This is a post-refereeing final
draft . When citing, please
refer to the published version:
Cohen , S.A. (2011). Lifestyle travellers:
Backpacking as a way of life.
Annals of Tourism
Research, 38(4), 1535-1555. DOI: 10.
1016 /j.annals.2011.02.002
LIFESTYLE TRAVELLERS:
Backpacking as a way of life
Scott A. Cohena
Bournemouth
University , United Kingdom
acorresponding
author : School of Tourism, Dorset House, Talbot Campus, Poole, Dorset,
BH12 5BB, United Kingdom. Tel: +44 1202 961261 Fax: +44 1202 515707
Email :
[email protected] ABSTRACT Scholarship on backpackers speculates some individuals may
extend backpacking to a way of
life. This article empirically explores this
proposition using lifestyle
consumption as its
framing
concept and conceptualises individuals who style their
lives around the enduring
practice of backpacking as ‘lifestyle travellers’. Ethnographic interviews with lifestyle
travellers in India and Thailand offer an
emic account of the
practices , ideologies and
social identity that characterise lifestyle
travel as a distinctive subtype
within backpacking.
Departing from the drifter construct, which (re)constitutes this identity as socially deviant, the
concept of lifestyle allows for a contemporary
appraisal of
these individuals’
patterns of
meaningful consumption and wider insights into how ongoing
mobility can
lead to
different ways of
understanding identities and relating to
place .
Keywords: lifestyle consumption; backpacker; mobility; drifter; identity
INTRODUCTION Within the social world of backpacking,
there exist a small
proportion of tourists who
travel as a lifestyle for
years on end. Reminiscent of Cohen’s (1972) seminal ‘drifter tourists’,
but subverting connotations of aimlessness implicit in this
term , these extreme tourists, who I
reconceptualise as ‘lifestyle travellers’,
move beyond an episodic consumption of
backpacking. Backpacking is instead
extended to an ongoing lifestyle practice that on a micro
level provides
both a
unique sense of self to its practitioners and on a
macro level comprises a
distinct and recognisable social identity. Lifestyle travel in a broader sense can take on
different
forms , whether, for
instance ,
through backpacking, ocean yacht
cruising (
Macbeth ,
2000) or caravanning (White & White, 2004). What these forms of travel have in common
that distinguishes
them from many
other lifestyle choices is sustained
physical mobility.
Whilst social scientists dispute just how ‘new’ mobilities are to our lives (
Creswell , 2010;
Sheller & Urry, 2006), less disputable is that globalisation, with mobility as a
crucial characteristic, is
leading to different ways of understanding identities and relating to place. As
such , the
current paper not only contributes the
first empirical
material to advance past
speculative
evidence that backpacking can extend to a way life (Noy & Cohen, 2005; Welk,
2004; Westerhausen, 2002), but it also contextualises this form of lifestyle travel within a
wider discussion in the social
sciences of how physical mobility can
affect and
challenge the
ways in which we
experience ourselves,
others and
places over time.
Based on ethnographic
interviews with lifestyle travellers in India and Thailand in 2007, I use theory on lifestyle
consumption to frame a nuanced understanding of the practices, ideologies and social identity
that characterise lifestyle travel as a distinctive subtype within backpacker tourism.
Although backpacking as a lifestyle has
clear conceptual
links to Cohen’s (1972) drifter,
the social world surrounding ‘non-institutionalised
tourist roles’ has changed significantly
since the inception of the drifter model. Cohen (1972, p. 168) describes a drifter as venturing
‘furthest
away from the
beaten track and from the accustomed way of life of his home
country …The drifter has no
fixed itinerary or timetable and no well-defined
goals of travel.’
Drifters are
further understood as tourists who ‘
roam internationally,
living with the
indigenous population and
taking odd
jobs to
keep themselves
going ’ (
Adler & Adler, 1999,
p. 54). Like the ‘hippie counterculture’ of the
1960s -70s in general, the arguably derogatory
drifter label connotes a social deviancy undertaken by ‘dropouts’ from affluent societies
(O’Reilly, 2006). Although Vogt’s (1976) ‘
wanderer ’ and
Riley ’s (1988) ‘international long-
term
budget travellers’ represent
similar attempts to
cast a terminological net around this type
of tourist, it is the drifter concept that inspires ‘one of the prevalent trends of contemporary
tourism’ (Cohen, 1973, p. 90), backpacker tourism.
The succinct and less pejorative epithet ‘backpacker’ gained momentum from the
late 1990s (O’Reilly, 2006) as a descriptor for predominantly young, budget tourists on extended
holiday (Loker-
Murphy & Pearce, 1995). More recently, Maoz and Bekerman (2010, p. 426)
describe backpackers as ‘relatively young tourists who
tend to gather in ghettos or enclaves:
places where large numbers congregate to experience home comforts and the company of
tourists of similar interests.’ This
latter enclavic
focus reflects an institutionalisation of the
backpacking
phenomenon , a mainstreaming decried by some authors (Cohen, 2003; O’Reilly,
2006) for its
alignment with the
stigma of mass tourism. The homogenisation of backpacking
with the rubric of mass tourism,
however , is derailed by scholarship that teases out
heterogeneity from within the backpacker umbrella concept (Ateljevic & Doorne, 2005;
Uriely, Yonay, & Simchai, 2002). Sørensen (2003) calls for continued research on
specific subtypes within the backpacker market.
Westerhausen (2002, p. 146)
notes ‘for a sizeable minority, being on the
road becomes a
preferred way of life to which they will
return whenever the
opportunity presents itself.’ Noy
and Cohen (2005) further highlight that such ‘lifelong wanderers’ have rarely been the
subject of empirical research. Whilst many backpackers are in a moratoric or transitional phase of life
(Maoz & Bekerman, 2010), such as on a ‘gap
year ’ or ‘overseas experience’, which may be
temporally viewed as an
episode , Uriely et al. (2002) do observe evidence of ‘serial
backpacking’, in which multiple backpacking
trips may be pursued after an initial
backpacking experience, sometimes reflecting changing motivations
across a ‘backpacking
biography ’ or a
single trip. Whereas Uriely (2005) leverages these observations to further a
2
late modern understanding of the phenomenon as pluralised, he does not pursue how these
diverse and episodic
experiences may be
assembled into a
mobile lifestyle that offers a unique
sense of identity to its adherents and forms a recognisable social identity within a broader
social matrix.
