Art and Aesthetics in Early Childhood Education (0)

Art and Aesthetics in Early Childhood Education
TÕLGE
Irving B. Weiner . Handbook of Psychology, Educational Psychology. 2003 lk 288-290
The very concept of artistic development and some long-standing models developed to describe it (e.g., Gaitskell, Hurwitz, & Day, 1982; Lowenfeld & Brittaind, 1964; Luquet, 1977) have in fact become a subject of criticism in recent years . Four particular issues have been identified in this collective body of criticism. First , questions have been raised about the appropriateness of unilinear conceptions of development in explaining a wide range of pictorial imagery produced by children . adolescents, and adults. Second, a disparity has been noted between the breadth of the world of art and the narrowness of the focus on visual realism that has served as the endpoint in these developmental models. Third, cultural biases that mark these models have been identified theoretically and empirically. Fourth, insufficient recognition has been paid to the role of other modalities of expression in some forms of pictorial representation(e.g., Duncum, 1986; Golomb, 1994; Kindler &Darras, 1997b, 1998; Korzenik, 1995; Wolf , 1994; Wolf & Perry , 1998) . Critics of the traditional stage models of development argued that alternative explanations are necessary to account for the range of pictorial systems that children begin to develop early in life and to engage in research relating to the reasons for selecting specific pictorial solutions. It has been pointed out that even very young children have at their disposal more than one pictorial system and they choose among them as a function of their representational intentions and purposes (Bremmer & Moore , 1984). The notion of the significance of purpose- or telecology- of pictorial behavior in the discourse about development of graphic abilities has been at the center of a map- like model of development that has emerged as an alternative to the traditional stage models (Darras & Kindler, 1996: Kindler & Darras, 1997a, 1997b, 1998).
This model regards emergence and development of pictorial imagery as a semiotic process occurring in an interactive social environment that leads to pictorial behaviors that may engage single or multiple modalities of expression. This framework acknowledges psychobiological factors that found development of pictorial activity while emphasizing the role of culture in validating or deselecting specific pictorial systems. It constitutes an attempt to decolonize discourse about artistic development by pointing to the usefulness and value of pictorial repertoires that have remained outside of the acclaim of the Western art world and yet play a significant role in children's lives (Kindler, 1999). In addition to highlighting the dimension of pictorial choices and their relationship to specific purposes of pictorial behavior, the model proposed by Darras and Kindler recognizes frequent interplay of the gestural , vocal -verbal, and graphic actions in the emergence and development of pictorial systems. This is consistent with Parson's (1998) notion about the nature of cognition in the arts . Parsons argues that the prevailing systems approach to cognition identifies the different arts as each being a different symbol system and " requires thought to stay within the boundaries of a single medium it is dealing with on the assumption that, if it moves from one system to another , it looses its coherence " (p. 106). He expresses concern that such understanding of cognition in the arts "transforms a dimension of difference into a principle of separation" (p.106). The repertoire model of development in pictorial imagery moves beyond this principle and accommodates cognitive processes that result in pictorial systems contained within a graphic medium as well as those that cross traditional boundaries of music, drama , and visual arts. This broader conception of development is also more accommodating of cultural factors that define artistic growth than some of the earlier proposed models. The issue of a cultural bias in these earlier theories has vividly surfaced in recent studies that revisited the long- standing notion of the U-shaped curve of artistic development ( Davis , 1991, 1997a, 1997b; Gardner , 1980; Gardner & Winner, 1982). The proponents of the U- shaped model argued that while young children exhibit very high levels of creativity in their pictorial work , older children and adolescents suffer from a serious decline in their artistic abilities, which are regained in adulthood only by artistically gifted individuals. The empirical data that confirmed the U-shaped development pattern were collected in North America and relied on aesthetic assessments of artistic merit executed by North American and other Western judges.
When this study was recently replicated in settings involving Chinese populations, the U-shaped pattern failed to be confirmed (Kindler, 2001); Pariser & van den Berg . 1997). In none of these recent studies was young children's work considered to be artistically superior of the work their older peers or nonartistic adults. This suggests that the cultural criteria of artistic merit indeed played a powerful role in defining the very concept of artistic development in research that led to the universality claims of the U-shaped developmental progression. It is important to note that the repertoire model of development does not disprove the U- shape model. In pictorial repertoires tht emphasize modernist values , this prediction quite possibly continues to hold true. However , the repertoire model provides also for alternative developmental trajectories in other areas of pictorial pursuits , where technical mastery and significance than the image 's overall expressive quality.
