marker tunnus (mitmuse, oleviku, lihtmineviku, tingiva kõneviisi, käskiva kõneviisi, kaudse kõneviisi, umbisikulise tegumoe, ma- tegevusnime, oleviku kesksõna, mineviku kesksõna) derivational affix liide, tuletusliide, tuletusafiks (e.g. postwar, anti-American, wiser, greenish) parts of speech sõnaliigid English Estonian Definition Example noun (proper, common, nimisõna, Refers to words which denote classes and categories of book, water, sincerity, Mary, concrete, abstract) substantiiv things in the world, including people, animals, Estonia inanimate things, places, events, qualities, and states. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns and common
Broadly, there are three aspects to the study which are Pragmatics (studies the use of language → interested in the gap between the sentence’s meaning and the speaker’s meaning). Semantics (concerned with the meaning of the language aspects and the way they change, also how objects and language and thinking and language are related). Syntax (concerned with the rules [grammar] and how sentences and words are formed). Synchronic approach to language → A focus in language study on how language exists in one moment in time, not at how this language came to be the way it is now. Example Estonian in the 21st century. Diachronic approach to language → A focus in language study on how a language has changed over some period of time. In a way it is comparing language to what it was and how it is now. For example comparing 18th century and 19th century Estonian.
The Article Table of Contents General Rules....................................................................... 2 The Definite Article ............................................................... 5 Names that take the Definite Article...................................... 6 No article.............................................................................. 7 Countable and uncountable nouns ....................................... 9 General Rules There are two articles in the English language – the Indefinite Article and the Definite Article. The Indefinite Article has two forms – a and an (a precedes words beginning with a consonant sound and an precedes words beginning with a vowel sound). It comes from the Old English word ãn, which meant one. The Definite Article is the. It comes from the Old English word ţis, which meant this.
Phone: [p] A phone is actual pronunciation of a phoneme. A phone is represented between brackets Allophone: e.g. pin spin Phoneme: /p/ - /iz/ `houses' /s/ voicless `cats' /z/ `boys' /t/ `learned' /id/ `wanted' A phoneme is the smallest unit of the sound system of a language. If two sounds have the same phoneme, they are treated equally. A phoneme is represented between slashes. Morphology: is the study of word formations and the internal structure of words Morphemes: the smallest units of language that have their own meaning or grammatical function. cat, cat/s, laugh/ed, un/able, sheep Free morphemes: cat, laugh, eat, red Bound morphemes: prefixes: pre- prejudge dis- dislike suffixes: -ist typist infixes attached within another morpheme. Infixation is common in languages of Southeast Asia and the Philippines, and it is also found in some Native American languages.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher. ISBN 1-59905-201-6 Printed in the United States of America 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Introduction Grammar is a very old field of study. Did you know that the sentence was first divided into subject and verb by Plato, the famed philosopher from ancient Greece? That was about 2,400 years ago! Ever since then, students all over the world have found it worthwhile to study the structure of words and sentences. Why? Because skill in speaking and writing is the hallmark of all educated people. Lesson by lesson, this book provides basic instruction in the eight parts of speech--nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
1. Nouns: how is the plural formed? The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter s: · more than one snake / snakes · more than one ski / skis · more than one Barrymore / Barrymores Words that end in -ch, x, s or s-like sounds, however, will require an -es for the plural: · more than one witch / witches · more than one box / boxes · more than one gas / gases · more than one bus / buses · more than one kiss / kisses
Pronouns By: Anneli Võikar Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. Types of pronouns Personal pronouns Reflexive pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative pronouns Indefinite pronouns Relative pronouns Possesive pronouns Reciprocal pronouns Pronoun case Personal pronouns Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on: number person gender Case
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OLD ENGLISH - 15 monophtongs, (7 long, 7 short, 1 central), 4 diphtongs, 17 consonants. Free variaton of R, and it was pronounced everywhere. Very much Germanic in character. Quite some special consonants that no longer exist. About morphology: synthetic with numerous aglutinating tendencies. System of tenses Germanic, but with a reduction of tenses. Paradigmatic leveling; Stress shift; Word order; Loan words (Old Norse, Old French). Dual pronouns. Determiners - no separate definite article. Strong and weak verbs. Word order relatively free with tendencies towards SVO. SVO, SOV, VSO most common. Adposition and podposition were both possible (eesliide ja tagaliide). About syntax: clauses were joined much simpler than nowadays, using and, then etc. Because of case syncretion the word order in a sentence became much more important to be able to tell the difference between words.