Indeed, lifestyle travel is a phenomenon that illustrates a de-differentiation of
everyday life and tourist experiences, a
process that Uriely (2005) identifies as characteristic of tourism
in late modernity. But
rather than tourism permeating everyday places where individuals
reside , through, for instance, simulated environments and
virtual reality , lifestyle travellers
make tourism an everyday practice through the ongoing physical mobility of backpacking.
Although Pearce and Lee (2007) do refer to ‘travel
career patterns’ to try to encapsulate how
tourists may
develop across time, lifestyle travel is distinctly not akin to career, which
metaphorically implies a
logic of
production . As such, Uriely et al.’s (2002)
reference to a
backpacking biography presents an apt departure point in the backpacking
literature for
exploring how the episodic consumption of backpacking can be assembled into a meaningful
and identifiable lifestyle.
Lifestyle Consumption Although lifestyles can be used as a
means of socially stratifying individuals, as one
might do through social
class ,
occupation , ethnicity or culture, it is important to
locate lifestyles as
products of the
same post-
industrial period they can be used to analyse (Binkley,
2004). Lifestyles are central to debates about
consumer culture and are often ‘articulated in
relation to shifts identified with post-
Fordism and/or
postmodernism ’ (Bell & Hollows, 2006,
p. 1). Historical shifts from mass to specialised production in the
context of urbanisation saw
western class distinctions
begin to destabilise and a concurrent rise in niche consumption
practices as a means of symbolically conveying personal style (
ibid ). With a decline in
identities based on logics of production and
tradition ,
Shields (1992) suggests selves are
instead increasingly
fashioned and differentiated through aesthetic consumption practices.
Distinctive consumption becomes a life project wherein ‘the particularity of the assemblage of
goods , clothes, practices, experiences, appearance and bodily dispositions’ are
designed together into a lifestyle (Featherstone, 1987, p. 59). Lifestyle practices such as habits of
dressing, what to eat, how to spend
leisure time and
even ‘favoured milieux’ become
‘
decisions not only about how to act but who to be’ (
Giddens , 1991, p. 81).
As increased consumer
choice may
afford a dizzying
array of life options (Gergen, 1991),
the stylising of a distinctive mode of living also promises the opportunity to anchor one’s self
amidst the cacophony of
liquid modernity (
Bauman , 2000). Featherstone (1987) does
question, however, whether lifestyles actually cut across structures such as class and culture,
as the
politics of consumption are
still mired in
economic asymmetries. Nonetheless, Giddens
(1991) offers that the more post-
traditional and fragmented the context, the more lifestyle
choice becomes
critical in the (re)constitution of self-identity. Chaney (1996) thus sees
lifestyle as the consumption of
sets of goods and
services in response to a
perceived loss of
meaning in everyday life.
In this latter sense, the aesthetic sign-
value of lifestyle consumption becomes politically
mobilised and forms a
basis for resisting
dominant power structures, as
seen in the
countercultural protests of the 1960s (Binkley, 2004). The
ideal of ‘
alternative lifestyle’ was
then extolled as a break from the past and the
constraints of its collective structures. As
lifestyle was imbued in this period with a ‘controlled hedonism’ (
ibid) focused on styling life
3
around playful leisure consumption rather than
work , it
comes as no
surprise that the cognate
field of leisure has sustained
interest in the concept of lifestyle (see
Stebbins , 1997;
Veal ,
2001; Wheaton, 2004). Past attempts at tightly defining lifestyle, however, often
divorce the
concept from its politicised history and instead concentrate
solely on patterns of
tangible behaviour (Stebbins, 1997). For instance, Sobel (1981, p. 3) defines lifestyle as ‘any
distinctive, and
therefore recognisable, mode of living’. In
contrast , Stebbins (1997, p. 350)
observes that in
addition to an emphasis on shared patterns of behaviour, lifestyles encompass
sets of
related ‘
values , attitudes and orientations’ that become ‘the basis for a separate,
common social identity’.
Past labels that have been impressed
upon individuals who backpack as a lifestyle choice,
such as ‘drifter’ and ‘wanderer’, usefully highlight how identities have changed in post-
industrial societies. These
former labels (re)construct this identity as socially deviant. For
instance, the
Merriam -Webster Dictionary defines a drifter as one who travels or moves about
aimlessly
while Roget’s
Thesaurus equates drifter with wanderer and includes in its list of
synonyms the
words derelict,
hobo and vagrant. These
marginal markers are tied to industrial
discourses of ‘normality’ and the ‘mainstream’, with identity largely measured against
production. In this sense, to drift was to
escape from a normal life-
path (Cohen & Taylor,
1992). Creswell (2001) notes how mobility in general has often been viewed in the past as a
threat to normality, as there has been a tendency by
agents of the state to try to
position people within particular boundaries. In contrast, a
result of the ‘opening’ of identity
provided (to some) through post-Fordism is that the stigma associated with non-traditional lifestyles
and mobility is diminished (Adler & Adler, 1999). Even though enduring social categories
such as
nationality , class and occupation still mediate identity,
pluralism and consumerism
allow for a more
open appraisal of
transient styles of life fashioned around patterns of
meaningful consumption.
Although the concept of lifestyle is gaining speed as a theoretical
tool amongst social
scientists, it has
until now
received little import as a perspective of social analysis within the
field of tourism. The uptake of lifestyle as an analytical device in tourism has been largely
limited to quantitative approaches that use psychographics to segment travel behaviour (see
Lee &
Sparks , 2007).
