1 Grammatical Terminology PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR FLGR.01.042 Grammatical Terminology analytic analüütiline (= uninflected - grammar is focused in the sentence , e.g. English) synthetic sünteetiline (= inflected - grammar is focused in the word, e.g. Estonian, Latin, Russian, Old English) ending lõpp (käände- ja pöördelõpud) marker tunnus (mitmuse, oleviku, lihtmineviku, tingiva kõneviisi, käskiva kõneviisi, kaudse kõneviisi, umbisikulise tegumoe, ma-
A phone is represented between brackets Allophone: e.g. pin spin Phoneme: /p/ - /iz/ `houses' /s/ voicless `cats' /z/ `boys' /t/ `learned' /id/ `wanted' A phoneme is the smallest unit of the sound system of a language. If two sounds have the same phoneme, they are treated equally. A phoneme is represented between slashes. Morphology: is the study of word formations and the internal structure of words Morphemes: the smallest units of language that have their own meaning or grammatical function. cat, cat/s, laugh/ed, un/able, sheep Free morphemes: cat, laugh, eat, red Bound morphemes: prefixes: pre- prejudge dis- dislike suffixes: -ist typist infixes attached within another morpheme. Infixation is common in languages of Southeast Asia and the Philippines, and it is also found in some Native American languages. circumfixes morphemes that are attached to a root or stem morpheme both
adjective + preposition omadussõna + eessõna proud of, good at, married to adverb particle Some verbs are followed by adverb particles. Examples are: put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in. Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the object. •He took his boots off. •They called the doctor in. apposition a grammatical construction in which two usually adjacent nouns having the same referent stand in the same syntactical relation to the rest of a sentence (as the poet and Burns in “a biography of the poet Burns”) back-reference In grammatical analysis, the term reference is often used to state a relationship of identity which exists between grammatical units, e.g. a pronoun 'refers' to a noun or noun phrase. When the
Linguistic competence → Is a person’s knowledge of how it is correct to speak but he or she is unable to give reasons why this is the right way of speaking. Chomsky says that linguistic competence is an idealized capacity of language. It is the hearers knowledge of his/hers language and it is the ‘mental reality’ which is responsible for all those aspects of language use which can be characterized as ‘linguistic’. Abstract sets of rules that help us to form and understand grammatical sentences. Linguistic performance → According to Chomsky linguistic performance is the production of actual utterances which rely on our mental reality of language. The way people actually speak with mistakes and stops and unfinished sentences. What is grammar? → Grammar is the system of a language, could also be described as rules in how to form new sentences constitute (tervik) the grammar of a language. Although
PERIPHRASIS 1. BATHOS based on similarity of 2 evaluation of sth. Logical "to join" w-d is use of longer spoiling the lofty effect. Function notions, hidden comparison attribute is non-evaluative in the same description instead of irony, humour. (dead (faded due to long use "green grass"; grammatical relation plain & short (Author mentions: elevated +down- -"mouth of a bottle"), (trite (through constant use) - to-earth; colloquial + formal voc.; trite "a ray of hope"- original to 2 w-s in the expression a colloquial w-s to distinguished
There is diachronic (historical) L that studies origin and development; syncronic studies voc at a given historical period. There are general L (studies words disregarding particular features of any particular lg); special L (studies specific features of a separate lg, there is Engl that bases on general L); contrastive (compares vocabularys in different languages). 2. Connection of L with other linguistic disciplines a) the word performes a certain grammatical function (nt, he always misses the class, how many misses are there; the girl powders her nose, soliders face powder)In speech words are combined according to grammatical rules. The plural of nouns may carry a new meaning (nt, arms-weapons, looks-appearance, works-plant) b)connected with phonetics. The meaning of a word is expressed by sounds and it depends on the order of sounds(spoonerism) c)history of the lg helps to understand ahanges in the meanings of words (nt, legend ment a book
grouped together and so should be the disadvantages. One paragraph should only talk about one thing, aspect, etc. If a new thought begins, a new paragraph should be started, too. In essays that express the writer's opinion mainly, one paragraph (usually the last one before the conclusion) should be reserved for the opposing viewpoint. When writing an essay, information should not be unnecessarily repeated. The same is true for grammatical patterns and vocabulary: different grammatical patterns and words make the essay more interesting and easily readable. As an essay is a formal piece of writing, contractions (e.g. isn't, aren't, etc.) are not acceptable because they are not formal enough. S/he can be used instead of the cumbersome "he or she" to save space when having in mind a person of either sex, or the also politically correct "they" for the singular. There should be neither slang forms nor colloquialisms. It is important to be as precise and to the point as possible
