Topics, step 8, kokkuvõtted mõnedest peatükkidest (4)

1) INDIAN ROCK ART: A NATIONAL TREASURE IN DANGER
Unrecognized, unprotected, this priceless legacy of primitive art has endured the ravages of nature only to fall victim to wanton destruction by „civilized“ man.
Like the huge stone statues of Easter Island and prehistoric cave paintings of Altamira and Lascaux , North American Indian rock art is surrounded by an atmosphere of mystery . Although examples of rock art exist at some 15000 sites in canyons, deserts, caves and river gorges. Nowadays , however , primitive rock art in the United States has become a new field of scientific study . Klaus F Wellmann wrote two books about rock art. He is a professor of medicine. Rock art represents the history of aboriginal Americans. In the most cases the art is an expression of ideas and way of life, ritual ceremonies, hunting, fighting. The pictures of people and animals are often strikingly lifelike and artistic .
Many of these ancient relics have been destroyed by the ravages of nature and of man. Wind and water have worn away and continue to wear away, unprotected sites. And the paintings and carvings are increaslibly falling victim to vandalism: they have been painted over, spoilt with knives, even used for target practice. The American Rock Art Research Association protects rock-art sites.
2) THE FAVOURITE SPORT IN BRITAIN
The most popular sport is probably football . Two kinds of football is played in Great Britain. One of them , which is called association football, is played all over Europe. The other kind: rugby football is also very popular in New Zealand , France , and some other European countries. English boys play it at school, and in public parks. When they grow up, they play as members of important amateur teams or as a professional in teams competing in football „leagues“. Professional football is as much a business as a sport. Rugby football was first played in 1823. In rugby every player is allowed to carry the ball. The ball is oval, not round . Each team contains 15 players. The oldest game of football in England is probably the football match which takes place at Ashburn on Shrove Tuesday every year . The game starts in the centre of the town, and the distance between two goals is two miles . The only rule is not to use motorcycles, cars and lorries in the game. In 1958 one team buried the ball. The other team didn’t know and ran after them. Later first team took the ball and won.
3) JAMES WATT
He was born in the small port of Greenock on the river Clyde in Scotland in 1736. His father was a mathematical- instrument maker and also kept a shop to supply ships with goods for their voyages. James was a delicate boy and often suffered from headaches. That is why he could not go to school at the age when other children did. His mother taught him to read and his father taught him writing and arithmetic. He had very good memory and a natural love of work . He liked mathematics and was also fond of designing and making things. James was an observant and thoughtful boy. When James was able to go to school, he was sent to a private school. He learnt many subjects there . In his spare time James began to make experiments. He built a small electrical apparatus with which he gave his friends shocks that made them jump. When James was 18 he decided to become a professional instrument-maker. He could not find anyone to teach him, so he went to London. After a year James returned to Scotland where he became mathematical instrument maker to Glasgow University. He also made musical instruments – organs , violins, flutes and guitars. Then he began to work on steam engine. He built a new type of engine, with a separate consider and an air pump . It was great discovery. Watt’s engine became the basics of industry. He invented a copying machine . The unit of electric power or activity was named ’a watt’ after him. He retired when he was 64. His last invention was a machine for copying sculptures. He had many friends. He died in 1819. A monument was erected to him.
4) THANKSGIVING
In the United States, the fourth Thursday in November is called Thanksgiving Day. On this day Americans give thanks for their blessings they have enjoyed during the year. Thanksgiving is usually a family day, celebrated with big dinners and happy reunions. The first American thanksgiving was held in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1621. In 1620 a small group of puritans on a ship called mayflower set sail for America. This group called themselves pilgrims because of their wanderings in search of religious freedom. There were 102 men, women and children on the ship- The pilgrims were poorly trained and poorly equipped to cope with life in the wilderness. One spring morning in 1621, an Indian came into the little village of Plymouth and introduced himself in friendly way. The Indians taught the pilgrims how to hunt, fish, and grow food. Because of this help from Indians, the pilgrims had a good harvest that year. Governor William Bradford invited the Indians to a feast. It lasted three days . They ate, danced , sang, ran races , whistled. This was called thanksgiving day. On October 3, 1863 Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a national thanksgiving. Many of the traditions of the modern American thanksgiving come from that first thanksgiving celebration more than 300 years ago. People eat squash, corn, turkey , Indian pudding and pumpkin pie. Thanksgiving is a four-day holiday . Schools are closed on thanksgiving, and grownups don’t work. People spend the holiday among family.