Outside of tourism, Adler and Adler (1999) examine the migratory
patterns of
resort workers and the manifestations of their transient lifestyles. Of a similar
chord,
growing sociological discussion of ‘lifestyle
migration ’ focuses on individuals who
migrate in search of a ‘better’ way of life (Benson & O'Reilly, 2009). These lines of research
transverse the intersections of mobility, lifestyle, and social meanings. Distinguishing lifestyle
migrants from tourists, Benson and O’Reilly (2009, p. 614) observe that ‘there has yet to be
an adequate explanation of why people might want to turn their experiences from tourism into
a way of life’.
Consequently, I suggest that the term lifestyle traveller affords a
rich conceptual tool with
which to interrogate the proposition of backpacker tourism as a way of life, providing a means
of both identifying this lifestyle group from within a broader social mix and understanding
how backpacker consumption practices can be assembled into a meaningful personal identity.
With regards to my semantic use of ‘traveller’ instead of ‘tourist’, debate over a distinction in
these words amongst backpackers has received considerable
attention elsewhere (see
Dann ,
1999; O’Reilly, 2005). It is
reported that backpacker tourists mostly either reject the tourist
and backpacker labels altogether in exchange for self-identification as ‘travellers’ (Davidson,
2005; Welk, 2004) or, less often, identify themselves as travellers whilst fundamentally still
recognising this subject position as a
category of tourist
types (O’Reilly, 2005). By
contextualising backpacking as a lifestyle within a wider range of forms of lifestyle travel, it
4
can be seen in a broader
light wherein distinctions
between tourism, migration and mobilities
over the life
course may
blur . Nonetheless, Maoz and Bekerman (2010)
stress the
importance of listening to how tourists describes themselves when (de)constructing social categories. It is
with this focus on emic perspectives and unpacking the discourses in which these subject
positions are embedded that this paper turns to empirical exploration of the practices,
ideologies and social identity of lifestyle travellers.
EXPLORING LIFESTYLE TRAVELLERS
Study Methods The empirical material for this paper derives from 25 ethnographic interviews with
lifestyle travellers in
northern India and
southern Thailand from July through September
2007. Stebbins (1997, p. 358) suggests that the unstructured ethnographic
interview ‘remains
the most effective way to explore the values, attitudes and orientations used to
explain and
justify’ lifestyles. My own six years of experience backpacking through
Europe ,
Asia ,
Oceania and
South America (1999 to 2003, 2005) helped in gaining access to the social world
of these lifestyle travellers. My past travel periods
typically ranged from six to
nine months,
as after this
length of time I ordinarily exhausted my savings and turned to casual
employment in the United
States to save up funds for my next extended backpacking trip.
Whilst I
once adhered to a romanticised
vision of a life of backpacking, the research process
saw an eventual ‘secularisation’ of my disposition towards lifestyle travel, despite my
continuing interest in de-marginalising this lifestyle choice. My travel experiences and
research
journey thus not only affect how I
continue to interpret lifestyle travel, but also
manifest in the
present text as a more critical and less romanticised
reading of this
phenomenon than I have held in the past.
As field
sites , India and Thailand have reputations as attractive destinations for long-term
tourism (Cohen, 1982; Elsrud, 2001) with
established backpacker enclaves that
provide contact
points with lifestyle travellers. Enclaves in both countries supply infrastructure for
low-budget tourism and the consumption of hedonistic and/or
spiritual experiences. Although
Cohen (2003) presupposes difficulty in accessing ‘contemporary drifters’, as they may
theoretically seek remote localities, the present research
found lifestyle travellers interspersed
amongst other backpackers in enclavic settings. Specifically, participants were accessed in the
popular destinations of Rishikesh, Manali,
McLeod Ganj and Leh in northern India and on the
islands of Koh Phangan and Koh Tao in southern Thailand. Lifestyle travellers, like
backpackers in general, however, are found in regions
throughout the world, often
following migration routes
described as the ‘international seeker
circuit ’ (Adler & Adler, 1999, p. 36).
The inclusion criteria
here for lifestyle travellers is a fluid combination wherein each
participant self-defined travel as her/his lifestyle and had been on multiple backpacking trips
of
approximately six months or more. The latter criterion functioned as a temporal starting
point, as the
majority had taken
several trips lasting roughly six months to a year. Participants
typically totalled
four years of travel experience, with three of them
having travelled the
longest at 17 years (Table 1). Variations within the participants’ travel experiences are
discussed in the next section.
In both India and Thailand, I entered the field
again as a ‘traveller’ and for the first time
as a researcher.
Drawing on my travel experiences, I blended
back into backpacker culture by
dressing in somewhat worn casual attire, a
practical style common among backpackers in
South Asia (Hottola, 2008), socialising with them and
moving through
daily practices in the
5
same networks of accommodation and
eating facilities (see also Davidson, 2005; Sørensen,
2003). Lugosi (2006) notes that communicating one’s research identity to prospective
participants is typically abrupt or
incremental , lying between overt and covert. Through many
conversations with other backpackers over
meals or a drink, I was
able to avoid approaching
strangers abruptly and
occasionally established I was speaking to a lifestyle traveller or was
subsequently introduced to one. My research was often disclosed
early in the unfolding of
relationships as initial casual
conversation typically turns to how long each
person intends to
remain in the destination country. Only two potential participants openly reacted negatively to
the research disclosure, which led to my withdrawal from the
encounter . In most
cases ,
participants
seemed pleased to have an opportunity to
discuss their travels.