Estonia The Lake School of English 14 Park End Street Oxford OX1 1JQ Dear Ms Barden, 3 September 2009 thank you for being my English teacher on a two-week language course at the Lake School of English in Oxford. My English has gone much more better. Now I have less grammatical mistakes in speech and in writing. I learned about the British educational system and I saw the most important places in Southern Brittain. I also made some new friends in Oxford. We promised to each other to exchange some postcards and write letters. They are really outgoing and friendly. I hope I can come to Oxford in the next year. Thank you for the language course, which was the best part of my summer. Yours sincerely, Malle Maasikas
languages in contact. There are also a number of broadly European historical events and features (e.g. the Roman Empire, the Enlightenment) that affected many European languages, including the Romance languages, in similar ways. So the identity of these languages as a group is due at least in part to features of their lexicons. To discuss this we need some terminology for talking about word-formation and diachronic lexical changes. The main grammatical mechanisms that languages have for creating new words are derivation and compounding. Some languages prefer one mechanism over the other. These mechanisms are fairly systematic and predictable and hence tend to feature in discussions of language structure. Derivation generally involves the use of affixation of various types, e.g. getting the noun derivation from the verb derive. Compounding involves putting together
Dont forget linking devices and coheison) 3.CONCLUSION: · Review and summary (Give an account of points, not the details; So, to summarise...; At this state I`d like to conclude that...; In conclusion...; As I`ve explained in this presentation today...;) 4.LANGUAGE AND PRESENTATION: · Use present tenses (Use the present perfect to report somebody`s words...;Oscar Wilde has said that..;) · Make use of synonyms and different grammatical constructions (Try not to repeat the same words or phrases..) · Use a clear voice and logical transitoin (Don`t jump between the points..)
They then build a Weak Verb paradigm upon that Strong Verb present tense. This sounds confusing, but makes sense when you see it applied to an actual verb. The basic idea is that preterite-present verbs are Strong Verbs that have their past tenses and present tenses swapped. STRONG NOUNS AND WEAK NOUNS Like adjectives and pronouns, Old English nouns are declined: different endings are attached to the stem of a word, and these endings indicate what case a word belongs to (and therefore, what grammatical function that word is fulfilling in a sentence. Old English nouns are divided into three main groups, strong, weak, and "minor," based on the noun's stem and the endings that each noun takes in different grammatical cases. A useful rule of thumb is that nouns whose stems end with a consonant are strong, while nouns whose stems end with a vowel (except for "u") are weak. STRONG AND WEAK DECLENSIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE What are adjectives? They are words used to describe either nouns or pronouns
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective Noun Adjective Noun Adjective Noun Adjective Noun Adjective liberty liberal grammar grammatical possibility possible dark dark honesty honest fun funny energy energetic magic magical optimist optimistic jealousy jealous royalty royal biology biological
They lead either to the deletion of material at the end of the base or to a different stress pattern Adjectival 7 o Relational - to relate the noun the adjective qualifies to the base word of the derived adjective Algebraic, colonial, theoretical o Qualitative - express more specific concepts Grammatical o Some relational adjectives can adopt qualitative meanings. grammatical, which has a relational meaning ‘having to do with grammar’ in the sentence she is a grammatical genius, but which also has a qualitative sense ‘conforming to the rules of grammar,’ as in This is a grammatical sentence. o –ed – having X/being provided with X – broad-minded, pig-headed, bearded, bigoted, quick- witted
century to 1918 by Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Russia delayed indigenous literacy in Estonia. · The oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century. Grammar · Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language, the canonical word order is SVO. (subject-verb-object) · In Estonian, nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative) Vocabulary · Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different