5) MICHAEL FARADAY
Michael Faraday was a physics and chemist. he was born in 1791. He was a son of blacksmith. He invented many things, which are used nowadays. He made important discoveries. Young Faraday was apprenticed to a bookbinder was allowed to read books there. Once a customer gave faraday tickets to attend the lectures of Humphrey Davy . He took careful notes which he sent to president of the Royal Society in the hope of getting a job. The president offered the young man the job. Almost at once Davy left for his tour and took faraday with him. In 1833 he became a professor of chemistry. Faraday was also director of laboratory . During his life he discovered how to make an electrical motor , he built the first generator, which he called dynamo . He also was giving many popular lectures for the general public. He did great work. The result of his work made it possible for Morse to invent electromagnetic telegraph, for Bell to invent the telephone and for Edison to make electrical light. He requested during life that he be buried under a gravestone of the most ordinary kind. He was very smart man, who discovered many new things; despite of it he refused an offer of knighthood. He preferred to be plain Michael faraday.
6) NEW YEARS CELEBRATIONS
New Year’s Eve is a time for merriment. At midnight bells ring, horns blow, and friends exchange kisses. Everyone stays up late to celebrate the arrival of another January . Most Americans spend final hours of the old and first hours of the New Year dining and drinking with friends. One popular New Year’s Eve drink is eggnog, yellow mixture, Made with eggs , milk or cream , and sugar . One of the nosiest and most crowded of New Year’s Eve celebrations takes place in Times Square , New York City. Many people travel from one party to another to celebrate with several different groups of friends. Following a long exciting New Year’s Eve Americans spend a quiet New Year’s Day. One famous New Year’s Day festival is the Mummer’s Parade. It takes place in Philadelphia. It is a ten hour spectacle. The mummer’s parade is colourful and high-spirited. Men dress in splendid costumes . The tournament of roses takes place in Pasadena, California. All these events help to make the New Year’s Day relaxing holiday. On new years day people talk about turning a new leaf . Many Americans make new years resolutions promising themselves to improve their behaviour. Typical resolutions are to spend less money , give up smoking , begin a diet or control one’s temper
7) HALLOWEEN
Every year on October 31, Hallowe’en, or all souls’ eve is celebrated in the United States and Canada . In Great Britain it is a popular night , too. In the north of England, Scotland and Ireland people celebrate it more than in the south . At Halloween people have parties and play Halloween games . One of the most popular games is „bobbing for apples“. Americans like to dress up in costumes and go trick -or-treating. If grownups refuse to supply a treat, the children may play a trick. The typical tricks are: soaping windows, turning over dustbins and sticking pins into doorbells to keep them ringing. This celebration goes back to hundreds of years, to the Celtic times when it was a pagan festival. The Celts worshipped gods of nature. Every year on October 31, the last day of the year in the old pagan calendar , the Druids built huge bonfires to scare away the demons of evil and death . They dressed up so that the demons would think that they were one of them and do them no harm. They thought that this evening ghosts arose from their graves and witches flew through the air. From that Celtic festival comes the custom to dress up and the symbols of Halloween: ghosts, skeletons, devils , witches, owls and black cats. The jack-o’-lantern is also Celtic origin . The jack-o’-lantern is a pumpkin with a candle inside. The Irish people also introduced trick-or-treating. Many parents , children and schools plan Halloween parties. It’s one of the favourite holidays .
8) SOME ENGLISH TRADITIONS
In England, Shrove Tuesday is the day for pancakes. The popular name for Shrove Tuesday is Pancake Day. The most common form of celebration in the old days was the all-over-town ball game or tug-of-war. Today the only custom that is consistently observed throughout Britain pancake eating . But here and there some of other customs, too, still survive. Among these pancake races, the pancake fight, and Shrovetide [Shrovetide=Shrove Tuesday=vastlapäev] football are the best known. The most famous pancake race takes place at only, Buckinghamshire. The pancake bell is rung to competitors. Only women can take part in the race, and they must wear an apron and head-covering. The course is over a distance of 15 yards, during which the pancake must be tossed three times. At Westminster school in London, before dinner there's the pancake fight. Shrovetide football has few rules and the goals may be as much as three miles apart.
February the 14th is famous as St. Valentine ’s Day. It is customary on the day to send a valentine, a card to someone you admire . In England there used to be a custom that on St. Valentine’s Day the names of young, unmarried men and girls were mixed up and drawn out by chance . The person of the opposite sex whose name came out after yours was chosen valentine for the year. In the modern times St. Valentine’s Day is big business. Shortly before February 14th card shops, bookshops and department stores display a wide choice of valentine cards. Men often give flowers or sweets for a valentine gift. Although St. Valentine’s Day is celebrated widely in Great Britain today, it seems to be still more popular in America.
