tribute to London’s ordeal during the
Great Fire and a patriotic and emphatic royalist statement in the face of metropolitan resentment
of the restored monarchy. Dryden’s years writing in the theatre helped him to shift focus in his
verse towards character. Dryden’s satire was a mixture of reasoned argument, refined technique
and incentive. Dryden also defended the authority of the Church with his philosophico-religious
poems: A Laymans Faith and The Hind and the Panther. (Sanders, pp. 253-261; Britannica)
14.
Restoration drama (Dryden, Etheridge, Wycherley,
Congreve).
Regarding Restoration drama, it is apparent that many authors drew inspiration from
Shakespeare. For example, this can be seen to be true with Dryden. His play All for Love: or, The
World Well Lost claims to imitate the style of “the Divine Shakespeare” while radically
rearranging the story of Antony and Cleopatra. The steady dignity of Dryden’s blank verse in All
for Love, and his decorous tidying-up of Shakespeare’s complexities of conformity with neo-
classical canons are what make it an engaging play for the audience. Characteristic of Dryden
was the fascination with the dilemmas of the great in antique or exotic settings. Two authors of
the Restoration era who also acquired fame were Sir George Etheridge and William Wycherley.
Their work is characteristic of the hybrid, symmetrical, sexual comedy popular in the reign of
Charles II. Both are considered to be masters of comedy which accentuates the artificiality of the
stage. Etheridge’s The Comical Revenge: or Love in a Tub was said to have “got the Company
more Reputation and Profit than any preceding Comedy”. The Man of Mode: or, Sir Fopling
Flutter is considered to be Etheridge’s funniest and most well-crafted play. It, much like The
Comical Revenge, deals with a successful philanderer, whose adulation is brought to a dashing
crescendo. The Man of Mode, is in its nature an ambiguous play, designed to divert a cynical
world and to vex moralizing ones. Wycherley amused with the dubious morals of society, and he
disconcerts more than he disturbs. He both enjoys and acknowledges the dangers of posturing.
His plays suggest that high society’s cultivation of the superficial puts more importance on wit
and politeness than on personal decency. His play The Country-Wife displays mastery of
construction and situation. The Plain-Dealer is a play that could be considered to be romantic,
but at the same time savage. It follows the story of ambiguous and world-hating Manly, who,
instead of facing the inevitability of rejecting the shams and deceptions of a parasitic society, is
delivered into the hands of chastely honest and abstract Fidelia. A recognizable talent who was
praised even by Dryden himself as the heir to the mantles of Etheridge and Wycherley, was
William Congreve. He achieved major success with his three plays The Old Bachelour, The
Double-Dealer and Love for Love. He acquired his mastery through a combination of talent and
experience, learning with each play from his own mistakes and taking inspiration from his
predecessors regarding form and technique. In contrast to his early popularity, his last, and
admittedly most brilliant play, The Way of the World, was a failure with the public. According to
some commentators, however, the play was a culmination of dramatic experiments of forty years,
and the greatest play of the Restoration period, allowing for true wit, genuine feeling and social
satire. (Sanders, pp. 266-271)
15.
The impact of Newton and the principals of natural
philosophy on 17th- and 18th- century poetry and prose
The ideas of natural philosophy completely transformed the way people started seeing and
experiencing the world. Philosophers deviated from the traditional medieval and Aristotelian
methods of acquiring knowledge. Instead, all beliefs and ideas were examined rationally and had
to be supported by evidence via the senses. Advances in technology led to new discoveries,
which seemed to suggest that the universe was a perfect system, something that was designed so
intelligently that it was taken as a proof of God’s beneficence. Since the universe was taken as a
perfect system, then thanks to natural philosophy it was also believed that everything that there
was to discover, could be discovered through systematic methods. Isaac Newton was to be the
heroic intellectual of the age. His success resided in combining the empirical method of natural
philosophy with mathematics. In Newton’s view, everything in the universe was intertwined and
connected, things like gravity, the behaviour of light and so on. Mathematic principles also
seemed to present the universe as a perfect machine. In literature, these new ideas took hold, as
they were often used in argumentation together with general intelligent thought. Due to Newton’s
reputation, much of this kind of literature was also meant to praise his discoveries. (Course book,
pp. 82-84)
16.
