This article was downloaded by: [KU Leuven
University Library]
On: 02
June 2015, At: 06:11
Publisher : Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and
Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office:
Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer
Street , London W1T 3JH, UK
Perspectives : Studies in Translatology
Publication
details , including instructions for
authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rmps20 When ‘we’ are ‘the other ’. Travel
books on Romania as exercises in
intercultural communication
Rodica Dimitriu a
a Department of
English , Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaşi ,
Romania
Published online: 06 Aug 2012.
To cite this article: Rodica Dimitriu (2012) When ‘we’ are ‘the other’. Travel books on Romania
as exercises in intercultural communication, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 20:3, 313-327,
DOI: 10.
1080 /0907676X.2012.702400
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2012.702400 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis
makes every effort to ensure the
accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our
platform .
However , Taylor & Francis,
our
agents , and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any
purpose of the Content. Any
opinions and
views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied
upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any
losses , actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs,
expenses , damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study
purposes . Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic
supply , or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
Terms &
Conditions of
access and use can be
found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms -
and-conditions
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
Vol. 20, No. 3, September 2012, 313Á327
RESEARCH ARTICLE
When ‘we’ are ‘the other’. Travel books on Romania as exercises in
intercultural communication
Rodica Dimitriu*
Department of English, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Ias¸i, Romania
(
Received 24
July 2011;
final version received 16 March 2012)
It is, in a
sense , paradoxical to
translate travel narratives for the
target readers
who actually inhabit the
cultural and geographical spaces that
these books deal
with. However,
through the
analysis of two
such accounts on Romania, Dervla
Murphy ’s Transylvania and
Beyond (1992) and Eva
Hoffman ’s (ample
chapter on
Romania in)
Exit into History (1999) this
paper aims to show that such
translations, if undertaken, may
turn into
complex exercises of intercultural
communication in our
global world, confronted with problems of
identity and
representation. The
first section analyses in detail the cultural translations of
Romania that the two authors
provide for their (
Western ) readers. Consequently,
it brings to the
fore intricate
acts of mediation and cultural
filtering that are
part of the travel
experiences and entail the blend of
several cultural identities: the
authors’ complex
ones , that of their audiences, as well as that of the
characters in
their narratives. The second section suggests interlingual
translation scenarios
sketched out for the purpose of undertaking the
real translations of these books.
One of the
strategies that are pleaded for is that of ‘
further foreignization’. By
using it, translators may create
effects of strangeness and defamiliarization for
their readers, who should, in principle, be well-acquainted with the
described cultural and geographical spaces. Ultimately, as the paper argues, translations of
this kind have an outstanding ethical
value : by reversing the conventions of the
travel
genre , instead of finding out more about ‘the other’, the target readers may
well reconstruct themselves as viable
partners in global intercultural communica-
tion and act accordingly.
Keywords: intercultural communication; globalization; cultural translation; travel
books; ethical value; stereotype; further foreignization; ‘fractal’ travel
Introduction Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
In discussing phenomena of globalization, of translation (in all its senses),
representation, identity, and intercultural exchanges, travel books have frequently
served as exemplary illustrations. Recent investigations (Cronin, 2000; 2003, passim;
Polezzi, 2001;
special issue of The
Translator in 2006, etc.) have brought to the fore a
plethora of
forms and highlighted mutually enriching
consequences of border
crossing Á no
matter how
easy or problematic the encounters with the
foreign may
have been. Travel writings take readers elsewhere,
keeping their
curiosity alert to the
exoticism that other people and
places have to
offer . At the
same time, the authors of
*Email:
[email protected]ISSN 0907-676X print/ISSN 1747-6623 online
# 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2012.702400 http://www.tandfonline.co m
314
R. Dimitriu
these books translate and mediate the new
cultures for their home audiences with
whom they
share , at
least in part, a certain Weltanschauung, ‘a shared model, map or
view of the perceivable world’ (Katan, 2009, p. 84).
Very often, the perspective from which travel accounts are described is a Western
one, and it
concerns the microcosm of peripheries. This has, for
instance , been the
case with a number of travel books on Romania, in which the
country and its people
are the
object of the Western travellers’ scrutiny. Translations into Romanian of such
contemporary books have not been undertaken so far. One of the
reasons for their
omission from current translation policies
could be that, by
reading narratives the
setting of which is their home
space , readers would be
deprived of one of the very
raisons d’eˆtre of the genre, i.e. the curiosity-arousing travel to
exotic places, the
thrilling encounters with the locals, etc.
This paper aims, nevertheless, to
argue that, in spite of the (apparent) entropy
on the spectacular side, such translations could compensate for this ‘loss’ and turn
into instructive, thought-provoking exercises of complex intercultural communica-
tion, at various levels and
between different protagonists. Here, we will refer to
intercultural communication as relating to
processes of interaction, translation, and
mediation
among people from differing cultural backgrounds. In the first section
(I), we will set out to examine the various kinds of intercultural communication
and cultural representations that are involved in the two texts under discussion:
Dervla Murphy’s Transylvania and Beyond (1992) and Eva Hoffman’s ample
chapter on Romania in Exit into History (1999). These preliminary in-depth
analyses will then
trigger (section II) translation scenarios to be converted into real
translation
projects for a
distinct series on foreign travellers’ books on Romania.