Table 1
Summary profile of interview programme participants
Pseudonym Gender Age Nationality Education level Interview Years of location lifestyle
travel Josh
Male 23
American
High school
degree Rishikesh
4
Brendon
Male
26
Irish
Bachelors
Rishikesh
5
Andreas Male
25
Swedish High school degree
Rishikesh
4
Ryan Male
48
Australian High school
drop -out
Rishikesh
14
Lev
Male
30
Israeli /
French Masters
Manali
3
Marie
Female 26
French
Masters
Manali
3
Tamara Female
34
Canadian /
Indian Masters
McLeod Ganj
17
Fiona
Female
23
New Zealander
Bachelors
McLeod Ganj
3
Ehud
Male
34
Israeli
Masters
Leh
10
Adam
Male
25
Israeli
High school degree
Leh
5
Charlotte Female
26
Canadian
Bachelors
Koh Phangan
3
Eric
Male
35
French
High school drop-out
Koh Phangan
5
Laura
Female
28
Canadian
High school degree
Koh Phangan
6
Thomas Male
29
English Bachelors
Koh Phangan
3
Barry
Male
32
English
High school degree
Koh Phangan
3
Max
Male
40
English
Apprenticeship
Koh Phangan
17
Steph Female
23
Australian
High school degree
Koh Phangan
3
Simon
Male
50
Swiss Apprenticeship
Koh Phangan
10
Jackie Female
26
English
Bachelors
Koh Phangan
3
Kat
Female
30
Australian
Masters
Koh Phangan
8
Anna
Female
25
English
Masters
Koh Phangan
3
Alec
Male
34
Scottish High school degree
Koh Tao
17
Julie Female
27
German High school degree
Koh Tao
3
Felipe Male
29
Cuban
Masters
Koh Tao
3
Tracey
Female
31
English
Bachelors
Koh Tao
3
Digitally recorded interviews were typically held in cafes, restaurants or guesthouses,
often several days after first
meeting and continuing to socialise with the participant. In line
with Stebbins’ (1997) description of lifestyle as a
guide for exploratory ethnographic
interviews, I sought to
understand patterns within the social practices of the participants, and
the ways they explain and justify these behaviours. Interviews averaged in length from 45 min
to two
hours and were loosely based around the life narratives of the participants, focusing on
aspects of their lives
before and
during their backpacking, as well as their future aspirations.
6
Participants often
went to great lengths to explain why they travel as a lifestyle choice. The
narratives of participants in India and Thailand were remarkably consistent.
The 25 participants represented a range of 13 nationalities (Table 1), with English,
Australians, Israelis and Canadians being the most common. All but four of the participants
travelled
alone , 11 were female and education levels were from high school dropout to
masters degree holder. Participant age ranged from 23 to 50, with an average age of 30.
Following transcription and repeated readings of the empirical material,
formal interpretation
was carried out using an inductive thematic analysis
approach (Patton, 2002). This approach
involved reducing the empirical material into categories guided by the participants’ narratives
without losing
sight of the research aims (
Miles & Huberman, 1994; K. O’Reilly, 2005).
Attention was
given during initial coding to monitoring both the potential influence of my
prior knowledge of the social world of backpacking and conceptual proclivities. It is from
these initial categories and subsequent interpretations that the following empirical insights
into lifestyle travel were developed.
Initial and Enduring Involvement Engagement in lifestyle travel was enabled by the participants’ common backgrounds of
relative economic privilege and their first-world citizenships that
allowed for
admission into
foreign nation-states. Their largely affluent backgrounds, predominant whiteness and able fit
bodies admitted further access to geographically disparate casual employment opportunities,
which helped to finance extended periods of backpacking. These structural identifiers that
facilitate mobility are also observed by Germann Molz (2006; 2008) in her research on
‘
round -the-world travellers’. In addition to trips to Asia, many of this study’s participants had
backpacked through
Africa , Latin America and Oceania, while a few had ventured to the
Middle East. Time in the ‘rich
north ’ (primarily Europe, North America and
Australia ) was
typically spent in casual employment
aimed at
financing extended periods in the ‘
poor south’,
reflecting an asymmetry of mobile economic power (Gogia, 2006). Periods of backpacking
uninterrupted by return visits ‘home’ to work and/or see family and
friends ranged from three
months to two and a
half years. Participants regularly resumed backpacking.
Supporting the work of Maoz (2007), participants often identified life crises, such as
failed relationships, career
disruption , the divorce of
parents or drug dependency as catalysts
for both their initial and continuing travels. These mobilities are embedded within a
discourse of tourism as escape (Cohen & Taylor, 1992), not only instigated by crises, but in some cases
through a broader
feeling of alienation at home in which their prior lives are presented
negatively. This latter tourism
push factor is a well-trodden path in discussions of anomie in
late modernity (Dann, 1977). A significant departure point, however, in the lifestyle
travellers’ narratives of their lives pre-travel, is the many participants who
located their initial
travel
motivation primarily in childhood tourism experiences. Ryan (2010), drawing on
Havitz and Dimanche (1990), identifies enduring involvement as a way through which
holidays may become extensions of life rather than means of escape. For Tamara (34,
Canadian/Indian), diaspora tourism had been an annual childhood
activity with her family,
until she turned 17, at which point the form of her tourism practice changed to independent
backpacking:
Travelling was so much introduced to me as a baby that it
became much more of
an option as a way of life. There’s no year in my life that hasn’t involved travel,
7
that doesn’t
involve a few countries.
Movement and
constant change is very much
a
part of me and my lifestyle, and I don’t even
know in a sense different.
In several cases, extended travel was socially condoned by the participants’ parents for its
perceived educational value, a discourse
linking back to the
18th century European Grand
Tour (Loker-Murphy & Pearce, 1995). These participants often further mobilised an emotive
explanation in justifying enduring involvement with travel. This materialised in privileging a
vocabulary of neo-nomadism (see D’Andrea, 2007), in which some participants deeply
felt their peregrinations reflected their nature, as well as how they were nurtured: ‘I truly
feel in
my soul I’m nomadic. This is why I can’t pinpoint it [why he travels], because it’s just in my
blood, the same reason why
birds fly south for
winter ’ (Thomas, English, 29). Participants
frequently invoked a discourse of lifestyle in describing and justifying their mobilities.