The emergence of the polite society
In essence, the polite society was a movement in the 18th century which came to be due to the
turmoil that defined the previous century. The idea was to differ from the extremes of the society,
this was to be the role of the so-called polite man. The polite man was someone who could be
described as moderate, well educated, and who would meet with other polite people through
social gatherings meant specifically for that purpose. Thus the need for theatres, coffee houses,
and other places where to socialize, rose. Of course the very nature of the polite society, that one
had to have money to afford this kind of lifestyle, dictated that it was to be a minority, but a
growing one nonetheless. The result of this was the slow change in the behaviour of people: how
they dressed, spoke, danced etc. The language also changed, that is to say, became simpler and
clearer, and unnecessarily convoluted and mysterious language was not used. Naturally, this
extended to literature, especially prose, which had hitherto been flamboyant and cumbersome,
and importance was now put on intellectual commerce and clarity. However, the movement was
not so favourable for poetry and religion due to the fact that these forms of literature relied
heavily on metaphors, wordplays and paradoxes. (Coursebook, pp. 84-86)
17.
Burlington, Palladianism and the new morality
Burlington emerges as one of the most enigmatic and mysterious figures in the history of British
civilization. He was a man with a keen and perceptive mind and senses. Burlington was a pivotal
figure in the development of the arts. He had a taste for music and art: in 1719 a company had
been established to introduce Italian opera to England and Burlington was one of the three major
aristocratic sponsors. Additionally, on his second journey to Italy, he negotiated for the services
of the famous composer, Giovanni Bononcini, who arrived in London the following year.
Burlington enjoyed royal favour, even with the ascension of George II. It is apparent, however,
that this came to an end in 1733, when their relationship with the court collapsed for reasons that
are not entirely certain. After that Burlington started to run into debt problems, and he died on 3
December 1753. New research also indicates that Burlington was, in fact, a Jacobite loyal to
James III, although he took great care to seem distant from anyone associated with the Jacobite
cause. Then there was his role as a freemason, another aspect of mystery, considering that in the
1720s Jacobite freemasonry went underground. These discoveries reframe the Palladian revival
as an expression of a period of continuing political and religious debate. Those who were against
the new regime, expressed their position by a cult of Ancient Virtue, that is by a celebration of
the moral example set by the Romans in antiquity. Through Palladianism, it was not only ancient
architecture that was brought back, since this architecture carried with it a wider ethical critique
of a revival of also ancient virtue. This form of architecture was derived from the designs of
Andrea Palladio, who together with his disciple, Inigo Jones, had a dominant influence on
building in the 18th century. Burlington understood well that the work of these two architects was
rooted in the architecture of classical antiquity and thus he realized exactly what kind of a
tradition he was reviving by, for example, buying the entire architectural drawings of Inigo Jones,
John Webb and Palladio himself. Burlington realized that in order to achieve the Palladian
revival, originality of invention was also needed. For example, in 1717, he turned his own house
into a palazzo. Its most striking feature was the graceful Doric colonnade which linked its
courtyard. The most visited became Chiswick, which was something completely new to the
people, since it is essentially a unique synthesis of both antique and modern precedents.
Chiswick’s most daring feature was its employment of interior space, a combination of different
shapes, niches, apses, columns and screening. In Palladianism, the importance of the land that
surrounds the villa is also emphasized. It is evident that Burlington’s campaign for a reformed
architecture achieved its culmination in the decades between 1720 and 1750. The style spread
widely, and underneath it all was a strong feeling for Roman antique severity without concealing
the gilded splendour within. (Course book, pp. 96-100)
18.
The Augustan publishing explosion and expansion of literacy
The Augustan era saw a significant change in culture, as writers were met with a chance to
address a much larger part of the population than ever before, despite the fact that the level of
literacy was still low by today’s standards. Add to this the fact that consuming culture on paper
was not cheap, in fact, the cost of a novel could, in those times, feed a family for a week. It is
important to note that the majority of cultural activity depended on paper, due to which printers,
publishers, engravers and print-sellers, played a vital role. The turning point came with the lapse
of the Licensing Act in 1695. This meant that censorship effectively ceased, which resulted in the
expansion of the publishing industry. Magazines like the Tatler and the Spectator, which became
foundation stones of early Georgian cultural attitudes, emerged. Everywhere newspapers came
into being. In fact, copyright came under threat due to unscrupulous booksellers who cornered the
market, but their influence was curtailed to an extent by a Copyright Act. The publishing
explosion also released an extraordinary flood of prints, trade cards, and illustrated books. Images
became as important as words. Consequently, more people could experience works of art than
ever before. Many people became more invested in the Fine Arts, and literacy grew immensely.