The other part is comprised by institutional translation (politics, commerce, finance, government, etc.) Can be considered somewhat culture-free (not really true?) Universal: not confines to one speech community Characteristic features: Terminology (5-10%), only that much, but it makes the text hard to translate Format: technical report, but also instructions, manuals, notices, publicity Grammatical features in English: passives, third persons, empty verbs, present tenses. Technical Style Free from emotive language, connotations, sound-effects, original metaphor Part of technical translator’s job often is to rephrase poorly written language and convert metaphor to sense. Varieties of Technical Style Academic or scientific style: very formal with transferred Latin and Greek words; used in academic papers
You are expected to structure your monologue and present it speaking fluently with appropriate pronunciation and intonation and only natural pauses. You are expected to express yourself confidently, clearly and politely. Interact naturally with appropriate openings, fillers and amplifications. Be logical and clear, paraphrase successfully. Your vocabulary should be precise and appropriate, as well as the register. Use a VARIETY of simple and complex grammatical structures as appropriate. Your monologue can be structured as following: 1. Introduction: state the topic (the conviction held). Recite the task. 2. Developing arguments with appropriate openings, fillers and amplifications: - an account for such belief Here you are supposed to speculate about the reasons for holding the conviction: - It's difficult to say exactly why some people think so but I suppose it could be...
Pidgins, creoles and standard language Pidgin language A simplified language Mainly employed in trade NOT the native language of any community may be built from words, sounds, or body language from multiple other languages and cultures No particular rules Chinese Pidgin English a pidgin lexically based on English and influenced by Chinese developed in 17th century in China Began to decline during the 19th century, when standard English began to be taught in schools Chinese Pidgin English Some characteristics: Based on a vocabulary of 700 English words Grammar and syntax are simple and positional (grammatical categories are indicated by the position of words in a sentence) Lack of plural personal pronouns Chinese Pidgin English Example sentences: Hab gat rening kum daun (Have got raining come down) “There is rain coming down” Tumoro mai no kan kum (Tomorrow my ...
references, I would be happy to provide any further information, if you wish me to attend an interview, I am available at any time, Thank you for considering my application. NB! I look forward to hearing from you. Sign-of Yours faithfully (if you don’t know the name) Yours sincerely (if you know the name) Register/vocabulary/grammar Language appropriate for the task, no contracted words, no slang, a wide range of vocabulary and grammatical structures, spelling and punctuation (a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence, a full stop to finish sentences, avoid exclamation marks), use of linking devices (but not the ones you would definitely use in an essay) Letter of complaint Salutation Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms… Dear Sir or Madam Paragraph 1 Reasons for writing: state the subject of your complaint CLEARLY in the first paragraph. I am writing to complain about a holiday I booked with your company.
You will write more confidently and more correctly if you check everything you write. Pay particular attention to the following: · Appropriate Subject Heading Take care to prepare your reader by introducing the subject appropriately in your subject heading. · Carefully Organized Information If a reader needs to be persuaded or convinced, your information will need careful planning and organizing. · Correct Grammar and Spelling Train yourself to check for major grammatical errors, words which are commonly misspelt and sentences which are incomplete. · Suitable Style and Tone The style and tone must match the message and its reader. You cannot, for example, write a memo to a colleague in the same style and tone as you might use when speaking on the telephone to a friend. · Logically Connected Ideas Finally, your ideas must be suitably connected so that the
Ø Cambridge.(1989). The Penguin Dictionary of English Idioms. Ø Lewis, M. (1993).The Lexical Approach.LTP Ø McMarthy, M., & O'Dell Felicity.(2008). English Idioms in Use. Ø Onions, C.T.(ed.)(1966). The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Classification of idioms Classification of idioms for better understanding and learning. I think idioms can be grouped in a variety of ways. According to "English Vocabulary in Use" there are 3 groups of idioms. Grammatical By meaning By verb or another key word verb + object verb + preposition His fingers are all phrase thumbs [clumsy] hold someone's Rise the eyebrows Do you mind my smoking? [object hand [to wonder] to] [to take care of]
