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Akadeemia Nord - Psühholoogia - Psühholoogia

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NEUROBIOLOGY

AUXILLARY GLOSSARY

ACETYLCHOLINE – A neurotransmitter in both the brain and peripheral nervous system* (PNS). In the brain it helps regulate memory , whilst it controls the actions of skeletal and smooth muscle within the PNS.
ACTION POTENTIAL – An electrical phenomenon which occurs when a neurone is activated and temporarily reverses the electrical state of its interior membrane from negative to positive . An electrical charge travels along the axon to the neurone’s ending ( terminal ) where it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter* and then disappears.
ADRENALINE (U.S. - Epinephrine) – A hormone released by the adrenal medulla * and a neurotransmitter acting at the level of the autonomic nervous system and the brain.
ADRENAL CORTEX – The outer layer of the adrenal, a small endocrine gland located near the kidney. It produces and secretes several hormones* (corticosteroids) e.g. cortisol. It is implicated in stress response.
ADRENAL MEDULLA - The centre of the adrenal, a small endocrine gland located near the kidney. It produces and secretes noradrenaline and adrenaline for the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. It is implicated in stress response.
AFFERENT – Carrying information towards a particular group of neurones (compare efferent*).
AGONIST – A neurotransmitter or a drug which binds to a receptor and triggers a cascade of intracellular signalling leading to changes in the membrane potential.
AMINO ACID – A chemical made of carbon , oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen, which is a building unit of all proteins* and other biologically important substances.
AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTERS – A group of fast acting neurotransmitters* which includes glutamate (excitatory) and GABA ( gamma -amino butyric acid, inhibitory).
AMNESIA – Loss of memory.
AMYGDALA – A structure in the forebrain which is a component of the limbic* system. It is implicated in control of emotions .
ANTAGONIST – A chemical which blocks receptors* and stops (inhibits) the effects of agonists*.
ANTERIOR – Towards the front , e.g. anterior cingulate cortex – frontal part of the cingulate cortex (part of the brain).
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA – Inability to remember new information since the moment, which triggered amnesia (e.g. stroke , head trauma ).
ANTEROGRADE TRANSPORT – Transport of materials, e.g. neurotransmitter molecules, along the axon, away from the neurone body to axon terminals* where the material is needed. It uses neuronal cystoskeleton, i.e. the system of neurotubules and neurofilaments which make a kind of scaffolding inside a neurone.
APHASIA – Absence of speech .
ASSOCIATION CORTEX – Areas of the cerebral cortex which are involved in higher processing of sensory information. They integrate new information with that stored in the memory.
ATP – Adenosine triphosphate, one of the so-called high-energy compounds produced by the mitochondria* and needed as an energy donor in many cellular activities.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – A part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of internal organs . It includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
AXON – A fibre-like extension of a neurone which allows transfer of information to target cells Away from axon hillock*.
AXON HILLOCK – The region of the neuronal cell body where the axon emerges and where the action potential is generated as a net effect of the integration of neuronal stimulation and inhibition.
AXON TERMINAL – Nerve ending which forms presynaptic element of the neurone where synaptic vesicles* are accumulated.
BASAL GANGLIA – Subcortical clusters of neurones, which include the following nuclei: caudate, putamen, globus pallidus and substantia nigra. They play a role in movement control.
BLOOD -BRAIN BARRIER – A barrier made of epithelial cells which line the blood vessels of the brain. These cells form very tight junctions and control the passage of the chemicals between the blood and brain.
BRAIN STEM – The part of the brain which connects to the spinal cord. It is the major route for information transfer between the brain and spinal cord. It controls such vital functions as respiration and heart rate .
BROCA ’S AREA – The brain region located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere which is implicated in the production of speech.
CATECHOLAMINES – Group of neurotransmitters which includes dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline which are active both in the brain and the peripheral nervous system*.
CAUDAL – Towards the tail end of a body.
CELL – A structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
CELL MEMBRANE – Very fine layer (~8-10 nm thick) which forms the external surface of all cells; it controls the movement of various substances into and out of the cell.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYTEM (CNS) – The brain and the spinal cord.
CEREBELLUM – A large structure in the hindbrain which helps control movement by making connections to the thalamus, pons, medulla and spinal cord. Involved in some aspects of motor learning .
CEREBRAL CORTEX - The outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. It is responsible for all aspects of conscious experience , including perception, thought , planning and speech.