The revised understanding of development in pictorial representations presents an exciting challenge to the field of early childhood art education. It defines a teacher 's role in much more complex terms and places more responsibility on his on her shoulders for ensuring that children's development in this domain does not become unduly constrained by a narrow set of cultural biases and preferences. Valuing and encouraging what we see as children's spontaneous self-directed explorations need to remain an important consideration in structuring learning environments of young children. However, in order to solve pictorial problem, children also require active assistance in (a) pursuing their own intuitive interests in the visual culture that surrounds them. (b) helping them achieve success in meeting their own pictorial expectations, and (c) exploring their emerging metacognitive abilities in relation to their pictorial production and strategies that can enhance this production. It draws on the use of peer as well as adult - generated examples and readiness to discuss ways in which different systems of pictorial representation can be further mastered and extended to suit children's specific needs and ambitions.
While advocating a much greater sensitivity to and use of cultural models in early childhood education, it is important to clarify that the intention is not to train young children into able performers within particular system of representation. The answer to early childhood art education will never be presenting children with coloring books or insisting that they copy a particular pictorial schema as the way to learn how to draw . However, a sensitive introduction of activities that help children understand the nature, value and place of iconic representation and introduce them to a wider range of pictorial systems that function within their culture, supported by conversations and modeling of how different effects can be achieved, will provide children with freedom to choose whatever systems may best serve their purposes and needs in different times in their lives.
It is important to note that especially in the early childhood years children's pictorial intentions may have little to do with creating a picture meeting the modernist standards of " child art". Their graphic activity is often just one component of a semiotic process in which sounds, gestures, and words carry a significant portion of meaning . In this context , a teacher's ability to accept these images as active happenings rather than as objects to be posted on a day care or primary classroom walls may help children to understand the value of this unique multimodal system of representation and see it as alternative to other pictorial efforts where, in conformity with the deep - rooted tradition of Western art, images are supposed to stand on their own. Similarly , understanding that telling of a dynamic story may require a child to use different pictorial devices than in the case of descriptive effort, a greater range of imagery can become socially encouraged and validated (Kindler, 1999). Activities that combine musical , dramatic, and visual art dimensions can further help children grow in pictorial repertoires that rely on multiple modalities of expression and that are often a natural choice of young children who spontaneously combine the gestural, the vocal, and the visual in their everyday play.
The importance of teacher's assistance in a child's growing understanding of the technical possibilities and imitations of specific artistic media can perhaps be best demonstrated by looking at young children's clay productions. Children as young as 3 years of age who perform in nonintrusive self- exploration environments tend to be much more limited in subject matter , scale, detail, and stylistic diversity in their clay productions than are those who benefit from appropriate instruction (Kindler, 1997). But perhaps most important, sensitive teaching that relies on constructivist approaches and actively guides children toward important discoveries that support their pictorial efforts translates into sense of accomplishment and pride that sustains children's interest in creative endeavors and encourages them to continue to use and further master this medium of representation. These recommended forms of adult intervention and teaching can be easily integrated into the play format, and skillful and sensitive teachers can make a tremendous difference in children's artistic growth without compromising the child- centered emphasis and the relaxed and playful atmosphere in their childhood classrooms.
What is needed, however, is paradigm shift from understanding the concept of developmentally appropriate art education in terms of curricula targeting children's actual levels of attainment to that of creating environments that allow children to perform within their "zones of proximal development" (Vygotsky, 1978). This shift can take place only if we free ourselves from the cultural baggage of romanticized notions of child art and accept that while certainly can appeal to our aesthetic sensitivities and emotions , there are other territories of pictorial worlds that children should be free to explore, encouraged to learn about , and provided with assistance to master. Our love of children's natural creative efforts should not become detrimental to their artistic growth in the broadest sense of the term .