Resisting identification as a social deviant, Max (English, 40), who had been travelling for the
last 17 years whilst
working intermittently in
hospitality in the UK and New
Zealand ,
observed:
Some would
look at me as a bum; I would feel a little bit
sorry for them if they
look at me like that. What’s
really developed is my
real lifestyle, rather than what
I have to do to
support it.
Indeed, the participants did not view their backpacking as casual drifting, but as movements
imbued with
purpose and meaning. This emic
primacy given to the
notion of lifestyle in their
accounts adds empirical leverage to lifestyle travel as a distinct social identity.
Several of the participants described being
swept into a life tailored around travel. This
was in contrast to their
original intentions, like many backpackers, of treating their
backpacking period as a moratorium from their life-paths at home (Maoz & Bekerman, 2010).
As Jackie (English, 26), a former nurse in the
army , noted of her
expectations of her first trip:
‘I was hoping it would broaden my mind a bit, but
nothing more than that. I
certainly wasn’t
expecting to make it a lifestyle. I intended to go home, but I don’t think that will happen
now.’ Alec (Scottish, 34), who supported himself teaching yoga and managing a small budget
beach resort, narrated how travel eventually became integrated into his self-concept:
It’s exactly half my life I’ve been constantly travelling. I’ve got a
base here in
Thailand but I’m always back and
forth , 17 years on the road. Maybe travelled
about 43 countries. I think once you get used to this lifestyle, it becomes part of
who you are.
This perspective illustrates the
actor -level intersection between self-concept and lifestyle
(Cohen, 2011), wherein patterns of consumption may ‘give material form to a particular
narrative of self-identity’ (Giddens, 1991, p. 81).
Ideology and Identity Whilst it is well-established that backpackers returning home often mobilise narratives of
self-transformation on the road (Noy, 2004), lifestyle travellers are subject to years of
exposure to varied
cultural praxes and backpacker
subculture , which may manifest in extreme
pressure on their socio-cultural identities. One possible outcome of sustained, diverse cultural
interaction is a cosmopolitan disposition (in contrast to parochialism), in which it is suggested
that tourism may lead to a subjective open-orientation or
outlook towards other ways of life
(Enoch & Grossman, 2010; Germann Molz, 2006; 2008; Hannerz, 1990). Indeed, Ryan
8
(Australian, 48) after 14 years of lifestyle travel attested: ‘I’ve
experienced a continued
acceptance of all lifestyles and all types of people. A
greater knowledge about the world as a
small
glass , like a
universal condition rather than a national condition.’ A further
cosmopolitan
claim was staked by Adam (Israeli, 25):
I wanted to see other ways of living, to see if my way of living is the right way, to
meet people from all over the world, to see what the outside world is about and to
expand my way of
thinking .
Whilst these perspectives do convey a cosmopolitan
sensibility , the notion of cross-
cultural mobility engendering cosmopolitanism has been subject to
intense scrutiny. Skrbis,
Kendall and Woodward (2004) remind us that
behind the abstract ideal of cosmopolitanism
often lurks the privileges of wealth and citizenship of the mobile elite, whilst John Urry warns
in an interview with
Blok (2005, p. 81) that to position one as cosmopolitan is to try to
produce ‘superior cultural capital over and against others’. Andreas (Swedish, 25), for
example, used his consumption of ‘
exotic ’
foods as a way to try to distinguish himself from
his friends in Sweden: ‘I go home and I have a completely different
taste because I’ve tasted
foods from across the world that they might
never have heard of.’
The participants more often embody performances of what has been referred to as
‘mundane cosmopolitanisms’ (Skrbis et al., 2004). Their day-to-day ‘actually existing
cosmopolitanisms’ (Germann Molz, 2006) manifested mainly in the consumption of regional
cuisine and, for the many not choosing basic casual clothing, the wearing of romanticised
versions of ‘ethnic’
dress . Within Hottola’s (2008) study of diversity in backpacker dress
styles, this latter attire largely reflects the ‘countercultural’ category, in which loose-
fitting new age style clothing that eclectically idealises ‘Oriental culture’ is common. Navigating
infrastructure
catering to tourism, the participants were often to be found eating, drinking and
socialising with other enclavic tourists.
Local interactions, whether through food,
water/coastal
sport , yoga, or meditation, were predominantly instrumental and
commercialised. Although many sought to ‘go
native ’, their participation was often
imaginary. Despite limited non-commercialised contact with the Other, many participants
found that years of backpacking led them to a more pointed sense of identity confusion, or a
feeling of being
lost in a ‘sea’ of cultural differences (see Cohen, 2010).
Return trips home for the participants were also
commonly marked by
distress and intense
‘
reverse culture confusion’ (Hottola, 2004, p. 460), which in more pronounced cases
manifested in a
brief depressive state: ‘Every time I go back to the United States, it’s
hard , I
get real depressed, lay in bed for about a week, every single time (Josh, American, 23). Rather
than returning home and, as is described of many backpackers, narrating their travels as a
badge of achievement that might facilitate access to a professional workforce (Desforges,
2000; Sørensen, 2003) and eventually successfully reorientating themselves to their home
societies (Noy & Cohen, 2005; Pocock & McIntosh, 2010), participants
spoke of persisting
profound feelings of alienation and a sense of stagnation in return visits to their countries of
origin . Fiona (New Zealander, 23), contrary to her intentions to resettle upon returning home,
soon
departed on another
major trip after encountering apathy from others towards her
tourism experiences and a feeling of despondency:
9
Getting back to New Zealand, people hadn’t changed. All these amazing
experiences to
share and people there just didn’t want to know. Friends said –
how’s South America? What do you say to that? You can’t just say, it was great,
thanks. And then they
switch off and they’re back on to what happened last
Saturday
night . There was just so much
routine .