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES – The two specialised halves of the brain. The left one is specialised in speech, language and writing. The right hemisphere is specialised in spatial abilities, face recognition and some aspects of music perception and production.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) – A liquid which is found in the ventricles of the brain and the canal of the spinal cord. It collects products of neuronal and glial metabolic activity.
CHEMORECEPTORS – Sensory neurones which respond to chemical stimuli (e.g. glucose concentration in blood).
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT – A difference in the concentration of a particular substance between two compartments.
CONE – A receptor cell located in the retina at the back of the eye. It is sensitive to colour .
CONTRALATERAL – Structures located on opposite side of the midline.
CORPUS CALLOSUM – The large bundle of nerve fibres connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
CORTISOL – A hormone* produced in the adrenal cortex*. In man, it is produced in greatest amounts early in the morning to prepare the body for daily activities; implicated in the body response to stress.
CYTOPLASM – The contents of the cell, a gelly-like substance made of water and proteins*, in which all intracellular organelles* are suspended .
CYTOTOXIC – Cell- killing
DENDRITE - A tree-like extension of the neurone* cell body. It receives information from other neurones through their axon terminals.
DENDRITIC SPINES – Tiny formations on the surface of dendrites, which increase neuronal surface and the capacity to form synapses with adjacent neurones. The number of dendritic spines may change depending on neuronal activity. This is a link between structure and function , essential for neuroplasticity.
DOPAMINE (DA) – A catecholamine* neurotransmitter. One of its pathways projects from the substantia nigra to the caudate and putamen nuclei in the basal ganglia* and is involved in movement control. This nigrostriatal pathway degenerates in Parkinson’s disease . DA is believed to play a role in schizophrenia.
DORSAL – Towards the back of a body
DORSAL HORN – An area of the spinal cord where nociceptive* nerve fibres enter the ascending pathway.
EFFERENT – Carrying information away from a particular group of neurones
ENDOCRINE GLAND – An organ which produces and secretes a hormone* directly to the bloodstream.
ENDORPHINS - A group of neuropeptide transmitters which are produced in the CNS and bind to opioid receptors; they regulate the perception of pain
ENKEPHALINS – A group of neuropeptide transmitters which are produced in the CNS and bind to opioid receptors; they regulate the perception of pain.
ENZYME – A protein which has the ability to control a chemical reaction within a cell.
EPINEPHRINE (SEE ADRENALINE)
ESTROGENS – A group of sex hormones* more abundant in females than males . The brain contains numerous oestrogen receptors which is consistent with a hypothesis that estrogens play a neuroprotective role.
EXCITATION – An influence of one neurone on another which facilitates an action potential.
EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL (EPSP) – A change in local potential occurring at the synapse which depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane and works towards producing an action potential in the postsynaptic cell.
FOREBRAIN – The largest division of the brain which includes the cerebral cortex* and the basal ganglia*. It is implicated in the higher brain functions.
FREE RADICALS – Atoms or groups of atoms with unpaired electron which display extraordinary activity in their interactions with matter . They have damaging effects on living cells and appear to be implicated in the mechanisms of neurodegeneration.
FRONTAL LOBE – One of the four divisions (parietal, temporal, occipital) of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex. It plays a role in controlling movement and associating the functions of other cortical areas.
GABA – see GAMMA-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID
GAMMA-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID (GABA) – An amino acid* neurotransmitter* which acts in the brain to inhibit neurones.
GANGLION – A cluster of neuronal cell bodies.
GENE EXPRESSION – The process of retrieving information from the ‘ blue print’ of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), via the so called transcription or re-writing the DNA sequence into the messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) and then into the sequence of amino acids* in molecules of proteins produced on the messenger RNA.
GLIA – Non neuronal cells present in the brain which perform various important functions such as nourishing neurones, providing trophic support , scavenging dead cells, producing myelin etc.
GLUTAMATE – An amino acid neurotransmitter which acts to excite neurones. It works via NMDA and AMPA receptors and is implicated in learning and memory, but also neuronal death in neurological trauma and stroke.
GREY MATTER – The outer layer of the brain and the central part of the spinal cord which consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies.
HEMISPHERE – One of the two halves of the brain (the left and right hemisphere). These are separated by a deep groove (so called fissure) in the middle .
HIPPOCAMPUS – A structure in the brain, a part of the limbic system, important for learning, memory and emotions.