This revised conception of human development in the area of the pictorial extends the discourse to a new territory inclusive of a wide range of manifestations of visual culture. It still accounts for repertoires that conform to the modernist expectations or give prominence to visual realism, but it also embraces pictorial worlds that rely on different rules, salient attributes, and criteria of excellence. In pluralistic, diversified societies it is especially important to plan early childhood education in ways that do not define artistic growth in hegemonic terms laden by a strong cultural bias. Recent research on artistic development has provided a platform for accommodating this diversity not by proposing a tight universal developmental sequence, but rather by suggesting a range of pictorial repertoires along which children's growth in art can be witnessed and encouraged. The work needs to continue with mapping of the different repertoires and exploration of them in regard to the nature and modes of acquisition of these pictorial systems. Some of them may rely on self-directed discovery; others may require guidance and teaching starting early on in one's life. Because the concept of art is constantly broadening and multicultural awareness is leading to a more inclusive dialogue about aesthetic merit and value of different kinds of pictorial imagery, the need to explore diverse avenues of growth and pedagogies that will support it along these multiple dimensions will continue to be an important area to concern and research for years to come .

Kunsti ja esteetika alghariduses

Irving B. Weiner . Psühholoogia käsiraamat, hariduspsühholoogia. 2003 lk 288-290
Tõlge Lemme Hirv, 2018
Kunstilise areng ja pikalt käibel olnud arengumudelid , mis seda kirjeldavad (nt Gaitskell, Hurwitz, & Day, 1982; Lowenfeld & Brittaind, 1964; Luquet, 1977) on viimastel aastatel sattunud kriitika alla. Selles kollektiivses kriitikakogumis on tuvastatud neli konkreetset probleemi. Esiteks on tõstatatud küsimusi ühtselt lineaarsete arengu kontseptsioonide asjakohasuse kohta, selgitamaks laiaulatusliku kujutamise valikut, laste, noorte ja täiskasvanute piltidel. Teiseks on täheldatud erinevust laiaulatusliku kunstimaailma ja visuaalse realismi, mida on esitatud kui lõpp-punkti nendes arengumudelites, fookuse piiratusest. Kolmandaks, kultuurilised eelarvamused, mis tähistava neid mudeleid , on identifitseeritud teoreetiliselt ja empiiriliselt. Neljandaks, teiste kujutamisviiside võimalustele on pööratud liiga vähe tähelepanu mõnedes pildilise kujutamise vormides (nt Duncum, 1986; Golomb 1994; Kindler & Darras, 1997b; 1998; Korzenik, 1995; Wolf, 1994; Wolf & Perry , 1998). Traditsiooniliste arenguetappide kriitikud väidavad, et alternatiivsed selgitused on vajalikud, võtmaks arvesse pildiliste süsteemide valikut, mida lapsed hakkavad varakult arendama ja siduda uurimistöid põhjustega, miks valitakse konkreetseid pildilisi lahendusi. On märgitud, et isegi väga väikesed lapsed omavad enda käsutuses enam kui ühte pildisüsteem ja nad valivad nende seast sobiva, mis vastab oma funktsioonilt nende kujutamise kavatustele ja eesmärkidele(Bremmer & Moore, 1984). The notion of the significance of purpose- or telecology- of pictorial behavior in the discourse about development of graphic abilities has been at the center of a map- like model of development that has emerged as an alternative to the traditional stage models (Darras & Kindler, 1996: Kindler & Darras, 1997a, 1997b, 1998).