April’s fool day is the first day of April. The sport of the holidays is to play silly but harmless jokes on family members, co- workers , and friends. The victim of these pranks is called an April fool. This holiday originated in France. An April fool’s joke can only be played between midnight and noon; otherwise the prankster himself is the April fool. Typical pranks are putting salt in the sugar bowl, saying to friend „oh my. You have four big holes in your coat ... buttonholes, setting the clocks back an hour and so on. In Great Britain and the United States today, April fool’s jokes are played mostly by children, who enjoy the holiday immensely. On this day of national good humour, the television service joins in the fun. One famous commentator introduced a documentary about spaghetti . In these film Italian farm workers picking long strands of spaghetti off trees . Many people were fooled.
9) THE GREATEST POET OF SCOTLAND
Robert burns is loved and admired by all Scotsmen as their greatest poet. He was born on January 25, 1759 in a clay-built cottage. He was fortunate in his mother. She had beautiful voice and she often sang the old songs and ballads. In the evenings she used to tell the children one of the popular folktales. He was fortunate in his father too, who was an understanding and friendly and fearless man. His father William was a gardener on a small estate . William’s greatest wish was to give his children best education in his power. While they were still young, he began to teach them to read and write. It was from him that Robert received his love of books. When Robert was 6, he and his brother Gilbert went to school at alloway mill. After only a few months the teacher left and school closed. It made them very sad. Their father was very upset too. He persuaded 2 or 3 neighbours to join him engaging another teacher. This man was called john Murdock. Although he was only 18, he was very clever teacher. He lived with each family in turn and taught the children. Robert interested him more than his other pupils. Robert’s father decided to try his hand in farming and the family moved to the farm of mount Oliphant. These years Robert read any book he could get. At the age of 13 Robert had to take over most of the work on the farm from his father who was growing old and weak . Robert often suffered from illness because of the hard work and little food. At the age of 15 he began to write. After his father death the poet had to support his large family. Unfortunately Robert burns was not successful farmer. His farming was a failure and he thought of leaving for Jamaica . In 1786 a few friends helped Robert to publish his first volume of poems to raise the money for the voyage . The volume was a great success . At once the poet become famous and burns didn’t leave the country but went to Edinburgh instead. He also toured Scotland and northern England collecting ballads and folktales. For the last 6 years of his life he served as a tax collector . Burns died on the 21st of July, 1796. When he was only 37 years old. His poems touch the heart of every reader. Burns wrote about feelings of ordinary people. Burns used in his works the songs and stories he had heard in his little cottage home. Now Robert burns is considered the national poet of Scotland. And the 25th January- the date of his birth is always celebrated by Scotsmen as a national holiday.
10) FLAG DAY AND INDEPENDENCE DAY
June 14 is Flag Day in the USA. On that day in 1777 , the Americans adopted their own flag – the Stars and Stripes – as it is often called. No one really knows who sewed the first flag, but many Americans think it was made by Betsy Ross in her own home.
The horizontal red and white stripes stand for the original thirteen American states that declaired that they would no longer be colonies of Great Britain. The stars in the flag show the number of states in the United States. During the Civil War the Soldiers of the South had their own flag. The North won the war and so once again the country had only one flag – the Stars and Stripes.
The national flag of the United Kingdom is called the Union jack or the Union Flag. The large Red Cross in the flag is the cross of St. George. The other cross is made up of the cross of St. Andrew and the cross of St. Patrick . The British merchant flag is red with the Union Jack in one corner .
On the fourth of July, in 1776 the Declaration of Independence was signed in the Independence Hall. The Liberty Bell was rang to let the people know about the new country. But Britain refused to recognize this fact until1783, when the Americans won the War of Independence.
11) STONEHENGE
The Bronze Age stone monument, Stonehenge is set in the middle of Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire, South-West England. Even now, nearly 4000 years after it was built, large numbers thong to see it, especially on Midsummer Night, the 21st of June when the sun casts its shadow immediately over the Altar Stone in the middle.
It was built by the Beaker people who around 2000 BC came from Holland and the Rhineland. Their chief activity appears to have been trading in precious metals.