of meaning). Connotation may be a permanent part of word meaning it is then called inherent connotation. Connotation is ever present when the word is used. Adherent connotation is the shade of meaning the word requires in a particular context only. Outside this context this shade of meaning is not present. ADHERENT CONNOTATION (AC) - is evoked only to create a particular context. AC may be positive or negative. Negative adherent connotation 1. Grammatical negation results in words becoming negatively charged (e.g. "Science has not got a soul. Cannot help itself." science here becomes negative). 2. The neighbourhood or closeness of words bearing adherent negative connotation. 3. Vulgar words in the context lend their negative charge normally to the following word. 4. The same do certain intensifiers, such as: merely, only, too, too much, horribly, perfectly, so, etc. 5
A delicious meal A delicious murder Ungrammatical sentence Ungrammatical house A crooked street Crooked hopes e.g Colourless, green ideas sleep furiously. The stylistics of lg, the stylistics of speech Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies the principals of selecting and using linguistic means (lexical, grammatical, phonetic) intended to pass on shades of meaning and emotions. We must keep apart the stylistics of language and the stylistics of speech. Stylistics of language studies different styles, including registers, stylistic devices and expressive features of linguistic units. The stylistics of speech studies individual texts or particular texts viewing the way the author's message is expressed. Literary stylistics
Cricket players Language The official language of Jamaica is English. However, Jamaicans also speak an English-African creole known as Jamaican Patois. Patois is known widely as a reuslt of its musical influence and rhythm in the words of the language and lyrics of Reggae music. Jamaican is quite similar to English. Jamaican is still viewed today as bad or poor English. The written language can never be judged as right or wrong because there are no grammatical rules. There are no tools like dictionaries because Patois is not considered an official language. Some examples of the differences in spelling of common words are below: English: thing Patois Variations: t'ing, ting English: nothing Patois Variations: nutten, not'n, notin' English: no Patois Variations: nuh, noh, nu English: I am leaving today Patois: Mi a-go lef today Conclusion Jamaica has mixed economy and culture
adressee to understand what is being said. Functions of intonation (how intonation facilitates understanding): · Attitudinal function intonation helps us to express emotions and attitudes · Accentual function intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be recognized as stressed, and to mark out the most important element in tone-unit by placing the tonic stress on it. · Grammatical funtion intonation helps to recognize the boundaries between phrases, clauses, sentences and the difference between questions and sentences. · Discourse function intonation can signal to the listener, what information is to be taken as ,,new" and what is already ,,given" and what material is being contrasted with material in some other tone-unit.
gave old English words entirely new meanings, such as lumber ( which in British English means approximately junk ) and corn ( which in British means any grain, especially wheat ). Some of the new terms were needed, because there were new and un-English things to talk about. Others can be explained only on the general theory that languages are always changing, and American English is no exception. Aside from the new vocabulary, differences in pronunciation, in grammatical construction, and especially in intonation developed. If the colonization had taken place a few centuries earlier, American might have become as different from English as French is from Italian. But the settlement occurred after the invention of printing, and continued through a period when the idea of educating everybody was making rapid progress. For a long time most of the books read in America came from England, and a surprising number of Americans read those books, in or out of school
) · Expected audience (Who will read it?) · Layout (general format e.g. does it have a title? What appears where on the page?) · Overall organisation (e.g. what type of information is included in each paragraph?) · Level of formality (formal / informal / semi-formal? Give examples from the text) · Sentence structure (e.g. complex or simple) · Specific grammatical structures (e.g. do any specific tenses predominate?) 10 · Specific vocabulary (Are there any words / expressions that appear frequently in this type of text? In general, is everyday or more specific vocabulary used?) 11