Letter writing became something to indulge in, which also indicated a desire to develop personal
relationships. By 1760, 60% of the male population and 40% of the female population could read.
The growth of literacy brought about the increase in popularity of magazines and demand for
books. This was an age in which reading and writing became an important part of life. (Course
book, pp. 141-157)
19.
The general principles of Neoclassicism in literature. Pope’s
Essay on Criticism
Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of Neoclassical literature was the influence of authors from
the classical period. The classical works bear undeniable importance, however, it was often
thought about whether contemporary writers should imitate these classical authors or not.
Because of this simple yet intriguing question, an approach was developed in regards to what
good literature should be. To men of learning, clarity was of utmost importance, so the text could
also be understood by commons or the less educated. Naturally, this kind of style excelled in
prose writing, however, due to the fact that the charm of poetry came mostly from complex
language and metaphors, this kind of environment was not very favourable for literature of such
kind. Additionally, Nature became an increasingly popular topic in Neoclassical literature, and
many poets aimed to represent nature in a number of aspects. Pope’s Essay on Criticism was an
attack directed towards some of the Neoclassical trends. He believed the imitation of ancient
authors to be the ultimate standard, and he also criticized poets for settling for cliched topics and
rhymes. One of the ideas that he tried to relay was that literature as a whole should not sway
between extremes, rather, a balanced approach is required: different styles all have their
applications. While, for example, clear and precise writing is to be desired in some forms of
literature, in others metaphors and complex language could be the better choice, such as in
poetry. (Coursebook, pp. 86, 105-107)
20.
The Grand Tour and its impact on British culture
The Grand Tour as a phenomenon came about due to the expansion of British influence in the
world. Essentially, it was a custom of a traditional trip through Europe, the most important
destination being Italy. The purpose of this kind of travelling was to educate oneself, especially in
matters of culture, gain experience, and go through personal growth. It was certainly seen as an
educational rite of passage for the aristocracy. Naturally, all this promoted the partaking in
cultural activities even further. Educated and wealthy men would start their own private
collections, academies and museums would expand, interest in the cultures of the past grew.
Because of this many artefacts have been preserved until today. One consequence that all this
brought was the immense growth in the popularity of classical style. Most visual art was greatly
influenced in this way, like architecture, sculpture and so forth. However, this came to an end
because of the French Revolution and the was in America. (Coursebook, pp. 158-168)
21.
Augustan journalism (Addison, Steele)
Joseph Addison was an English essayist and a very influential figure in British journalism. In one
of his essays, Addison insists that his contemporaries should begin to question the neo-classical
critical prejudices and grant precedence to the workings of the imagination in the writer and the
reader alike. Addison implies that the imaginative faculty has been implanted in humankind by a
Creator, in order to fully experience and interpret his creation. Addison tried to interlink the study
of literature with scientific theory and attempted to refine public taste in general. Addison’s work
possesses a strong religious aspect; however, his religion is amiable. It elevates morality over
faith and Newtonian physics over revelation. Addison was a propagator of what he took to be
“the best ideas” of his time. The ideal persona that Addison presented was the observant
generalizer who seeks out the serenity of the middle way; the educated common man who speaks
to, and on the behalf of his less articulate fellows. Sir Richard Steele was a contemporary of
Addison. Although he is often left in Addison’s shadow, his professional life was complex and
colourful. However, he failed to appeal to an extensive audience, but not for the lack of variety in
his works. He produced a treatise, in which he aimed to fix upon his own mind strong
impressions of religion and virtue. It steadily rejects stoicism in favour of Christian morality, and
thus found little popularity among his unregenerate officer brothers. Perhaps due to this, a strain
of missionary endeavour ran through much of his subsequent journalism. As a contributor to the
Spectacle, Steele proved a censorious critic of the drama, putting down the moral excesses of the
Restoration stage in favour of the soberer joys of Terence. (Sanders, p. 295-298)
22.