Stonehenge was built in various stages between 1800 and 1500 BC. Its oldest part is the outer ditch and circular bank . Inside the bank there were 56 pits. It is a marvel how these gigantic stones were transported to Salisbury Plain and erected. There are many theories and legends about them. One of it tells that Merlin , the old poet and wise man of King Arthur’s reign , brought the stones from Ireland by magic. People used to think that Stonehenge was a temple , but now they think it is a calendar. Gerald Hawkins discovered that in 1500 BC the lines between the main stones would have pointed precisely to the extreme midwinter and midsummer positions of sun and moon . He found that using the 56 Aubrey Holes outside the stone circle, Stonehenge could be used as an elaborate computer for predicting an eclipse.
Nowadays Stonehenge is used by the Druid order for their annual ritual.
12) ST. PATRICK’S DAY
St. Patrick’s Day honours Ireland’s patron saint, who brought Christianity to a pagan nation. On the 17th of March the Irish celebrate the anniversary of his death. Many scholars think that there must have been at least two Patricks. The patron saint of Ireland was not Irish by birth or the origin of his parents. Magnus Sucatus Patricius was born in 386. His father was a high-ranking town official. One day he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave to Ireland. He spent six years in slavery and then he escaped by hiding on a ship which sailed to France. He entered a monastery and wanted to study religion . He wanted to become a free man and a missionary. He became a priest , then a bishop. He returned to Ireland to bring Christianity to people. The local pagan priests used all their magic on him and they were very powerful. Once they poisoned his wine but Patrick removed the poison miraculously and drank the wine.
One of the legends says that St. Patrick got rid of all the reptiles by beating his drum . He also used the three leaves of the Shamrock to illustrate the idea of the Trinity , pointing out Father, Son and the Holy Ghost. People wear green on St. Patrick’s Day and sing and hum along the marchers.
13) CHARLIE CHAPLIN – small man with a big message or something...
Charles Spencer Chaplin was born on the 16th of April, in 1889. He received very little schooling. At an early age he appeared on the music hall stage with his father and his brother Sydney, taking small parts in vaudeville. At first Charlie danced in circus performances. He was training to be an acrobat, but he injured his hand. He was small and plump.
At the circus Charlie admired the art of the clown called Rabbit . At the age of eight he became a member of a theatrical troupe. He re-entered vaudeville in London. He was seventeen years old then.
Chaplin himself said that he would never have achieved success in pantomime without the art of mimicry he had learnt from his mother. His mother would sit by the window for hour, watching and mimicking everybody she happened to see in the street . She would mimic people using her face , hands and eyes . By watching her Charlie learnt how to express his feelings by means of his face and hands.
In 1910 Chaplin went to America. His first picture was made in 1913. Charlie put on old baggy trousers, a tight jacket, enormously large shoes and a small bowler-hat. Under his nose hi stuck a small moustache. His success was immediate. In 1918 he formed his own company and started producing films . He produced 80 films. The life of his characters was full of misfortunes but he made them funny. Some of his films: “the pilgrim ”, “gold rush ”, “modern times”, “city lights ”.
He respected everybody, however small he might be. And he was afraid of nobody, however great he might be.
After the Second World War Chaplin spoke against McCarthy witch -hunts against Communists and refused to help drive them out of the Hollywood film industry. For that he was “ punished ” by being deprived of the right to live in the United States. Chaplin said that he would never go back to America. But he went back to accept the highest prize the film industry could offer – a special Oscar Award for his brilliant career.
As a man he was very human, shy, nervous, restless and firm at the same time. The last twenty- five years of his life he spent in a quiet Swiss village. He died peacefully when he was 88 years old.
14) WALTER SCOTT ( 1771 -1832)
He was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. As a boy he suffered from ill health. An attack of fever in early childhood had left him permanently lame. It was considered dangerous to exert any kind of pressure on him. Therefore , he was allowed to read whatever he pleased and from an early age he began to collect old Scottish ballads and study the history of his native land. By the time he was strong enough to go to the Edinburgh High School, he had gathered an unusual store of knowledge.
He was apprenticed to his father. As a schoolboy he mastered the French and Italian. Scott studied law and became sheriff of Selkirkshire and clerk of the Court .
He wrote a number of ballads. A book by Goethe gave him wider ideas. Scott wrote novels, among which were “Guy Mannering”, “Rob Roy”, “Waverly”, “and Ivanhoe ”.
Together with his former schoolmate he set up a printing firm, joining him as a sleeping-partner.
For two years he suffered from very serious attacks of ill-health. He almost died. And he still continued receiving visitors, who kept coming and going all the time.
His publishing firm went bankrupt. He worked for the rest of his life, trying to clear off his enormous debt. His friends offered help, but he refused. He would not rest till his health failed altogether. He was a very fertile writer and died on the 21st of September in 1832.