thoughts and emotions. It studies: · Different functional styles, styles of genres, individual styles · Expressive, emotional features of different language units Stylist--a writer or a speaker skilled in a literary style Stylistition--a scholar who studies stylistics The word "style" is applied to many things. A linguistic style is a variety of subsystem of lg with its peculiar vocabulary, phraseology, grammatical and phonetic features that are used selectively and purposefully to express ideas in a given situation. The stylistics of language studies different styles, including registers, stylistic devices and shades of meaning. The stylistics of speech studies individual text, viewing the way the author's message is expressed. Literary stylistics--analyzes means of artistic expressiveness, characteristics of a literary work, a writer, a literary trend or a whole epoch
changed the grammar through time- naperon became apron, nadre-adder. Archaisms Is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current, many nursery rhymes contain archaisms. Archaic elements that occur only in certain fixed expressions are not considered to be archaisms - be that as it may. For example lyre- music instruments Neologisms A new word, expression, or usage (a word that is not yet in the dictionary). Soccer-mom, botox, speed-dating, fashionista Affixation The adding of a grammatical element that is an integral part of a word, but is not the main meaning-bearing part (known as the `root'). The -ed of walked and the dis- of dislike are examples. Prefixes an element placed in the beginning of the word to adjust or to qualify its meaning. (Become, forget, within, dismiss) Suffixes an element placed in the end of the word to form a derivative. (maker, actor, artist, vixen) Infixes an element placed in the middle of the word. Almost no true infixes in English,
A widespread idea about meaning is that words and more complex lin- guistic expressions have their meanings by standing for things in the world. Though commonsensical and at first attractive, this Referential Theory of meaning is fairly easily shown to be inadequate. For one thing, comparatively few words do actually stand for things in the world. For another, if all words were like proper names, serving just to pick out individual things, we would not be able to form grammatical sentences in the first place. Meaning and understanding Not many people know that, in 1931, Adolf Hitler made a visit to the United States, in the course of which he did some sightseeing, had a brief affair with a lady named Maxine in Keokuk, Iowa, tried peyote (which caused him to hal- lucinate hordes of frogs and toads wearing little boots and singing the Horst Wessel Lied), infiltrated a munitions plant near Detroit, met secretly with
style, the study of stylistic features" (Oxford Dictionary). Stylist is a writer / speaker skilled in a literary style (e.g. Hemingway is considered a peculiar stylist used a lot of repetitions). Stylistician is a scholar (a student). Style is applied to many things: clothing, architecture, hairstyles, etc. A linguistic style (style in language) is a variety of subsystems of language with its peculiar vocabulary, phraseology, grammatical and phonetic features that are used selectively to express ideas in a given situation. Stylistics is a part of style; it studies principles of selecting and using different linguistic means (grammatical and phonetic) that serve to render shades of meaning. Stylistics studies different styles (4) and expressive emotional evaluative features of different linguistic units. Stylistics of language and of speech is not the same
A social accent, associated only with England. 12-15% of native speakers in England use Standard English (BrEng). 3-5% of them use RP (EngEng). Non-standard varieties of English are often called dialects. They are any other dialect of English other than Standard English. They are stigmatized as shameful and inferior, socially lower. Judging people by their accent might, however, be offensive. These varieties are connected to race in US and class in UK. Grammatical and lexical differences throughout the world in the English language are rather insignificant . Most oftenly pronounciation is the most significant/different. Deviations from the standards: 1. Multiple negations ,,I didn't do nothing." 2. Ain't negative of ,,have" or ,,be" 3. ,,Never" used to refer to a single occasion in the past ,,I never done it" (I didn't do it) 4. Extension of 3rd person ending ,,s" to 1st and 2nd person forms ,,I/You wants" (used by the working class)
SISSEJUHATUS ÜLDKEELETEADUSSE ja KEELETEADUSE ALUSED KORDAMINE EKSAMIKS sügissemester 2013 LOENGUTE JA KOHUSTUSLIKU KIRJANDUSE PÕHJAL Õpikust (Fred Karlsson: Üldkeeleteadus) on kohustuslik lugeda järgmised leheküljed: Morfoloogia peatükk lk 107-147 Maailma keelte peatükk lk 292-318 (need, kes ei pea maailma keelte küsimusele vastama, ei pea lugema, aga võivad) Soovitav on lugeda ka Foneetika ja fonoloogia lk 65-107 Moodle'ist: Keeleteaduse põhimõisteid (nn sõnastik) Kordamismoodul (8.) 1. Keel kui kommunikatsioonisüsteem, keele allsüsteemid Keel on ühiskonna liikmete jaoks tähtsaim väljendus- ja kommunikatsioonivahend, mis peegeldab ühiskonna liikmete elulisi väljendusi; koos keelega omandab inimene sotsiaalseid norme ja käitumisviise nagu ka kultuuritraditsioone. keel on märgisüsteem, mida inimene kasutab suhtlemiseks ja oma mõtete väljendamiseks. Igal märgil on oma vorm ja tähendus. Elus eelesüsteem muutu...