Augustan satire (Dryden, Swift, Pope, Johnson)
Dryden’s satire was primarily influenced by his political views. This is evident in his following
plays: Absalom and Achitophel and The Medall: A Satyre Against Sedition. Regarding the latter,
it is said that the King himself provided the subject for the play. The Medall is a frontal attack on
Shaftesbury’s character and on the political motives of his party, the Whigs. Additionally,
Dryden as a satirist was also motivated by professional rivalry. Such was the case with Thomas
Shadwell, who became the subject of Dryden’s satire not only because of political affiliations but
also due to Dryden’s distaste toward Shadwell’s theatrical work. This negative relationship
reached its culmination with Dryden’s Mac Flecknoe, or A Satyr upon the True-Blew-Protestant
Poet, T.S. This poem goes from criticizing into raging about human stupidity, while also
expressing very strong dislike of Shadwell’s work in literature. Jonathan Swift is considered to be
another great satirist. Swift criticized heavily contemporary society and the fact that true talent
was not given adequate attention. One of his most well-known works is Gulliver’s Travels, which
criticizes societal structures and institutions through Gulliver’s successive voyages. Swift is
characterized by a demanding morality. He abhors all those defects of the human nature that
belong to the category of sin. Alexander Pope is considered to be one of the greatest satirists in
English literature. Pope used satire as a weapon in a land full of people with ill intentions. Pope’s
satiric invectives are immediate responses to the almost universal acrimony of early eighteenth-
century cultural discourse, but they consistently manage to outclass the often venomous
provocations of his rivals. Perhaps his most famous satiric poem is The Rape of the Lock. This
poem particularly shows the extent to which his savage verbal assaults on society and its
shortcomings increased. It takes on the weight of a criticism of the manners of aristocratic society
as observed by an amused friend. Another famous poem, The Dunciad, engages in a less courtly
battle for souls and minds, a battle with often trivial causes but with serious and universal
consequences. In general, Pope’s satire is characterized by wit and metaphors. It deals with the
more negative aspects of contemporary society. Samuel Johnson was another famous writer,
whose satire mainly deals with the talent of the artist and how it is affected by different societal
surroundings. His most distinct work of satire is London: A Poem. It is modelled on the
splutteringly indignant third satire of Juvenal, and reflects on London as a city destructive of
artistic talent and of the physical and mental well-being of the artist. (Sanders, pp. 259, 283-295,
328-331)
23.
Augustan reflective and nature poetry (Winchilsea,
Thomson, Denham, Dyer, Akenside, Pomfret, Pope)
Anne Finch, The Countess of Winchilsea was a poet who dealt with and analyzed the role of
educated women in society in her work. Her poetry delved deep into social problems and
discrimination or limits that were the norm for women. James Thomson was a poet who was also
described as a man of pure rationality and science. He was one of the authors who looked at
Newton’s life and his work as a source of creative inspiration. As previously mentioned,
Thomson was a man of science, and thus naturally he sought to create a strong connection
between natural philosophy and art. One of his most famous poems is The Seasons, in which he
uses the cycle of four seasons to describe the functioning of human society. Sir John Denham was
one of the most famous poets of his time. Denham’s work, in general, shows strong proficiency
as a poet, as he managed to strike a balance in his work consistently. This extended from the
topic of the poem to the form and words themselves. John Dyer was a poet who took a lot of
inspiration from Denham’s work. His most famous poem was Grongar Hill. The main focus of
Dyer’s poems seems to be nature, specifically the visuals and what feelings those visuals induce.
Contrary to many other famous poets of the time, Mark Akenside lacked in poetic proficiency.