Congratulations! Good luck! Te toca a ti. ¡Callate! Te amo. teh toh-kah ah tee kah-yah-teh tay ah-moh It's your turn. (informal) Shut up! I love you. (informal and singular) Notice that Spanish has informal and formal ways of speaking. This is because there is more than one meaning to "you" in Spanish (as well as in many other languages.) The informal you is used when talking to close friends, relatives, animals or children. The formal you is used when talking to someone you just met, do not know well, or someone for whom you would like to show respect (a professor, for example.) Encantado, cansado, enfermo, and aburrido are the masculine forms of the words. If the words refer to a woman or are spoken by a woman, then the final o changes to a: encantada, cansada, enferma, and aburrida
Nouns are commonly thought of as "naming" words, and specifically as the names of "people, places, or things". Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as birth, happiness, evolution, technology, management, imagination, revenge, politics, hope, cookery, sport... Determiners are followed by the noun. Determiners are the, a or an. The determiner the is known as the definite article and a is indefinite article. Verbs have traditionally been defined as „action“ words or „doing“ words. Travels, sings, walked, cooked... Adjectives typically describe an attribute of a noun. Cold, large, violent, beautiful... Adverbs are used to modify a verb, and adjective, or another adverb. Slowly, quickly, softly, suddenly, gradually... Prepositions typically come before a noun. Across, after, at, before, by, during, from, into, in... Conjunctions are used to express a connection between words. And, but, or...
....................................................... 4 Both, either and neither ....................................................... 4 Few/a few – a little/little....................................................... 5 A lot of/lots of – much/many................................................ 5 Some, any + -body / -one, + -thing, + -where ........................ 6 Some and any Some and any mean a certain number or amount. They are used with or instead of plural or uncountable nouns. Some is a possible plural form of a/an and one: Have a biscuit/some biscuits. I bought a cake/some cakes. Some, any and none can be used with of + the/this/these/those (+ ...) Some of the staff can speak Portuguese. Did any of your photos come out well? You can take any of these. Some is used: • with affirmative verbs: They bought some honey. • in questions where the answer ‘yes’ is expected: Did some of you sleep on the board
Style The term style is a polysemantic one. The latin word ,,stilus" meant a writing instrument used by the ancients for writing on waxed tablets. Already, in classical latin the meaning of style was extended to denote the manner of expressing one's ideas in written or oral form. One of the abts/the best was given by Jonathan Swift: ,,Proper words in proper places." In present- day english, the world style is used in about half a dozen basic meanings. 1. the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his ideas. Some speak about the style of Hemingway, Dickens etc. 2. the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period. Style of symbolism, romanticism 3. the use of language to pick a literary genre-comedy, novel, drama, O.D (poetic form) etc. 4
happy happier the happiest • with some two-syllable adjectives we can use either –er, -est or more and most, e.g. clever, common, friendy, gentle, pleasant, polite, shallow, simple, stupid, quiet (consult the dictionary, but, to be on the safe side, you can always use -er, -est): simple simpler the simplest OR simple more simple most simple • with other two-syllable adjectives comparatives and superlatives are formed with more/most: A) adjectives ending in –ful or -less careful more careful most careful hopeless more hopeless most hopeless B) words ending in –ing or –ed boring more boring most boring
1. STYLE The term "style" is polysemantic (has many meanings): a Latin word "stilus" originally meant a writing instrument used by ancient people. Already in classical Latin the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one's ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift defined style as "proper words in proper places". In present day English the word "style" is used in about a dozen of principle meanings: 1. the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his/her ideas (e.g. style of Byron) 2. the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period 3. the use of language typical of a literary genre (e.g. the style of a comedy, drama, novel). 4. the selective use of language that depends on spheres / areas of human activity (e.g
STYLISTICS 1. Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies The term ,,style" is polysemantic. Latin ,,stilus"--a writing instrument used by the ancients for writing on waxed tablets. Soon, the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one's ideas in written or oral form. Jonathan Swift said: ,, Style is proper words in proper places" Present day--half a dozen meanings: · the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his ideas (Style of Byron) · the manner of expressing ideas characteristic of a literary movement or period (symbolism, romanticism) · the use of lg. typical of a literary genre (comedy, drama, novel) · the selective use of lg that depends on spheres of human activity. These