The ethical value of such translations will be discussed in terms of their relevance
for the Romanian readers’ further mediation of their cultural identity in the
context of globalization, and the ever-increasing intercultural contact it has
fostered.
I. Two cultural translations of Romania as instances of intercultural communication
As Beaven shows, ‘[t]
ravel writing might be considered the intercultural
narrative par
excellence, as it is about the interplay between observer and
observed , between a
traveller’s own
philosophical biases and preconceptions and the test those
ideas and
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
prejudices endure as a
result of the
journey ’ (2007, p. 191). The travel genre
addresses, of
course , the readers of the
author ’s home:
Ireland and
Britain in
Murphy’s case, the USA and Britain in Hoffman’s. The
writers ’ narratives
follow closely the
linear chronology of any
voyage that has a
beginning , a development Á
with an inevitable number of adventures and climactic
points Á and an (
open )
ending. Yet, the general perspective is somehow reinforced by the narrators’ re-
crossing of borders, one
year after their first
visit .
However, travel books are also autobiographical writings, and as such they
inscribe the writers as narrators/characters in their texts. Thus, the authors not only
‘translate’ the foreign/Romanian culture for ‘home’, but, in so doing, they also
practice intercultural communication in their texts, by interacting with the
native characters, who take active part in processes of intercultural mediation.
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
315
1. Preliminary stereotypes:
selection of travel destination and border crossings
The selection of Romania as a travel destination is specifically explained by
both Murphy and Hoffman. The reasons for their option are both personal and
historic .
On a personal level, in Murphy’s
vision , Transylvania is intertextually associated with
a childhood reading,
Walter Starkie’s Raggle-Taggle (1933),
hence the pre-voyage
connotations attributed to this
place as ‘romantic’, ‘mysterious’, etc. This
positive stereotyping is reinforced by the phonological magic of the place name that to
Murphy suggests ‘a one-word poem’ (1992, p. xiii).
To Hoffman,
Eastern Europe (and
Poland in
particular ) is part of her
early biography,
since it is here that she was born and
spent her childhood. Her personal
cliche´s and ‘idealized landscapes’ about Eastern Europe Á ‘a land of childhood
sensuality, lyricism and human warmth’ Á are counteracted by her
wish ‘to
understand [the area] for what it was Á from a larger, more robust, and more
informed perspective’ (1999, pp. ixÁx).
Murphy undertakes her journey with mixed expectations: on the one
hand , she is
eager to share the
happiness of a dictatorship-free nation; on the other, she expects to
find ‘much hardship, tension, dissention, suspicion’ (1992, p. xiv). Hoffman adopts
the hegemonic Western cliche´ of ‘the other Europe’ as ‘less developed, less civilized,
more turbulent and strife-ridden, [. . .] a source either of primitive savagery or of
operetta entertainment’ (1999, p. 11). Such preliminary representations will inform Á
and
confront Á the writers’ further cultural translations of Romania.
However, these travels Á
almost overlapping in terms of chronology and visited
regions, also involving a
return to the place (Murphy:
winter 1990,
spring 1991;
Hoffman: summer of 1990, summer of 1991) Á are undertaken at a particular time of
Romanian (and Eastern European) history: the months that immediately followed
the collapse of the communist regime(s).
Before leaving their homes, the authors were
exposed not only to detailed news on the
political events from the global media but
also to media-processed images, enveloping the country in a ‘tragic
glamour ’
(Murphy, 1992, p. xv). Both writers wanted, in Hoffman’s
words , ‘to witness history
in the
making , to catch it in
vivo , on the
wing ’ (1999, p. x), and their intercultural
communication with the locals will
bear strong political overtones.
‘Real-life experiences are shaped by prior textual representations’,
says Denzin
(cited in Holliday, Hyde, & Kullman, 2008, p. 119).
Dark legendary images and long
years of communist seclusion have triggered, in the authors’ minds, the metonymic
association of Transylvania (standing for Romania) to a ‘
never -never land’. To
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
Dervla Murphy the border crossing is, explicitly, a risk; Hoffman’s cliche´s about
Transylvania, activated at the beginning of the trip,
project for the readers scary
images of ‘a Bermuda Triangle of the mind’, a land populated by Dracula, the
vampire, a cliche´ that is strong enough to demonize the place (1999, p. 233). Such
strong
negative representations
generate fears for the worst, and it is under such
gloomy auspices that the first encounters with ‘the other’ take place. For Murphy, the
worst happens, indeed, at the very moment of the border crossing, making the
beginning of her narrative a truly climactic (and shocking) one: her rucksack is stolen
by the border mafia. Hoffman reaches the unknown by car, with an American
friend experienced enough in
travelling to
protect her against the
imminent dangers she can
foresee Á which, fortunately, are not materialized.
