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Philosophy
Aristotle

four causes or better “becauses” because they are the 4 ways in which we use the word “because” or answer the question “why?”

Material cause :

what it is made of
why is the bridge strong? because made of steel

Formal cause:

what form, definition or property it has

why is this salt? because made of sodium and chloride

Efficient cause:

what initiated the change or movement
why did the baseball move ? because someone hit it

Final cause:

what end or goal does it have?

why does he walk? because he wants to be healthy

also nature operates in terms of final causes
things don’t happen spontaneously, every action that nature takes is for the sake of something, everything has a purpose
where a series has a completion, all the previous steps are done for the sake of that
art partly competes with and imitates nature
animals and plants do things for the sake of an end
plants grow leaves to provide shade for fruit
has roots downwards for nourishment
spiders have a web to catch flies

Bacon

argues against Aristotle and his theory of syllogism ( deduction )
Deduction: All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore , Socrates is mortal
deduction from self-evident axioms had led to little or no new scientific knowledge
it only leads to what we already knew or confuses us to make false assumptions
to understand nature properly an empirical method ( based on observation ) is needed
There are 4 idols (obstacles) to true knowledge

Idols of he Tribe:

false illusions caused by the human nature

argues against Protagoras (“man is the measure of all things”)
all perceptions of senses and mind are according to the measure of the individual and not the universe
human understanding is like a false mirror, which distorts and discolours the nature my mixing its own nature with it.

Idols of the Cave :

private obsessions or preoccupations caused by education, conversation , reading throw people off the track in the search for truth

Idols of Market - place :

illusions due to the use of language
people tend to rely on false but plausible technical terms, which often mask the truth

Idols of the Theatre :

false systems of traditional philosophy, which people believe to be true
all systems are stage-plays representing worlds of their own creation

The human nature is so that if it has once adopted an opinion, it sticks to it and draws all other things to support and agree with it.
If there is something else that seems to be more true, people just ignore or reject it to be true so that the former opinion can hold true.
Example: A man was shown a picture hanging in a temple of all the people who had paid their vows as having escaped shipwreck. He was asked if he now acknowledged the power of god. He replied “Yes, but where is the picture of those who drowned after their vows?”
This can also be seen in philosophy and science

Against Aristotle’s “final causes”
People should use methods of induction instead:
The table of Presence:
- we must know all instances in which the nature is present
- collect our data without any prejudice
The table of Absence:

we must investigate the absence of the given nature in things which are similar to things which have that nature.
people are more impressed by positive correlations, which lead them to generalize – “it is the negative instance, which has a greater force.”

Table of Comparison:

we must understand the instances where the nature is present in different degrees
we must compare its increase or decrease in the same subject with its amount in different subjects

The results of induction are significant because they lead us to underlying “Forms” of things, which are responsible for the behaviour of all physical phenomena

Hume – Problem of Induction

Against Bacon who says that the method of science is to make general laws based on observations

Two types of reasoning:

Demonstrative reasoning:

truths which can be conclusively demonstrated because they follow logically from the definitions of the terms involved
eg. 2 + 2 = 4, triangles are 3-sided

Reasoning concerning matter of fact :

provides information about what really happens in the world
reasoning not based on demonstration but observation and experience

Experience can only give un information about what an object is like now or what it was like in the past but not what it is going to be like in the future
eg. the bread which a ate in the past nourished me ie. a body of such sensible qualities had at that time such secret powers. But that doesn’t mean that another body with the same sensible qualities as bread has to have the same secret powers at another time.
it is not true that things which look similar will produce the same effects .
This is because the course of nature may always change and therefore, also the effects of things may change.
“It is impossible that any arguments from experience can prove the resemblance of the past to the future, since all these arguments are founded on the supposition of that resemblance.”

Hume – Cause and Effect

we can never by any of our senses, see the power or connection between a cause and effect
we can only see that when one billiard ball moves and hits the other, the other moves. The mind does not however conceive any connection between the two things happening.
we only know that one thing follows from another because of experience
if there were any power that caused one thing to follow another then we should be able to tell what effect an object will cause from the first time we see the object.
this has to be so because:

we can’t even conceive the connection between our mind and our movements

we can’t move all our organs .

if we knew the connection between mind and movement then we should know why we can move only some of our organs
if a man becomes paralysed in a leg, he at first feels like he can still move it like before

we know that when we decide to move our arm, the signal is first sent to one nerve and to the next and next until it finally reaches the muscle of the arm. however, if we knew the original power, we would also the intermediate motions. but we don’t – we only know the final effect and that is because of experience.

in all of nature, there are no connections conceivable by us. “One event follows another but we can never observe any tie between them. They seem conjoined but never connected.”
conclusion :
we should never make a general rule just because an event usually follows another event because we can’t see the connection between them
we think that there is a link between one event and another because we expect there to be one from experience.

Kant – Cause and Effect

Argues against Hume
He does not believe that the connection between a cause and effect derives merely from a habit
“all changes take place in accordance with the law of cause and effect”
there is a difference between the way we:

perceive an object:
- order of perception is reversible
- if I observe a house I can observe the basement first and then move up or observe the top first and then go down – it does not make a difference
  - perceive an event:

order of perception is not reversible
if I observe a boat moving downstream I cannot observe the downstream position before its upstream position
- “in the perception of an event there is always a rule which makes the order of appearances necessary .”
- this shows that the empiricist approach of Hume is wrong
- the concept of cause and effect is necessary for us for experiencing the world at all
- the concept of cause and effect is something that we possess a priori – before we ever experience it – but the concept only becomes clear after we have experienced it.

Popper

also against Hume
didn’t think that the problem of induction was relevant to scientific methods
believed that both science and pseudo -science can be verified by observation and experience (eg astrology)
believed that is was easy to find verifications for nearly all theories because verification comes from repetitive observations but people are always forcing regularities upon the world – making up rules to try to explain the world
they “ jump to conclusions”
people first make a general rule and then try to find verification for it using observation – not the other way round like it is often believed
people can’t observe before having a hypothesis – they simply do not know what they should be observing or what regularities they should be looking for
Dogmatic behaviour: expect and try to find regularities even if they are not there. Events that falsify the theory are treated as “background noise”
Critical attitude : trying to falsify a theory made up by dogmatists. It needs dogmatic theories as its raw material. Makes theories struggle for the survival of the fittest.
Dogmatic behaviour related to pseudo-science
Critical attitude related to science
Therefore, science begins with myths , which are then critically tested – trial and error

Kuhn

Agrees with Popper that in “normal science” theories are rarely discarded even when the observations do not agree with it
This is because “normal science” operates within the boundaries determined by a “ paradigm ” – ruling assumptions and standards of dominant scientific theory

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