) Future Perfect · Actions that will have finished before started time. (We will have finished our course by July) TIME EXPRESSIONS USED WITH FUTURE PERFECT: before, by, by then, by the time, until/till (only in neg.) Future Perfect Continuous · Emphasise duration of an action up to a certain time in the future. (By May Luke will have been living in Manchester for five years) TIME EXPRESSIONS USED WITH FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS: by...for NB! Future is NOT use with words: while, before, after, until, as, when (if not a question word), whenever, once, as soon as, as long as, by the time, unless, if (if it doesn't show uncertainity, ignorance), suppose/supposing, in case Used to We use used to + infinitive to refer to past habits or states. Not at a definite time! (When they were younger they walked/used to walk to school; NOT I used to walk to work yesterday) Be going to
· Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas - My country borders on the Pacific Ocean · DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general I like Russian tea. She likes reading books. · DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport He has breakfast at home. I go to university. He comes to work by taxi. 1. We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not know exactly which one we are referring to: Police are searching for a 14 year-old girl. 2. We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group: She is a pupil at London Road School. Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday. Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair. She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark
I don't like to be shouted at. (NOT I don't like to be shouted.) This needs to be thought about some more. (NOT This needs to be thought some more.) 6. Don't use a present tense after It's time. It's time you went home. (NOT It's time you go home.) It's time we invited Bill and Sonia. (NOT It's time we invite Bill and Sonia.) 7. Use was/were born to give dates of birth. I was born in 1975. (NOT I am born in 1975.) Shakespeare was born in 1564. 8. Police is a plural noun. The police are looking for him. (NOT The police is looking for him.) I called the police, but they were too busy to come. 9. Don't use the to talk about things in general. Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.) I love music. (NOT I love the music.) 10. Use had better, not have better. I think you'd better see the doctor. (NOT I think you have better see the doctor.) We'd better ask John to help us. 11
t object object I will you the story at school tomorrow. tell because I don´t time now. have Questions interrogative auxiliary subject other indirect direct place time verb verb(s) object object What would you like to me tell Did you have a party in your yester flat day?
It includes formal and informal styles. British Standard English grammar and vocabulary, together with the RP accent should be called English English. RP (Received Pronounciation) is an accent that originates from South-East of England. A social accent, associated only with England. 12-15% of native speakers in England use Standard English (BrEng). 3-5% of them use RP (EngEng). Non-standard varieties of English are often called dialects. They are any other dialect of English other than Standard English. They are stigmatized as shameful and inferior, socially lower. Judging people by their accent might, however, be offensive. These varieties are connected to race in US and class in UK. Grammatical and lexical differences throughout the world in the English language are rather insignificant . Most oftenly pronounciation is the most significant/different. Deviations from the standards: 1. Multiple negations ,,I didn't do nothing." 2
Ladusseva "Stylistic practice: Book I, Book II" - I. Ladusseva "A Guide to Punctuation" EXAMINATION TOPICS: 1. Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies 2. Inherent connotations. Phonesthemes Use lecture notes 3. Adherent connotations 4. Stylistic morphology: articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, number * 5. Expressiveness on the level of word-building 6. Phonetic expressive means Study independen tly 7. Phonetic SD ("Rhythm And Style") 8. Lexical SD* 9. Syntactic SD* Use lecture notes 10. Graphical means and devices 11
gives a complete picture of voc. Practical value lies in using and appretiating the lg more conciously. There is diachronic (historical) L that studies origin and development; syncronic studies voc at a given historical period. There are general L (studies words disregarding particular features of any particular lg); special L (studies specific features of a separate lg, there is Engl that bases on general L); contrastive (compares vocabularys in different languages). 2. Connection of L with other linguistic disciplines a) the word performes a certain grammatical function (nt, he always misses the class, how many misses are there; the girl powders her nose, soliders face powder)In speech words are combined according to grammatical rules. The plural of nouns may carry a new meaning (nt, arms-weapons, looks-appearance, works-plant) b)connected with phonetics. The meaning of a word is expressed by sounds and it depends on the order of sounds(spoonerism)
Review questions English lexicology Size of English vocabulary. Average speaker 45,000-60,000 words, a total of about 200,000. Core and periphery. English has been heavily influenced by other languages. 31.8 % comes from Old English, 45% comes from French, 16,7% comes from Latin, 4,2% other germanic languages and 2,3 other languages. The very core is mono-syllabic (93 of the first 100 words and the other seven are two-syllabic). The core vocabulary is predominantly germanic. Native and foreign element. Native words belong to very important semantic group (modal verbs-shall, will, can, may; pronouns- I, you, he, my, his; preps- in, out, under; numerals and conjunctions::but, till, as. Native words are head, arms, back; mother, brother, son, wife; snow, rain, wind, sun; cat, sheep, cow; old, young, cold, hot, dark; do, make, go, come, see