A feeling that ‘time
stood still’ at home, as friends’ behaviours seemingly remained
concretised, was shared by Max (English, 40):
If there’s such a
thing as culture
shock going away to a different culture, there’s
certainly a culture shock
coming back to your own. When you get back your
friends are still doing the same things. It’s like you just travelled in
space and
come back and it’s just the next day.
For Brendon (Irish, 26), returning home to
Dublin was marked by a perceived conflict
between his ‘new values’ and those he saw as representative of his country of origin: ‘I
couldn’t settle at all into the normal routine of life. I was hypercritical about everything back
home. I saw things differently.’ Sussman (2000) identifies this type of reverse culture ‘shock’
amongst international sojourners as resulting from a cultural clash in which a repatriate has
incorporated values and behaviours of a host culture into her/his identity. In the
case of
lifestyle travellers, however, adopted sets of values and behaviours arguably derive more from
appropriating
elements of backpacker subculture, influenced by time spent in backpacker
enclaves or ‘traveller bubbles’ (
Wilson &
Richards , 2008), rather than through engagement
with indigenous communities. Drawing on a hybridisation of orientalism, romanticism and
1960s counterculture, lifestyle travellers (re)produce
ideals of
freedom , spontaneity and
challenge that are embedded in a shared ideology of backpacking in
order to justify their
lifestyle choice:
I think travel affords me a
whole lot of really good lifestyle things that are a little
harder to
find when you
stay in the same place. So, for example, really
simple words like freedom, spontaneity, aloneness, miracles, and newness (Ryan,
Australian, 48).
A traveller identity, like all social identities, is based on a
belief of what one is not in
relation to the Other (Hall, 1996). Thus, whilst life on the road is positively valued by the
participants, life at home is portrayed in opposition as constraining, regressive, boring,
routinised, materialistic and production-oriented:
I couldn’t
live the same lifestyle back home. I didn’t have the same free
spirit there. There’s too many rules, regulations, taxes,
laws , everything’s confined. It’s
too constrictive for me now with the way I feel, the way I think, the way I want to
live. I think if you travel long enough, there comes a point in time where you’re
probably going to
struggle to reintegrate into western society (Alec, Scottish, 34).
Although this discourse traces clearly back to a MacCannellian (1976) search for authenticity,
what is remarkable is that the value systems of these lifestyle travellers, for
whom a sense of
alienation or personal
crisis sent some off travelling in the first place, went on to become so
entangled with the
myths and ideologies of backpacker subculture that re-integration and
adaptation back into their home societies was made difficult and untenable. Complications of
re-
entry and adjustment to one’s origin culture following extended international sojourn is
explored elsewhere (see
Brown , 2009; Pocock & McIntosh, 2010), but in the
divergent case
of lifestyle travellers, re-entry is only a brief transition before the next backpacking trip.
10
Work to Travel Whereas Sussman (2000) locates an eventual
reduction in cultural distress amongst
repatriates after being home for 12-15 months, returning lifestyle travellers typically worked,
saved
money and departed on their next trip within one year of return. Not one of the lifestyle
travellers had sufficient savings to
sustain travel
indefinitely without working. When
finances ran low, intermittent periods of production were explicitly aimed at continuing travel, with the
will to work
almost entirely driven by their backpacking consumption
needs :
I see working as more just supporting my lifestyle. If I didn’t have to work, I
would be travelling all the time. I’ve only once worked for more than a year in
one job for the last sixteen odd years (Max, English, 40).
Rather than work being a central activity of social identification, it is reconfigured here to an
instrumental level that enables an identity expressed through lifestyle consumption. The
decision to work casually to finance lifestyle travel was justified by Thomas (English, 29) as a
generational
shift away from an industrial logic of production: ‘In our parents’ day a career
was
something to treasure, you wouldn’t throw it all away. It’s not like that
anymore . We can
afford to be more frivolous with things like that now.’
Lifestyle travellers exemplify Bianchi’s (2000) observations that within post-industrial
mobility patterns, the intersections between migration, tourism, leisure and work are more
flexible, fluid and ambiguous. Ways of funding backpacking varied amongst the participants,
but can be viewed mainly as intense short periods of work in one’s country of citizenship,
travelling expressly to a country for its work opportunities and/or opportunities for casual
employment while travelling overseas. These latter two methods largely reflect Uriely’s
(2001) description of a ‘non-institutionalised working tourist’, wherein work while travelling
is aimed at financing a prolonged trip. Whilst this practice is typically depicted as unskilled
work, Felipe (Cuban, 29) subverted this assignment through the use of
technology , by
sustainably financing his travel through IT work attended to whilst backpacking. Technology
thus allowed Felipe to dislocate work from place through virtual commuting.
Charlotte (Canadian, 26), who funded her trips through
intensive stints of bartending in
Canada, exemplified how intermittent work in her own country allowed her to
maintain her
lifestyle:
As soon as I get back I’m like, okay, got to work, and immediately have a next
place in mind. Always working towards the next trip. I would say travel is the
main motivating factor for me to even have a
steady job.
In cases where participants rotated between work in their country of origin and backpacking,
these spheres of life did not
reach a
balance in
terms of time or importance. Periods of work
only lasted as long as it
took to be able to ‘set off again’. Although it is likely that some
individuals may
strike an annual balance of ‘seasons’ in which work at home and travel take
on a cyclical harmony, for these lifestyle travellers the former was merely a fragmented and
calculated means towards fulfilling the high self-investment placed in the latter. In this sense,
work at home is ‘an unpleasant necessity’, engaged in only when ‘pressed by dire need’
(Cohen, 1973, p. 92).