1 SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES are based on a peculiar place of the word or phrase in the utterance (text, sentence, etc).This special place creates emphasis irrespective of the lexical meaning of the words used. Categories: syntactic stylistic devises based on: SDD: based on ABSENCE OF LOGICALLY REQUIRED ELEMENTS OF SPEECH ELLIPSIS ELLIPSIS or ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES means leaving out one or both principle members of the sentence that is the subject or predicate. NT: Where is the man I'm going to marry? - Out in the garden. (no subject) What is he doing out there? - Annoying father. Here, in the dialogue, ellipsis creates the colloquial tone of the utterance. It also renders realistically the way the characters speak. The elliptical sentences convoy/render carelessness, familiarity, harshness. It...
KÄÄNE ASPEKT SUGU KÕNEVIIS KLASS SUBJEKTI ja OBJEKTI MÄÄRATUS MARKEERING (ühildumine) 44. Sõnaliigi ja lauseliikme seostest Sõnaliigid -- fraasid Lauseliikmed (grammatical/syntactical function; grammatical relation) ja nende tüüpilised väljendajad Nimisõna ehk substantiiv substantiivifraas ehk Alus ehk subjekt - NP noomenifraas = NP Öeldistäide ehk predikatiiv NP või AP Sihitis ehk objekt - NP Omadussõna ehk adjektiiv - AP Täiend ehk atribuut AP Öeldistäide ehk predikatiiv NP või AP
Estonian" (1994), fonoloogiast ,,Eesti keele astmevahelduse ja prosoodiasüsteemi tüpoloogilised probleemid" (1997) Morfoloogia: Ülle Viks ,,Väike vormisõnastik" (1992) Sõnamoodustus: Krista Kerge ,,Vormimoodustus, sõnamoodustus ja leksikon" (1998), Jaak Peebo ,,Eesti keele muutkonnad" (1997) Süntaks: Helle Metslangi doktoriväitekiri ,,Temporal Relations in the Predicate and the Grammatical System of Estonian and Finnish" (1994) Tüpoloogiline suunitlus ja tekstikorpused: 1996. aastast TÜ eesti keele õppetooli toimetiste allsari: ,,Estonian: Typological Studies" Kirjakeele sõnavara: ,,Eesti kirjakeele seletussõnaraamat" (al 1988, aga hoo sai sisse 90ndatel); Asta Õim ,,Sünonüümisõnastik" (1991) Keele varieerumine, registrid, allkeeled. Tänapäeva murdekeele uurimine: Karl Pajusalu doktoritöö Karksi
scoring, advisories indicating anomalies, such as off-topicness ), and descriptive feedback. The descriptive feedback is comprised of a suite of programs that evaluate and, subsequently, flag essays for errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics; identify an essay's discourse structure; and, recognize undesirable stylistic features. As the population of English language learners (ELL) grows, researchers are working on enhancements to the grammatical error detection component to accommodate the kinds of mistakes more common in the ELL population. This kind of feedback includes determiner and preposition errors, and collocation errors (e.g., "strong computer" instead of "powerful computer").Criterion offers a pre-writing (planning) utility. This emphasis on planning was a logical outgrowth of the process-writing approach that Criterion embodies. Both earlier literature (Elbow, 1973) and more recent
LEXICOLOGY 1. Size of English vocabulary 1) Old English – 50,000 to 60,000 words Vocabulary of Shakespeare OE – homogeneous; 1/3 of the vocabulary has survived • 884,647 words of running text About 450 Latin loans (Amosova) • 29,000 different words (incl. work, working, Viking invasions added 2,000 worked, which are counted here as separate 2) Middle English – 100,000 – 125,000 words) English becomes heterogeneous (Norman French, • 21,000 words English, Latin), hybrid of Germanic and Romance languages Norman French influence – about 10,000 words, 75 % are still in use (Baugh) Latin influence continues 3) Early Modern English – 200,000 – 250,000 English becomes a polycentric language; polyglot, cosmopolitan lang...