HORMONES – Biologically active substances which are produced and secreted by endocrine glands to regulate the activity of ‘target’ cells. In terms of the chemical structure there are amino acid hormones (e.g. thyroid products), peptide hormones (e.g. vasopressin) and steroid hormones (e.g. cortisol*).
HYPERPOLARIZATION – A change in the membrane potential to a value more negative than the value of a resting potential.
HYPOTHALAMUS – A complex brain structure which consists of many nuclei and performs various functions. It regulates the activity of internal organs, monitors autonomic system and controls the pituitary gland.
IMMUNE SYSTEM – Various tissues, cells and their products responsible for protecting the organism against harmful bacteria, viruses and parasites.
INHIBITION – In general: reducing, blocking enzyme/receptor activity. In reference to the neurone, it is a synaptic event which stops the receiving neurone from firing.
IONS – Electrically charged atoms or molecules.
LIMBIC SYSTEM – A group of brain structures, which includes the amygdala*, hippocampus* and septum and help regulate emotions and memory.
MEMORY CONSOLIDATION – The physical and psychological process which take place as the brain organizes and restructures information in order to make it a permanent element of memory. It implicates neuroplasticity and changes in the pattern of gene expression within neurones.
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL – Difference in electrical potential ( voltage ) between the inside and outside of a living cell produced by selective permeability of the membrane to ions.
METABOLISM – All physical and chemical processes , necessary for energy transformations, which take place in the organism and in every living cell.
MITOCHONDRIA – Small cellular organelles scattered in the cytoplasm, which produce energy for the cell by converting glucose and oxygen into high-energy compounds.
MYELIN – Compact fatty material which surrounds and insulates axons of many neurones.
NEURONE (U.S. - NEURON) – A type of cell in the nervous system which is excitable, i.e. able to receive information in the form of a chemical neurotransmitter*, integrate it within the cell body and generate an action potential*, which in turn is ‘translated’ into a quantum of a chemical neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft.
NEUROTRANSMITTER – A chemical substance, which acts as a messenger between neurones. It is produced (synthesised) inside a neurone and released at a synapse* in response to an action potential* (i.e. voltage- dependent release). Neurotransmitter binds to selective receptors at the postsynaptic membrane, leading to secondary events such as changes in the membrane potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters act against generation of an action potential, while excitatory neurotransmitters facilitate it.
NEUROTROPHIC FACTORS (NEUROTROPHINS) – Biologically active substances of peptide* or protein* structure, produced by glia or neurones within the nervous system. They play important guiding roles in the developing nervous system and appear to provide neuroprotection in the adult brain. Insufficient activity of n.f. may lead to an increased apoptosis (programmed cell death) and neurodegeneration.
NOCICEPTOR – A type of sensory receptor* which is present in the skin and visceral organs and which detects potentially harmful stimuli; involved in pain signalling.
NORADRENALINE (U.S. - NOREPINEPHRINE) – A catecholamine* neurotransmitter* found in the brain and periphery; implicated in the control of many important phenomena such as sleep , mood, arousal or blood pressure.
ORGANELLES - Small structures within a cell, suspended in the cytoplasm*, which perform various vital functions e.g. mitochondria*.
OXIDATIVE STRESS – imbalance between the level of free radicals (R*) and anti-oxidants, where (R*) dominate. It may lead to cell membrane damage and cell death, also in the brain.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – A part of the autonomic nervous system concerned with the conservation of the body’s energy and resources during relaxed states .
PARIETAL LOBE – One of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex*. It plays a role in sensory processes, attention and language.
PEPTIDES – Chemical substances made of larger number of amino acid* molecules (up to 99) and often biologically active (e.g. hormones*, neurotrophic factors*).
PERIPRHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) - Neural tissue outside of the brain and spinal cord; includes axons of sensory and motor neurones innervating the periphery.
PHOSPHORYLATION – A process of attaching a phosphate group to a molecule of, for instance , a protein which makes an enzyme* or a receptor*. It leads to a change in the biological activity of the receiving molecule. An important process which may modify the properties of neuroactive substances and than entire neurones. It often results from second messenger* activity.
PITUITARY GLAND – An endocrine organ closely linked with the hypothalamus. It is composed of the anterior and posterior lobes and secretes hormones, which regulate the activity of other endocrine organs in the body.
POLYPEPTIDES - Large molecules made of amino acids. One polypeptide molecule consists of 10 – 99 amino acids linked in one chain .