Selles mudelis käsitletakse kujundlike kujundite tekkimist ja arenemist kui semiootilist protsessi, mis toimub interaktiivses sotsiaalses keskkonnas ja viib pildilise kujutamiseni, mis võib endas sisaldada ühte või rohkemat väljendusviisi. Selline raamistik tunnustab psühhobioloogilisi tegureid, mida võib leida pildilise kujutamise arengus, rõhutades samas kultuuri rolli konkreetsete piltsüsteemide valideerimisel või tühistamisel. See kujutab endast katset dekoloneerida diskursust kunstilisest arengust, osutades maaliliste repertuaaride kasulikkusele ja väärtusele, mis on jäänud Lääne kunstimaailma tunnustusest välja, kuid mängib laste elus olulist rolli (Kindler, 1999). Lisaks pildliste valikute ja nende seotuse pildilise kujutamise spetsiifiliste eesmärkide vahel, ulatuslikkuse esiletõstmisele, märkab Darrase ja Kindleri poolt pakutud mudel sagedast gestrual, vokaal , verbaal ja joonistamise koosmõju, pildiliste kujutamise süsteemide arengu ja tekkimise vahel.( In addition to highlighting the dimension of pictorial choices and their relationship to specific purposes of pictorial behavior, the model proposed by Darras and Kindler recognizes frequent interplay of the gestural , vocal -verbal, and graphic actions in the emergence and development of pictorial systems). See on kooskõlas Parsoni (1998) mõistega kunsti tunnetuse olemuse kohta. Parson väidab, et valdav kognitsioonile lähenevaid süsteeme, määratleb erinevad kunste, igaühte, kui erinevat sümbolite süsteemi, ja "eeldab, et nad jäävad ühe meediumi piiridesse , mida ta käsitleb, eeldusel , et kui see liigub ühest süsteemist teise , kaotab ta ka oma sidususe "(lk 106).( Parsons argues that the prevailing systems approach to cognition identifies the different arts as each being a different symbol system and "requires thought to stay within the boundaries of a single medium it is dealing with on the assumption that, if it moves from one system to another, it looses its coherence" (p. 106).) . Ta väljendab muret, et selline arusaam kognitsioonist kunstis "muudab erinevuse mõõtme lahutamise põhimõttks" (lk 106). Pildilise kujutamise arengu mudeli repertuaar liigub sellest printsiibist edasi ja võtab arvesse kognitiivseid protsesse, mille tulemuseks on graafilises keskkonnas asuvate kujutamissüsteemide hõlbustamine, samuti nende, mis ületavad traditsioonilise muusika , draama ja visuaalsete kunstide piire . Selline laiema arengu kontseptsioon kajastab kunstilise arengu kultuurilisi tegurid rohkem kui mõned varasemad väljapakutud mudelid. Kultuuriliste mõjude küsimus varasemates teooriates on hiljutistes uuringutes , mis vaatlevad kaua püsinud u- kujulist arengumudelit on tehtud ilmekas ülevaade (Davis, 1991, 1997a, 1997b; Gardner, 1980; Gardner & Winner, 1982). U- kujulise mudeli pooldajad väidavad, et kui väikelapsed väljendavad oma piltides väga kõrget loomingulisuse taset, siis vanemad lapsed ja noorukid kannatavad kunstiliste võimete olulise vähenemise tõttu, mis saadakse tagasi täiskasvanueas, kuid seda vaid kunstiliselt andekate indiviidide puhul. U-kujulist arenguskeemi kinnitavad empiirilised andmed koguti Põhja-Ameerikas ning need tuginesid Põhja-Ameerika ja teiste Lääne-kohtunike poolt teostatud esteetilisele hinnangule kunstiliste väärtuste kohta. Kui seda uuringut hiljuti Hiina elanikkonna seas, uuesti läbi tehti, ebaõnnestus U-kujulise mustri kinnitamine (Kindler, 2001); Pariser & van den Berg. 1997). Mitte üheski neist hiljutistest uuringutest, ei peetud väikelaste töid kunstiliselt paremateks, nende vanemate eakaaslaste või mittekunstnikest täiskasvanute, omadest . See viitab sellele, et kunstilise väärtuse kultuurinõuded mängisid tõepoolest jõulist rolli kunstilise arengu kontseptsiooni määratlemisel teadusuuringus, mis viis universaalse U-kujulise arengu väiteni. On oluline märkida, et arengu repertuaarimudel ei pea U-kujulist mudelit valeks, Pildilistes repertuaarides, mis rõhutavad modernistlikke väärtusi, jääb selline oletus üsna tõenäoliselt samaks. Kuid