However, perhaps his best work is The Pleasures of the Imagination which discusses the nature
of creative thought. It also draws parallels to Pope’s Essay on criticism, but lacks the poetic
mastery of Pope. John Pomfret was another famous poet of his time, and his most well-known
poem is The Choice. The poem, in a sense, deals with the idea of a perfect life. It tells the reader
that an ideal life is one of happiness, but also of balance, in order to experience life to its fullest
potential. It also expresses ideas associated with nature, implying that through living a balanced
life man can be closer to nature. Undoubtedly the most famous poet of the era was Alexander
Pope. He was very vocal when it came to criticizing literary trends. He was a masterful poet,
employing satire, colourful metaphors, and wit, as he was able to paint a vivid picture and
effectively relay his personal stance on an issue. He also criticized the Neoclassical culture that
was dominant in Britain during his time. Of his poems that represent nature, Windsor-Forest is
the most famous one. In it, Pope examines Britain’s past and future through the landscape.
(Sanders, pp. 116-117, 295-297, 288-295)
24.
Augustan literary criticism (Dennis, Swift, Pope, Johnson)
As a critic, John Dennis liked to think and discuss the creative process associated with poetry. He
analyzed what are the ingredients of a great poem. His criticism can be characterized as bold,
because he was ready to analyze any work, no matter the author’s reputation. He was also
constantly in conflict with Pope. This conflict was born out of Pope’s An Essay on Criticism,
which also references Dennis’ work as a poet. Jonathan Swift was a writer who dealt with heavy
political, religious and social issues of contemporary England. He criticized the fact that England
was religiously divided at the time. In The Battle of the Books, Swift dealt with a topic that was
prominent at the time: whether ancient or modern literature should be focused on. Regarding
social issues, Swift remains neutral, instead choosing to simply represent the issue as it is.
Alexander Pope’s two most famous criticisms are An essay on man and An essay on criticism. He
criticizes heavily the trends which were a part of the Neoclassical cultural development.
Regarding this, one of his core ideas is that true mastery in writing requires a sense of balance
and harmony. Any form of creativity requires a balance in understanding the context, different
perspectives, and feeling the natural world, both with reason and passion. Samuel Johnson was
one of the most well-known literary figures of his time. He evidently focused more on sensibility,
rather than reason, often discussing the nature of different passions. One of his most distinct
achievements was creating the first systematized Dictionary of the English Language. Johnson
was a prolific writer, releasing many essays during his lifetime. In these, he discussed mainly
morality, ethics, and religion. In terms of constructive criticism, even Shakespeare was not safe
from Johnson, as the latter criticized his work in detail. (Sanders, pp. 283-295, 298-299, 333-337)
25.
Evolution of the novel in the 18th century (Defoe,
Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, Goldsmith)
Daniel Defoe was an English writer known for his great topographical account A Tour through
the Whole Island of Great Britain, which possesses heavy themes of pride, especially over the
growth of the prosperity of the newly united kingdom. Defoe can be described as an informed
and boastful observer of an expanding nation, however, he is limited by using London as the
ultimate reference point when assessing the development of different provinces. His prose fiction
sprang from an experimental involvement in other literary forms, for example, the polemic
pamphlet, the biography, the history, and the travel-book. His novels included elements from all
of these. In his novel Robinson Crusoe, he adapted Puritan self-confession narratives to suit the
mode of a fictional moral tract, therefore perfecting an impression of realism. Additionally, while
the norm for Defoe’s earlier works was to represent a public plea for reform, Robinson Crusoe
presents the reader with a private moral zeal. His other known works include A Journal of the
Plague Year and Memoirs of a Cavalier, both of which exercise great historical imagination. A
Journal of the Plague Year was meant to be a warning, while also serving as an example of
endurance and spiritual reassessment of the recent past. It is a remarkable innovatory fictional
experiment, an almost disconcerting interplay of voices and statistics, of facts and impressions.
Samuel Richardson was another important figure regarding the evolution of the novel. His
writings (and also Henry Fielding’s) do not reject the autobiographical model established by
Defoe but amplify and finally supersede it. His novel Pamela gathered immense popularity.
While not the first epistolary novel, it did prove to be the most influential. Pamela’s letters are
private and a reader of them becomes something of an intruder into her confessions. A common
theme in this novel, and Richardson’s work in general, is the independence of the individual.