English lexicology 1. Size of English vocabulary Vocabulary is a sum total of words used in a language by speakers or for dictionary-making. Active and passive vocabulary. The Old English vocabulary was homogenous. There were about 50 000 – 60 000 words, 1/3 of which have survived. o About 450 loans from Latin o About 2000 from the Viking invasions. The Middle-English vocabulary became a heterogeneous hybrid of Germanic and Romanic languages. 100 000 to 125 000 words. o About 10 000 loans from Norman French, 75% are still in use o Continuing Latin influence Early Modern English. 200 000 – 250 000 words
INGLISE KEELE PÕHITÕED C.K 2017 A – AN – SOME Singular: a or an Use some for things you can't count ◦ *a banana *a car *a monkey *a football ◦ *some milk *some water *some coffee ◦ *an egg*an accident *an umbrella *an *some sugar eagle ◦ *some tea *some juice*some money *some butter Plural: some Exercises: 1. http://www.english-4u.de/a_an_some_ex1.htm
Phonology. Mid-term 2. Syllable - is a phonological unit consisting of one or more phonemes. In phonetics a syllable is a unit which consists of a centre, that has little or no obstruction to airflow; it is comparatively louder than other sounds. In phonology syllables are the possible combinations of phonemes. The syllable consists of - onset, nucleus, coda. (every syllable has a nucleus: vowel, syllabic l, or m, n). Rhyme/rime nucleus + coda; the nucleus and the coda constitute a sub-syllabic unit rhyme. Words rhyme, when their nucleus and coda are identical. (E.g 'cr-o-wn', 'd-o-wn'). The hierarchical structure of the syllable: Onset the beginning of the syllable
ARTICLES INDEFINITE ARTICLE (A/AN) 1.The indefinite article a/an is only used in front of a singular countable noun mentioned for the first time.The is used when it is mentioned.The is used when it is mentioned a second time, e.g. I bought a jacket and a dress. The jacket was quite cheap 2.Other uses: -to talk about someone's job, e.g. She's an architect. -with numbers and fractions, e.g. a hundred, a million, a third -to mean every with expressions of time, e.g. once a week, five times a year -with What...! exclamations, e.g. What a strange person! ZERO ARTICLE (NO ARTICLE) There is no article:
Extended Rules for Using Commas Comma Use 1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave. The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand. Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner. 2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause. a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while. While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door. Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class. If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor. When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway. However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause
Leixcology revision questions 1) Composition of english vocabulary Vobabulary is the sum of a total of words used in a language by speekers or used in a dictionary. English vocabulary cosists of six units: Simple words- fall Complex words- prefall Phrasal word- face up to Compound word- face lift Multiword expression- face the music Shortened forms- prefab (prefabely?) 2) Core and pherifery English has been heavily influenced by other languages. 31.8 % comes from old english, 45% comes from french, 16,7% comes from latin, 4,2% other germanic languages and 2,3 other languages. The very core is mono-syllabic (93 of the first 100 words nad the other seven are two-syllabic). The core vocabulary is predominantly germanic. 3) Native and foreign elements Native vocabulary: INDO-EUROPEAN- mother, foot, heart, father, sea, night etc GERMANIC- friend, bidge, ship, life, heaven OLD-ENGLISH- bad, bird, woman, lady and gospel
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. "To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk." First edition © 2000 Taylor & Francis Group Second edition © 2008 Taylor & Francis Group All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or repro- duced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trade- marks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lycan, William G. Philosophy of language: a contemporary introduction/William G. Lycan.
LEXICOLOGY 1. Size of English vocabulary 1) Old English – 50,000 to 60,000 words Vocabulary of Shakespeare OE – homogeneous; 1/3 of the vocabulary has survived • 884,647 words of running text About 450 Latin loans (Amosova) • 29,000 different words (incl. work, working, Viking invasions added 2,000 worked, which are counted here as separate 2) Middle English – 100,000 – 125,000 words) English becomes heterogeneous (Norman French, • 21,000 words English, Latin), hybrid of Germanic and Romance languages Norman French influence – about 10,000 words, 75 % are still in use (Baugh) Latin influence continues
LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES Based on: interaction of lexical and interaction of denotational interaction of primary circumlocution other cases contextual meaning and emotional meaning and secondary meaning 1. EPITHET 1. METAPHOR indicates individual 1. ZEUGMA 1. PERIPHRASIS 1. BATHOS based on similarity of 2 evaluation of sth
tense Affirmative/Negative/Question Use Signal Words always, every ..., action in the present Simple Present A: He speaks. never, normally, N: He does not speak. taking place once, never or often, seldom, Q: Does he speak
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