repertuaarimudel näeb ette ka alternatiivseid arengusuundi teistes kujutamise alades, kus on tehniline meisterlikkus ja olulisem kui pildi üldine väljenduslik kvaliteet. Teistpidine arusaam pildilise kujutamise arengust, pakub põnevat väljakutset varajase lapseea kunstihariduse valdkonas. See määratleb õpetaja rolli palju keerulisemates tingimustes ja paneb tema õlgadele rohkem vastutust, et laste arengut selles valdkonnas ei kahjustaks liiga kitsad kultuurilised eelarvamused ja eelistused . Nähtuse, nagu lapse spontaanse iseseisev avastamine, väärtustamine ja julgustamist, peab endiselt arvesse võtma , väikelaste õpikeskkonna struktureerimisel. Kuid selleks, et lahendada pildilisi probleeme, vajavad lapsed ka aktiivset abi (a) ümbritsevas visuaalkultuuris oma intuitiivsete huvide järgimine. b) aidata neil saavutada kujutamisel ootustele vastav pilt. ja (c) uurida nende kujunemisjärgseid metakognitiivseid võimeid seoses nende pildi tegemise ja strateegiatega, mis võivad selle tegemist parandada. See tugineb nii eakaaslaste kui ka täiskasvanutele mõeldud näidete kasutamisele ja valmisolekue arutlemaks viiside üle, läbi mille saaks edasiarendada ja laiendada joonistamise süsteeme, nii et need sobiks laste spetsiifiliste vajaduste ja ambitsioonidega. Samas propageerides palju suuremat tundlikkust ja kultuuriliste mudelite kasutamist, varajase lapsepõlve hariduses, on oluline selgitada, et eesmärgiks ei ole koolitada väikelapsi, ühe kindla kujutamise süsteemi, võimekateks teostajateks. Varase lapsepõlve kunstihariduse eesmärk ei saa kunagi olla lastele värviraamatute andmine või nõudmine, et nad kopeeriksid ühte konkreetset kujundlikku skeemi, kui viisi, kuidas peab õppima joonistama. Kuid tundlik tegevuste tutvutstamine, mis aitab lastel mõista ikoonilise kujutamise iseloomu, väärtust ja kohta ja tutvustab neile laiemat valikut pildilise kujutamise süsteeme, mis toimivad nende kultuuris, olles toetatud, vestluste ja mudeldamise läbi, kuidas erinevaid effekte võib saavutada, modelleerimine, kuidas erinevaid tulemusi saavutada, annab lapsele vabaduse valida mis tahes süsteemid, mis kõige paremini teenib nende eesmärke ja vajadusi nende elu eri aegadel . Oluline on märkida, et eriti varases lapseeas võib laste pildilise kujutamise kavatsustel olla vähe pistmist kunsti modernistlikule "lapse kunsti" standardile vastava pildi loomisega. Nende joonistamine on sageli kõigest üks osa semiootilisest protsessist, kus oluline tähendus on ka helidel, žestidel ja sõnadel. Selles kontekstis on õpetaja võime aktsepteerida neid pilte, pigem aktiivsete sündmuste, kui objektidena, mida saab riputada lastehoiu või eelkooli klassi seinale, aitab lastel mõista selle unikaalse mitmekülgse kujutamise süsteemi väärtust ja näha seda, kui alternatiivi teistele kujutavatele tegevustele, kus Lääne kultuuri sügavalt juurdunud mugavuses, peavad pildid seisma üksi ja enda eest. Samamoodi arusaamine sellest, et dünaamilise loo rääkimine, võib nõuda, et laps kasutaks erinevaid pildi loomise vahendeid, kirjeldamaks jõupingutust, suurem kujutamisvõimaluste valik võib muutuda sotsiaalselt julgutamist ja valideerimist (Kindler 1999).( Similarly, understanding that telling of a dynamic story may require a child to use different pictorial devices than in the case of descriptive effort, a greater range of imagery can become socially encouraged and validated (Kindler, 1999).) Tegevused, mis ühendavad muusikat, draamat ja visuaalset kunsti,tuginedes mitmele väljendusviisile, aitab veelgi kaasa laste kujutamise arengule, mis on tihti loomulik valik väikelastel, kes spontaanselt ühendavad žesti, vokaali ja visuaalset tegevust enda igapäevastes mängudes. Õpetaja abi tähtsusest lapse arengul arusaamises tehnilistest võimalustest ja spetsiifiliste kunstimeediumide jäljendamisel, võib kõige paremini olla näha, vaadates väikelaste saviga tegelemist. Lapsed vanuses 3 aastat, kes toimetavad mitte intrusiivses eneseavastamise keskkonnas, kipuvad olema palju rohkem piiratud