33 CONCLUSION In conclusion, I would like to emphasize the importance of studying culture. Studying should allow learners to increase their knowledge of the target culture in terms of people’s way of life, values, attitudes, and beliefs, national symbols etc. Foreign language learning is comprised of several components, including grammatical competence, communicative competence, language proficiency, as well as a change in attitudes towards one’s own or another culture. Cultural competence, i.e., the knowledge of the conventions, customs, beliefs, and systems of meaning of another country, is indisputably an integral part of foreign language learning. At any rate, foreign language learning is foreign culture learning, and, in one form or another, culture has been taught in the foreign language classroom
to a country where everything feels first to grasp the overall meaning. Remind them to focus on At this point the alphabet as we know unfamiliar, including the language. it today was almost in its final form. He's probably feeling anxious about grammatical correctness within the The final touch was added by the early finding a job and somewhere to live. whole article. Greeks, who introduced vowel symbols I guess he must be missing his family · Listening: Remind the students
There are also some guidelines concerning equations and bibliographic references. Some examples are included. The Guide is topical as all the students of the establishments for higher education are expected to write various student research papers. The aim of the present work was to put up writing regulations/directions for the students to correctly execute their written works, attempting to avoid negligence, oversights, misprints, spelling, grammatical and stylistic errors and mistakes in drawing- ups. By compiling the present Guide the relevant regulations of Tallinn University of Technology, University of Tartu, Tallinn University, Public Service Academy of Estonia and Estonian University of Life Sciences and also practical student research works (reports, subject and term papers, course projects, bachelor and master works) were referred to. The existent Guide for the Presentation of Undergraduate Works is obligatory to
Keeleteadus full konspekt 2018 sügis Keel on märgisüsteem, mida inimene mõtete edasiandmiseks ja suhtlemiseks kasutab. Loomulik keel ja tehiskeel Loomulik keel on keel, mida teatud inimeste rühm kasutab emakeelena, see on loomuliku arengu tulemus. Loomulikud keeled on keeleteaduse uurimisobjektid ja sel kursusel räägitakse nendest. On olemas ka tehiskeeled, need on kunstlikult loodud keeled, nt formaalkeeled (teaduslik ja tehniline eesmärk, nt matemaatilised sümbolid) ning rahvusvahelised abikeeled (eesmärk luau universaalkeel, nt Esperanto) Keelt on vaja selleks, et ennast väljendada. Seda ei saa kunagi selgeks ja sellepärast tulebki koguaeg juurde õppida. Keelel ei ole tegelikult struktuuri (igapäeva elu kasutamisel). Tehti uuring, mis näitas et aju ei reageerinud struktuurile vaid mõistete gruppidele ja tähendust...
1. loeng Keeleteaduse alused 5. sept-13. Mis on keel Karlason (lk15): keele all mõeldakse inimese poolt kasutatavat loomulikku keelt, mis tavaliselt teostub leekelise ehk verbaalse suhtluse vormis. Keel on võimalik tänu inimese keelevõime. · Keel on üks inimese kognitiivserest võimetest, võrreldav näiteks nähemise, kuulmise jt tajudega. o Kommunikatsioonisüsteem keel on ette nähtud inimestevaheliseks suhtluseks. o Keeleteaduse üürimisobjekt Tähenduse, funktsiooni poolt keelt vaadates näeme keeles teistsuguseid jaotusi kui struktuuri poolt vaadates. /üldkeeleteadus (ingl k General linguistics) keeleteadus ehk lingvistika/ Keele allsüsteemid: · Foneetika · Fololoogia · Morfoloogia · Süntaks · Tekst · Semantika, pragmaatika (tähendusõpetus, keelekasutus) Maailma keeled on pigem kõik mingil määral sarnased. Kui keelt vaadata struktuuri poolt, siis võivad keele...