PONS – A part of the hindbrain which controls respiration and regulates heart rhythm .
POSTERIOR- Towards the rear , e.g. posterior parietal cortex.
POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE – A region of a neuronal membrane adjacent to a presynaptic terminal. It contains postsynaptic receptors* to receive neurotransmitter molecules.
PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE - A region of a neuronal membrane which belongs to the nerve terminal. It is implicated in neurotransmitter release and re-uptake. It contains presynaptic autoreceptors to control the amount of neurotransmitter released, and re-uptake transporters to withdraw any surplus of neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft.
PROTEINS – Large molecules made of amino acids. One protein molecule consists of more than 100 amino acids linked in one chain. They are essential for maintaining the structure and function of all cells in the body, including neurones.
RECEPTOR – A protein* complex which is embedded in the cellular membrane and has the ability to recognise certain types of molecules (e.g. neurotransmitters, hormones) and selectively bind them . Also see agonist* and antagonist*.
REPOLARIZATION – The return of the membrane potential to its resting state during an action potential.
RETROGRADE AMNESIA – Loss of memory for events which happened prior to the event causing the amnesia.
RETROGRADE TRANSPORT – Axonal transport towards the cell body, e.g. transport of molecules of trophic factors taken up at the nerve terminal. It uses neuronal cystoskeleton, i.e. the system of neurotubules and neurofilaments which make a kind of scaffolding inside a neurone.
REUPTAKE – A process by which released neurotransmitters are absorbed by the presynaptic (releasing) neurone; it terminates the act of neurotransmission.
ROD – A sensory neurone located in the periphery of the retina. It is sensitive to light of low sensitivity and important for night vision.
SECOND MESSENGERS – Molecules which are generated in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter to postsynaptic receptors. They signal to the inside of a neurone the event of synaptic neurotransmission; e.g. cyclic AMP ( cAMP ) and may affect the genetic material of cells leading to long- term alterations of behaviour, such as memory.
SEROTONIN – A monoamine neurotransmitter which plays a role in temperature regulation , sensory perception or sleep. Probably implicated in depression .
SODIUM - POTASSIUM PUMP – ATP*-linked enzyme* embedded in the neuronal membrane* which expels Na+ ions* from the inside and imports K+ ions from the outside to inside of the neurone*. This process is energy-dependent as it works against the gradient of ion concentration.
STIMULUS – An environmental event which may be detected by sensory receptors.
STROKE – An impeded blood supply to the brain, caused by a blood clot or a rupture of the blood vessel. Deprived of oxygen, which is carried by blood, neurones die in the affected brain area.
SULCUS – The shallower grooves on the brain surface (deeper groves are called fissures). Plural = sulci.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – Part of the autonomic nervous system*, responsible for mobilizing the body’s resources during times of stress and arousal. It has its ganglia at the level of the thoracic portion of the spinal cord.
SYNAPSE – The junction where an axon approaches another neurone or its extension (a dendrite, dendritic spine or a soma ); it is the point at which neuronal communication occurs. Nerve impulses travelling down the axon reach the synapse and release neurotransmitters into the gap between neurones (so called synaptic cleft). See also pre- and postsynaptic*.
SYNAPTIC CLEFT – A gap separating the membrane of the presynaptic neurone and that of the postsynaptic neurone. It’s very fine (in the order of nanometres) and filled with the CSF*.
SYNAPTIC VESICLE – A tiny sac made of a membrane and containing neurotransmitter molecules. It is present in the anon terminals and responds to the arrival of an action potential* when synaptic vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane and their content is released to the synaptic cleft*.
SYNAPTOGENESIS – Formation of new synapses, occurring both in developing and adult brain; implicated in neuroplasticity.
TEMPORAL LOBE – One of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex. It participates in auditory perception, speech and complex visual tasks.
THALAMUS – The brain structure located at the top of the brain stem, which is a relay station for various sensory information (e.g. visual, auditory, pain).
VENTRICLES – Brain cavities filled with the cerebrospinal fluid.
VOLTAGE-GATED ION CHANNEL – Channel in the neuronal membrane which opens when the membrane potential* reaches a particular level, creating a passage to ions* such as sodium, potassium and calcium ions.
WERNICKE ’S AREA – A brain region responsible for the comprehension of language and the production of meaningful speech.
WHITE MATTER – The inner part of the brain and the outer part of the spinal cord which consists mainly of bundles of myelinated axons*.

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