ainevaldkonna, skaalade, detailide ja stiilide mitmekesisuse poolt, kui need, kellel on asjakohane juhendamine (Kindler, 1997). Aga võib-olla kõige olulisem, tundlikum õppimine, mis tugineb konstruktivistlikel lähenemisviisidel ja juhib aktiivselt lapsi oluliste avastuste suunas, mis toetavad nende kujutamis püüdlusi, tähendab õnnestumise tunnet ja uhkust, mis toetab laste huvi loominguliste püüdluste vastu ja julgustab neid jätkama selle kujutamisvahendi kasutamist ja edasiarendamist. Sellist soovitatud täiskasvanu õpetuslikku sekkumist, saab lihtsalt integreerida mängulisse vormi, oskuslikud ja tundlikud õpetajad võivad viia läbi tohutu muutuse laste kunstilises arengus kompromiteerimata sellega lapsekeskset, toetavat , rahulikku ja mängulist keskkonda nende lapsepõlve klassiruumis . Kuid see, mis on vajalik, on paradigma üleminek arengualaselt sobiva kunstihariduse, mis on suunatud laste tegelikule saavutatavale tasemele keskkondade loomisest, mis võimaldavad lastel oma "proksimaalse arengu vööndites kasvada", mõiste mõistmisele(Vygotsky, 1978). See nihe võib toimuda ainult siis, kui me vabaneme kultuuripagasist, kus romantiseeritakse laste kunsti ja võtame omaks selle, et kuigi see kindlasti avaldab mõju meie esteetiliste tunnetele ja emotsioonidele, on seal ka teisi pildilise kujutamise maailmu , kus lastel peaks olema võimalus uurida, julgustatus õppima, ja tagatud toetatud meistri juhendusega. Meie armastus laste loomulike loominguliste jõupingutuste vastu, ei tohiks kahjustada nende kunstilist kasvu, selle mõiste laiemas tähenduses. See ülevaade inimarengu kontseptsioonist pildilise kujutamise alal laiendab diskursust uuele territooriumile, mis hõlmab visuaalse kultuuri paljusid näiteid. Sellest hoolimata kuulub see repertuaar, mis mitte ainult ei vasta modernistlikele ootustele või visuaalse reaalsusele tähtsuse andmisele, vaid see, mis hõlmab ka kujundlikke maailmu, mis tuginevad erinevatele reeglitele, olulistele atribuutidele ja tipptaseme kriteeriumidele . Pluralistlikes ja mitmekesistes ühiskondades, on eriti oluline kavandada varajase lapsepõlve haridust viisil, mis ei määratle kunstilist kasvu, tugevalt kultuurilist eelarvamust kandvate, hegemooniliste terminitega. Kunstiarengu hiljutised uuringud on pakkunud platvormi selle mitmekesisuse hõlbustamiseks, mitte pakkudes tihedat universaalset arengujärjestust, vaid pakkudes välja hulgaliselt kujunduslikke repertuaare, mille kaudu laste arengut kunstis saab tunnistada ja julgustada. Töö peab jätkama erinevate repertuaaride kaardistamise ja nende uurimisega nende pildiliste kujutamiste omandamise olemuse ja režiimi uurimise osas. Mõned neist võivad tugineda iseseisvale avastusele; teised võivad nõuda juhendamist ja õpetamise alustamist juba varakult. Kuna kunsti kontseptsioon on pidevalt laienenud ja multikultuurne teadlikkus toob kaasa kõikehõlmava dialoogi esteetilise väärtuse ja erinevate kujundite väärtuste üle, jätkub vajadus uurida mitmesuguseid kasvuvõimalusi ja pedagoogikaid, mis toetavad seda mitmemõõtmelisust.
Recent research on artistic development has provided a platform for accommodating this diversity not by proposing a tight universal developmental sequence, but rather by suggesting a range of pictorial repertoires along which children's growth in art can be witnessed and encouraged. The work needs to continue with mapping of the different repertoires and exploration of them in regard to the nature and modes of acquisition of these pictorial systems. Some of them may rely on self-directed discovery; others may require guidance and teaching starting early on in one's life. Because the concept of art is constantly broadening and multicultural awareness is leading to a more inclusive dialogue about aesthetic merit and value of different kinds of pictorial imagery, the need to explore diverse avenues of growth and pedagogies that will support it along these multiple dimensions will continue to be an important area to concern and research for years to c