In an example of
targeting another country expressly for its work opportunities, Adam
(Israeli, 25) recounted visiting the UK as a working tourist: ‘I worked like a dog for a couple
of months in London and saved a big
amount of money, with which I then went travelling in
11
India and
Pakistan .’ Participants commonly took
advantage of fluency in English and first-
world citizenship to qualify for working holiday visas in countries such as Canada, Australia,
New Zealand and the UK. The
political privileges of
crossing international borders to earn
strong currencies that
later give the
ability to ‘live on the
cheap ’ for extended periods in the
global south (Gogia, 2006, p. 365) were frequently exercised without
concern for the
practice’s potential neo-colonial implications. These movements to countries for their work
opportunities were not, however, only limited to the rich north: ‘I’m
already planning my next
trip, which is to teach English in Mexico, learn Spanish, and then travel through Central
America down to South America’ (Laura, Canadian, 28). In contrast, and in seeking to weave
casual employment into the
fabric of his daily backpacking life, Eric (French, 35) expressed a
deep desire to find work with his
hands that
could generate
income wherever he went:
I don’t back want to go back to France except for holidays, to meet my family. I
want to find something to do with my hands, work I can do
everywhere I go.
Something like massage or working with
stone .
As Fiona (New Zealander, 23) emphasised, however, no matter where and how work was
undertaken, her focus remained on continued mobility: ‘I
hope to keep travelling forever. I
don’t know about money, but I’m going to have to find a way’.
Future Aspirations Like Fiona, many participants expressed an intention to keep travelling for the
rest of
their lives. One commonly cited barrier to continuing a life of backpacking, though, was the
difficulty in maintaining
serious relationships. Adler and Adler (1999) take similar
note in
their study of transient resort workers. Steph (Australian, 23) made light of this issue: ‘If I
raise a family, I’ll take them and do the same thing like my parents did and show them the
world as well.’ Yet
none of the participants were
married , had
children or pets, or needed to
go home in the foreseeable future to support immediate or extended family
members . The
only participant who had taken on familial responsibilities, Simon (Swiss, 50), had separated
from his
wife four years prior and resumed his life of travel, which had been on hold during
twenty years of marriage.
Whereas some participants highly valued being alone during their trips, others expressed
regret at not having a
partner with whom to share and to witness their experiences. Hoping to
find a life partner through the course of his travels, Barry (English, 32) lamented: ‘I’m
travelling solo and it’s hard sometimes. I want to share my adventures with somebody.’ Jackie
(English, 26) went so far as to openly question when her roving might end:
That’s the question I’ve been
asking myself. When will it stop? Because there are
certain things you can’t do if you’re a traveller. It’s difficult to have a serious
relationship , and at some point, I’d like to have a family.
In contrast to serious relationships, participants frequently cited the
ease with which
‘situational’ or ‘expendable friendships’ (Adler & Adler, 1999) are
formed whilst
backpacking. Further to seeking enduring relationships, the participants often sought ways of
moving beyond a
rotation of working in order to save money for backpacking trips. Brendon
(Irish, 26) shared his aspiration of integrating his travels with an occupation:
12
The aim
seems to be to kind of
integrate it [travel] into your life, find a way to
make it viable; instead of this stop/start thing, this huge separation between your
country of origin, or wherever you’re working, and where you travel to, to try and
get a
synthesis between them.
Participants seeking a livelihood on the road (e.g. dive instructor, yoga instructor,
masseur, tour guide),
mirror D’Andrea’s study of (2007, p. 220)
migrant expatriates, who
hoped to develop an occupation that allowed for a lifestyle related to ‘experiences of
liberation,
pleasure and expressivity’. They also challenge Uriely’s (2001) distinction within
‘working tourist’ types between those who
engage in work whilst travelling for instrumental
versus recreational reasons, arguably subsuming this divide. Bridging a travel-occupation gap
often also manifested in a desire to bring the company of fellow backpackers to themselves
without actually having to physically travel, whether it be through opening a
hostel , budget
resort or small
adventure tourism
firm . Participants based their aspiration of continued
involvement with tourists largely on experiences of belonging and community encountered
whilst backpacking. Fleeting moments of Turnerian ‘communitas’ (1982) also inspired the
participants’ most commonly cited ambition, which was to find a new place to
call ‘home’.
Resembling Cohen’s (1979) ‘existential mode’ of touristic experience, yet more mobile
and ephemeral than Benson and O’Reilly’s (2009) idyll-seeking lifestyle migrants, several
participants ultimately aspired to find an ideal place to settle. This unspecified idyllic place
was imagined as aesthetically pleasing, providing a strong spirit of community and
representing value/belief systems congruent to their own. Their contemporary Shrangri-La-
esque utopian visions were set in contrast to the perceived ‘toxicity’ of their generating
societies, establishing these lifestyle travellers as representative of the most alienated of all
tourist types (Maoz & Bekerman, 2010). One
manifestation in which tourists inhabit such a
revised notion of home is Auroville in southern India, where Sharpley and Sundaram (2005)
describe the communal lives of a number of ‘permanent tourists’ who have settled in an
expatriate community based on utopian ideals.
The most determined of this study’s
utopia -seekers, however, narrated firm self-concepts
and sought an external environment to match their culturally hybridised conceptions of self.
Jackie (English, 26) related that a place would need to be extraordinary for her to
consider ‘emptying out her backpack once and for all.’ Thomas (English, 29), who since being
interviewed has settled on a remote Cambodian beach bungalow resort he
purchased , depicted
his own un-tethering from the UK:
I’ve opted out of the society I grew up in. I’ve got nothing to go back to anywhere
in the world. I’ve got one bag of
stuff in my friend’s house in Melbourne and my
rucksack in my hut. The purpose of this trip is to find somewhere to live like this
permanently.
Thomas’s mooring was an exception amongst the participants and begs the question of how
long his
exit from lifestyle travel will last. Indeed, the hypermobility of lifestyle travel
became so internally entrenched in this study’s participants that staying in a fixed and singly
bounded notion of home was a rarely attained ideal. Germann Molz (2008) explores the
idea of ‘home-on-the-move’, in which the closest travellers come to finding a sense of home is
through dwelling in movement, by being at home on the road. Despite the tensions of longing
for a single place to settle down, the present research indicates that lifestyle travellers
inevitably move again and it is in this way that travel becomes a way of life.