Clarissa: or, The History of a Young Lady is considered to be Richardson’s masterpiece, a
meticulously crafted novel. Once again themes of individuality, private life, and strong emotions,
are examined. Henry Fielding was a contemporary Richardson. Fielding’s novels reveal a grasp
of idiomatic speech and dialogue, a sound understanding of the patterning of incident and a relish
for a well-established denouement. His novel An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews is
a direct attack on Richardson’s Pamela. Shamela systematically debunks both Richardson’s
moral sententiousness and the essentially subjective nature of his narrative. In his novel, The
Adventures of Joseph Andrews and his Friend, Mr Abraham Adams, Fielding abandoned the
epistolary from in favour of a third-person narrative. The narrator is talkative, clubbable,
knowing, and manipulative. Fielding wanted prose romance to stress “comic” rather than
“serious” principles. This stress on comedy made for a further on the place of the “ridiculous” in
art. His longest work, The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, Fielding argues for, essentially, the
need for a broad reform of society, and ethics emphasized through the narrator’s reiterated
declaration that he is describing mankind as a species not as a group of individuals. Tom Jones is
considered to be a comic redefinition of the role of the epic hero. Tobias Smollet defined the
novel as a “large diffused picture, comprehending the characters of life, disposed in different
groups, and exhibited in various attitudes for the purpose of a uniform plan, and general
occurrence, to which every individual figure is subservient”. Smollet’s fiction adapted the
picaresque tradition both to suit modern English taste for realism and in order to describe a
recognizably modern world. It was also full of indignation that was more often righteous than
“generous”. Smollet’s work uses elements from real life instead of pure fiction, for example
using scenes of modern warfare, rather than fantasy battles. His novels generally follow
characters who are roguish but still likeable despite their flaws. One of Laurence Sterne’s most
important works is A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy. It contains a good deal of
pathos and sentimentality. At its best, A Sentimental Journey is a wonderfully various parody of
the conventional travel-book. It deliberately never lives up to its full title, as the journey actually
ends in Lyons without ever nearing the French border with Italy. Another notable work of Sterne
were the nine volumes of The Life and Opinions of Tristam Shandy, Gentelman. It is a novel that
is freest of insistent linearity, and it makes daring attempts to escape from the models established
by epic of by history. Sterne’s main contribution to the evolution of the novel was the liberation
of narrative, which had a heavy impact on the literature of the twentieth century. In Oliver
Goldsmith’s body of work the main theme that can be identified is the rejection of male ambition
along with a desire for tidiness and philosophic harmony. His most known work is The Traveller,
which glancingly retraces Goldsmith’s own earlier wanderings through France, Switzerland, and
Italy before a return to and England caught up with a pursuit of political liberty and with a
related, but less socially desirable, commercial ambition. It presents the reader with a morally
educational journey. Goldsmith’s work is full of action, reversal, confusion, and verbal wit, and
also possess notable religious themes. (Sanders, pp. 301-317, 324-327)
26.
Augustan patriotism and a drive to forge an authentic
English national culture
The drive to forge an authentic English national culture came to be for several reasons, one of
which was politics. The desire was stimulated by the opponents of Walpole, but perhaps more
importantly, the goal to establish England’s cultural credentials against France, due to the historic
rivalry between the two nations. Aspects of this cultural configuration itself stemmed from the
Scientific Revolution. An important realization for the British was that their cultural strength
came from diversity, people of different ethnic backgrounds held together by a common Christian
tradition. The past was rigorously examined, especially the context of classically based culture,
and whether it was indeed the best option for a modern nation. Additionally, this was the period
where Shakespeare acquired the status of a national icon, his place in English culture became
more prevalent than ever before. The virtues that Shakespeare had praised were now seen as a
fundamental part of the character of any true-born Englishman. Later on, the names of Milton and
Dryden would join Shakespeare in obtaining an important status in English national culture. In
this way, a strong literary heritage was put together, and this heritage also had a strong effect on
contemporary writing. Music became another important aspect of English culture. Handel
became an increasingly prominent figure in regards to the shaping of the kind of music that
would define English national culture. The performance of old and historical music became a
tradition that would be more relevant among the aristocracy. Of course, an important part of
culture was to be the British landscape. This was to become the leitmotif of Britishness. It
presented an image of gentleness, and appreciation of the landscape became more important as
urbanization progressed. (Coursebook, pp. 169-177)
27.
The Augustan cult of Shakespeare
Shakespeare was an important part of the formation of a national culture during the Augustan era.