Letters Letters FORMAL, INFORMAL, TRANSACTIONAL TASK 1 Read the extracts and answer the questions. · Where are the extracts from? · What is the purpose of each letter? · How do they differ? · Which extracts are examples of formal letters? · How is the reader addressed in a formal letter? · What are the closing remarks for formal letters? · What is the salutation in a friendly letter? · How would you end extracts 1,2,3 ? · How would you begin the extracts 4 and 5? 1. Dear Mr Miller, I received your kind invitation to the reception. Unfortunately, owing to other commitments. I will be unable to attend ... 2. Dear Ralph, l just got your invitation to the company's event. l `m afraid I can't make it because I've a/ready made plans which l can "t change ... 3. Dear Sirs, I am writing to complain about the poor quality of ...
However, such legal provisions are very different. In addition to the abovementioned issues, there is also a question of whether the penalty rates effective today are sufficient regarding the elements of bribery or if they are mostly the "heritage" of soviet law. Can we evaluate the effect of the length of punishment on general and special prevention, and how can we do that? In order to find answers to those questions the classic interpretation methods of legal provisions, mainly grammatical and historical interpretation, have been used. Alongside principal interpretation methods comparisons with other European countries' criminal laws have been made and also a teleological approach used. Upon analysing the issues according to the abovementioned methods certain conclusions have been drawn: a) An act of an official, which he/she commits in the interests of a person giving a bribe due to his/her official position, can only be an unlawful act. Such an act fulfils the elements of
Make word lists. When you read English material, make lists of words that contain the prefixes you recognize. Identify the prefix and look up the word in a thesaurus. Write the meaning of the prefix and a synonym for the word on your lists. This method will help you identify words with prefixes and synonyms on the TOEFL. Suffixes The final word part is the suffix. A suffix is added to the end of a word. Similar to a prefix, a suffix adds meaning to the root word. However, the meaning is often grammatical, telling us the tense or the function of the word; seldom does it change the actual meaning of the word in the way that prefixes do. Suffixes are attached to verbs, nouns, adverbs, and adjectives. There are not many suffixes on this part of the TOEFL, and you may already know many of them from your grammar study. Nevertheless, you should become familiar with all the English suffixes in the list here. ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES Suffix Meaning Example
for official correspondence; it is named for its inventor Rin-c'(hhen-) spuns(-pa), who lived in the 1300s. The Nsibidi secret society of Nigeria keeps its pictographic script from Europeans as much as possible because it is used chiefly to express love in rather direct imagery, and samples appear to be at least as pornographic as they are cryptographic. The cryptography of Thailand developed under Indian influence. An embryonic study of the subject even appears in a grammatical work entitled Poranavakya by Hluang Prasot Aksaraniti (Phe). One system, called "the erring Siamese," substitutes one delicate Siamese letter for another. In an- other system, consonants are divided into seven groups of five letters; a letter is indicated by writing the Siamese number of its group and placing vertical dots under it equal in number to the letter's place in its group. A system called "the hermit metamorphosing letters" writes the text backwards. [Codebreakers 078.jpg]
and services they would have otherwise declined (Gruner, 1996). It appears that the give-and-take of social interaction is recognized well before adulthood. One fifth-grade language teacher wrote to me about a test she gives her students on the proper use of the past, present, and future tenses. To the question, The future of "I give" is _ _ ?, one enterprising young man wrote, "I take." He may have gotten that particular grammatical rule wrong, but he got a larger soci- etal rule precisely right. Politics Politics is another arena in which the power of the reciprocity rule shows itself. Reciprocation tactics appear at every level: II At the top, elected officials engage in "logrolling" and the exchange of favors that makes politics the place of strange bedfellows, indeed. The out-of- character vote of one of our elected representatives on a bill or measure can
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