13
CONCLUSION
Several authors have theorised that for a small number of backpacker tourists,
involvement in backpacking may extend to a way of life (Noy & Cohen, 2005; Welk, 2004;
Westerhausen, 2002). In
casting the concept of lifestyle as a net of social analysis, I have
empirically supported these speculations through exploring the practices, shared meanings
and social identity of lifestyle travellers who style their lives around the enduring practice of
backpacking. Applying past labels, such as drifter or wanderer to this way of living
inaccurately implies a social deviancy based on understandings of identity as regressively tied
to production. In contrast, I have demonstrated that the term lifestyle traveller allows for a
more open appraisal of these individuals’ patterns of meaningful consumption. Additionally,
the primacy given to
issues of lifestyle in the participants’ emic accounts is a further call for
the
construction of lifestyle traveller as a distinct social identity.
Lifestyle travel is a nuanced phenomenon within backpacker tourism that sets its
practitioners apart from other backpackers. Whilst heterogeneity within backpacking has been
stressed in the literature (Uriely et al., 2002), few backpackers move from an episodic
engagement with backpacking to investing in it as an ongoing mobile lifestyle. Many
backpackers are depicted in the literature as relatively young, budget tourists on a moratorium
as part of a transitional phase in life (Maoz & Bekerman, 2010). Lifestyle travellers, in
contrast, can be distilled from this broader conceptualisation of backpackers in distinct ways
that relate to enduring involvement, cultural re-assimilation, work motivation and
problematising home.
First, the participants,
whose enduring involvement with backpacking ranged from three
to 17 years, did not view their travel as moratoric or transitional. They instead perceived their
travels as a way of life and
employed a discourse of lifestyle in describing and justifying how
and why their ongoing practice of travel is central to their lives and identities. Participants
narrated being swept into a life of backpacking following their initial extended trip,
establishing an inversion in which tourism became their normality, rather than its traditional
role as a restorative or recreational break. While some participants identified escape from life
crises and broader societal alienation as travel push factors, others traced their enduring
involvement with tourism to childhood holiday experiences. The latter demonstrate the
propensity for tourism practice to become socially embedded in individual’s lives from an
early life stage, albeit the dominant tourism form may change.
Second, contrary to Sussman’s (2000) work on the reverse culture shock of repatriates
and suggestions that backpackers successfully reorientate themselves to their origin society
upon return (Noy & Cohen, 2005), the lifestyle travellers did not
adjust to feelings of
conflicting social norms and cultural confusion (Hottola, 2004) experienced when returning
home. The perceived anomie and reverse cultural confusion that often prevents these lifestyle
travellers from re-assimilating into their generating societies, however, is not mainly due to
cultural assimilation of the varied values and behaviours of the indigenous communities they
visit. It is instead more attributable to having blended over time the practices and ideologies
of backpacker subculture into their own self-identities and value systems.
Third, although participants commonly narrated their travel experiences as engendering
cosmopolitanism, unlike descriptions of many backpackers, they did not leverage this
perceived capital to
gain access to a professional workforce in their home society (Desforges,
2000; Sørensen, 2003). Instead, the lifestyle travellers ventured back time and time again into
the social world of backpacking, often
financed through brief but intense intermittent periods
of work at home or creative ways of earning money whilst
abroad . Participants frequently
14
sought ways, however, to move beyond a travel-occupation gap (wherein the only motivation
to work was to fund travel) and aspired to successfully weave together their backpacking and
working selves.
Finally , whereas some participants endeavoured to engage in backpacking for the rest of
their lives, other lifestyle travellers saw their tourism practice in tension with future
aspirations. In place of the primarily ephemeral friendships characteristic of lifestyle travel,
these participants expressed desires for relationships of more substance, which would allow
for an ongoing sharing of experiences. The most commonly voiced ambition in the study,
however, was to find a new place to call home. Packaged with utopian ideals, the
reconfigured homes these alienated tourists sought were described as not only aesthetically
pleasing, but in alignment with the participant’s revised self-conceptions. But this ‘homing
desire’ (Germann Molz, 2008) remained a tension in the participants’ narratives, as
paradoxically, the closest the lifestyle travellers
came to feeling at home was being-on-the-
road. Thus, in contrast to reports of other backpackers, whose stories often culminate in
lasting self-transformation narrated upon returning home (Noy, 2004), this study suggests that
lifestyle travellers seek a lasting change of home outright.
The present exploratory research has operationalised the concept of lifestyle in the
context of tourism as a
lens for
mapping out how patterns of consumptive practices are
embedded with shared meanings that can constitute a distinct social identity. The paper’s
contribution is not only in offering the term lifestyle traveller and being the first empirical
study that has explored the meanings and experiences of individuals who backpack as a way
of life, but also in providing a
window into how corporeal mobility as a lifestyle can play out
over time. As such, it extends observations that tourism is increasingly de-differentiated from
daily life (Uriely, 2005), but instead of illustrating ways in which tourism can permeate places
in which individuals reside, the present text exemplifies tourism as the everyday through the
tracking of individuals in
perpetual motion. The paper thus contributes to a wider discourse in
the social sciences wherein physical mobility is recognised as becoming more and more a part
of the fabric of everyday life (Sheller & Urry, 2006).
As Creswell (2010) notes, rather than just
smooth movement, mobility is accompanied by
friction , turbulence and power asymmetries. In the course of fashioning a lifestyle through
consuming tourism mobilities, lifestyle travellers negotiate tensions in which identities can
both fuse and become confused and being on-the-move can affect both the ability and
inability to relate and connect to place. Further, these movements are only produced through
structural and political inequities that grant mobility to some, while denying it to others.
Although the contours of lifestyle travel may present an extreme form of physical mobility,
this exemplar provides further reach into how individuals may negotiate increasingly mobile
lifestyles, and the challenges this may present to individuals over time as mobility becomes
more commonplace.
15
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