Although Shakespeare has always been well-known, it was during the Augustan times that he
truly became a national icon, he was immortalized and was an inspiration to many artists of the
era. Due to the content of his plays, his work is considered timeless regarding the analysis of
human nature and social issues. The virtues that Shakespeare had praised in his work took hold
and the Augustan society emphasized them heavily. Famous people of the time like David
Garrick, who was one of the most important and well-known actors of the time, admired
Shakespeare and even had a monument raised for Shakespeare, in order to celebrate the
immortalized playwright. (Coursebook pp. 171-173)
28.
The Augustan attempts at canon formation
During the 18th century, with the attempt to form an authentic English national culture, a literary
canon started to slowly emerge. This started with Shakespeare, as he became an important icon of
English culture, later on, other writers, like Dryden and Milton, were also immortalized. A lot
more attention was given to the documentation of British literary tradition and history. People
like Samuel Johnson gave attention to the societal context and background that was associated
with the great writers. The lives of authors like Chaucer, Pope and Thomson were examined. This
was done so British cultural heritage and authors would gain more importance and could be
celebrated, similarly to authors of ancient times like Virgil and Ovid. Additionally, the Celtic
aspect of British cultural history was also pointed out, for example in Ossian by James
Macpherson. (Coursebook p. 172-174)
29.
The English landscape garden and the Augustan reappraisal
of Nature
The landscape was to be a leitmotif of Britishness, as a link between national identity and the
British landscape became apparent. Literature started dealing more with native beauties.
Landscape gardens became influential and caused people to look increasingly at the untouched
countryside in pictorial terms. Due to a change in how the passions were viewed, for example, a
new valuation was given to emotions such as awe and terror, a way of appreciation opened up
regarding landscape. For example, mountains were hitherto regarded as horrendous aberrations.
This, together with the Agricultural Revolution effectively changed the landscape, creating the
kind that can be seen in England today. The landscape presented an image of the nation, one that
could stir emotion and which displayed gentleness and the pastoral aspect. Not only was it
important what one was looking at, but also how one was looking at it. Keywords to describe
nature were romantic, picturesque and sublime. Increasing urbanization together with the
Agricultural Revolution became rendered nature more alluring than it had been before. (Course
book, pp. 176-177)
30.
The mid-18th-century culture of sensibility
By the middle of 18th century, sensibility was used to describe the expression of heightened,
intense human feelings, ones which embodied a new kind of refinement of response by the
educated classes. Portraying feelings in art and literature became more important. Philosophers
like Edmund Burke and David Hume tried to show that human beings are not controlled by
reason but by feelings. This change caused a new kind of person to emerge: man of “feeling”.
This person of “feeling” is someone in whom courage and good nature mingle, and whose
benevolence is for everyone to see. These ideas were reinforced by philosophers abroad, for
example, by the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rosseau, who said that man had been corrupted by
civilisation, and that expressing natural emotions should be a priority. Art was also affected by
the cult of sensibility, people on portraits were not presented in an assertive manner, instead, rank
was forgotten and gentler emotions and visuals took hold. The firm bounds which held painters
back were lifted, so there is no doubt that the cult of sensibility liberated painters. Literature was
perhaps less affected by these changes than art. In a sense, there was a movement away from the
public themes to more domestic ones. Poetry of the Augustan age was more personal than it had
been before. In general, important figures like Johnson and Goldsmith were arguably devoted to
portraying feeling in their works, rather than abstract reasoning. Theatre also saw big changes
during this time, an important figure, in this case, was David Garrick. Due to his actions and
ideas, theatre began to be viewed less as a threat to social order, becoming instead a part of new
establishment culture that crossed the political and religious divide. Garrick also made practical
reforms, like banishing spectators from the stage and taking away the hooped chandeliers which
had lit the acting forestage. Garrick’s approach to any role was a psychological one, thus
replacing the heavy and slow delivery of the older generation of actors with one in which the
words were closely tied to seemingly natural movements and emotional reactions. However, the
age of sensibility came to an end with the French Revolution, as it was seen as linked to
politically dangerous ideas of social levelling and equality. (Coursebook, pp. 178-174)
31.
The poetry of “sensibility” (Young, Gray, Blair, Collins)
Robert Blair’s work, similarly to Edward Young’s, is of a darker tone. Both authors deal with the
theme of death and our moral understanding of it. Young also deals with immortality and
resurrection and how do these fit into the natural world, since they are strongly associated with
God. Blair, on the contrary, deals with the “unknown” that accompanies our understanding of
death, and other darker aspects of the phenomenon. Thomas Gray’s work is melancholy in nature.
Gray offers a unique viewpoint on morality and the passions. Additionally, he portrays an
adequate mastery of form and wit, comparable to authors like Dryden. His most famous works
are the following: Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard, Pindaric Odes, and The Bard.
William Collins is an author most known for his odes. His Ode to Evening uses colourful
language to paint an image of the landscape. The theme of patriotism also comes out in his Ode
to Liberty, where he discusses the beginnings of British freedom. Additionally, he actively
experimented in his writing, one example would be his unfinished project Ode on the Popular
Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland, Considered as the Subject of Poetry. (Sanders, pp.
319-324)
32.
The “Comedy of Manners” (Goldsmith, Sheridan)
The “Comedy of Manners” is a notion that started with the plays of Oliver Goldsmith.
Goldsmith’s plays always possessed the quality and they were touching, witty, entertaining and
thematically complex. His most famous plays are The Good Natur’d Man and She Stoops To
Conquer. Due to the success of these plays, Goldsmith’s status as an author of competent skill,
who could also portray well the humanistic nature of stories, became solidified. Richard Brinsley
Sheridan is another author who shares aspects of Goldsmith’s style. Like Goldsmith, the plays
can be described as witty and entertaining. He puts a lot of focus on the verbal aspect of his plays,
using this aspect to create a more playful environment on the stage and successfully actualize his
own vision. He was also capable of creating structurally complex plays, like School for Scandal.
He satirically exposes schemes in his stories by the use of intrigue, in order to show the flaws of
human and social relations that are present in the play. (Sanders, pp. 324-328)
Document Outline
- 1. The Jacobean Masque
- 2. The Caroline Masque
- 3. The 17th-century 'metaphysical' poetry (Donne, Quarles, Herbert, Crashaw, Vaughan, Marvell).
- 4. The arrival of classicism in England. The impact of the art collections of the Earl of Arundel and Charles I.
- 5. The Caroline court culture and Cavalier poetry (Carew, Suckling, Lovelace, Waller, Cowley, Herrick).
- 6. The Caroline "beauty of holiness".
- 7. 17th century philosophical writings (Burton, Browne, Hobbes)
- 8. The political prose of the Civil War period
- 9. Milton. Paradise Lost.
- 10. 17th century autobiographical writing (Pepys, Evelyn)
- 11. 17th century religious prose (Donne, Andrewes, Bunyan)
- 12. The baroque style as the embodiment of the Restoration ethos
- 13. Restoration poetry (Rochester, Sackville, Sedley, Dryden).
- 14. Restoration drama (Dryden, Etheridge, Wycherley, Congreve).
- 15. The impact of Newton and the principals of natural philosophy on 17th- and 18th- century poetry and prose
- 16. The emergence of the polite society
- 17. Burlington, Palladianism and the new morality
- 18. The Augustan publishing explosion and expansion of literacy
- 19. The general principles of Neoclassicism in literature. Pope’s Essay on Criticism
- 20. The Grand Tour and its impact on British culture
- 21. Augustan journalism (Addison, Steele)
- 22. Augustan satire (Dryden, Swift, Pope, Johnson)
- 23. Augustan reflective and nature poetry (Winchilsea, Thomson, Denham, Dyer, Akenside, Pomfret, Pope)
- 24. Augustan literary criticism (Dennis, Swift, Pope, Johnson)
- 25. Evolution of the novel in the 18th century (Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, Goldsmith)
- 26. Augustan patriotism and a drive to forge an authentic English national culture
- 27. The Augustan cult of Shakespeare
- 28. The Augustan attempts at canon formation
- 29. The English landscape garden and the Augustan reappraisal of Nature
- 30. The mid-18th-century culture of sensibility
- 31. The poetry of “sensibility” (Young, Gray, Blair, Collins)
- 32. The “Comedy of Manners” (Goldsmith, Sheridan)
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