Once the foreign has, to a certain extent, been domesticated, second crossings are
by far less problematic. A year later, Murphy re-enters the country from
Serbia , by
316
R. Dimitriu
car, and this time her mood is one of exhilaration: ‘When I saw the Romanian flag on
the
horizon my spirits soared and I began to chant sentimentally Á Ole´! Ole´! Ole´!’
(1992, p. 93) In a less euphoric state of mind, but with an instinct of ‘
instant recognition’, Hoffman ponders, one year after, on what makes the atmosphere so
unmistakably Romanian at Bucharest
airport . Her translation
attempts are
wrapped in negative connotations: ‘crumpled,
faded faces’, a taxi driver that attaches
himself to her, etc. Yet the
pleasure of familiarity with the place (Hoffman, 1999, pp. 269Á
270) is
still there .
2. Developments: cultural filtering
In writing their travel accounts, the
approach that both narrators adopt is one of
cultural immersion, which allows for their
observation of people and places from the
inside, through
frequent instances of intercultural interaction with the natives.
However, in keeping with the conventions of the travel genre, the authors also
maintain a
distance from the object of their investigation,
providing their own
cultural filtering of the experienced
reality . As has been shown, the writers’
image of
the foreign and ensuing expectations was informed,
even before the border crossing,
by home culture-generated cliche´s and home-published preliminary readings.
Throughout their voyage, the implied or frequently explicit background against
which the ‘new’ is distilled is that of home, to which other, more or less familiar,
geographical spaces are,
occasionally , added. Using strategies of domestication,
which
incorporate a peripheral/
Irish culture perspective,
again and again Murphy
associates the Romanian landscapes and cultural identity to the Irish ones:
I didn’t suspect such a marked temperamental affinity between Irish and Rumanians.
Also many details Á positive and negative, trivial and
important Á remind me of Ireland
forty years ago. The way
women dress [. . .];
children ’s acceptance of parental discipline;
the eager unsophistication of adolescents . . . And, most significantly, the
brand -mark of
centuries of oppression Á a
half apologetic, half-defiant national inferiority complex.
(Murphy, 1992, pp. 89Á90;
italics mine)
Other
times , through foreignizing strategies, places and events trigger associa-
tions with more exotic spaces such as Galapagos
Islands , India, or Ethiopia. If,
initially, to Hoffman the Transylvanian scenery ‘
seems subtropical, somehow Asian’
(1999, p. 236), she soon relaxes as she ‘recognizes’ villages that are more or less
similar to those of her Polish childhood. Nevertheless, her tendency to orientalize
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
and thus take a distance and minimize persists throughout the
whole trip. In her
globalizing, post-
modernist discourse , Hoffman’s references are generally made to
broader geographical and
mental spaces
rather than to a particular home culture.
Hers is an unmistakably ‘major culture’
voice that contrasts the
West to the
East , the
West to the Balkans, the West to the
Orient , the
strange and
alien to what she regards
as ‘us’:
And yet, I’m also pretty
sure that [. . .] despite the obstacles, the corruptions, the
strangeness of professional
relations Á the
desire to help and do some
good exists here as
well, in its peculiar and, to us, alien forms. (Hoffman, 1999, pp. 299Á300; italics mine)
The intertextual informative
support for successful intercultural communication
with home readers comprises, in Murphy’s case, the
Rough Guide to Eastern Europe.
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
317
It says that ‘Romanians, however
poor , won’t
accept payment for
hospitality ’ (1992,
p. 9). This warning is repeatedly tested and confirmed throughout her journey.
Besides Walter Starkie’s and
Patrick Leigh Fermor’s idyllic travels, there are also
historical and political
British texts on which Murphy draws in
order to reconstruct
Romanian history for her
audience . Significantly enough, none of the Romanian
texts and
documents Á not even the pre-communist ones Á seems reliable to her for
this purpose. Thus, throughout the book, a bird’s eye view of the
entire Romanian
history is rewritten through a Western
grid .
Eva Hoffman’s selection comprises, besides Fodor’s guide,
literary and cultural
allusions from world and Romanian literature. Her intertextual universe is populated
by Kafka and Ionesco, but also by Olivia Manning’s Balkan Trilogy, in support of
absurd situations and grotesque imagery. Hoffman’s cited Romanian intertext is
Miorit¸a, an old
ballad sometimes invoked as a foundational
myth in the Romanian
culture which, from the traveller’s perspective, corroborates her cultural representa-
tion of Romania as a combination of ‘gentle
fatalism , on the one hand [and]
violence on the other’ (1999, p. 295).
However, fluency in intercultural communication with a home audience does not
come uniquely from the supposedly familiar or exotic cultural references that
feed the narrators’ accounts. It obviously and consistently draws on the writers’
direct observation and
description of people and places, which provides evidence for
further, sometimes
contradictory , generalizations and occasional stereotyping.
Stereotyping is a concise Á albeit risky Á
strategy of translating the other’s identity,
in an attempt to put more order into an otherwise complex and admittedly confusing
reality. On a cheerful
note , Murphy declares that Romania is ‘the most carnivorous
country’ she has ever been in (1992, p. 181). In a darker tone of voice, Romanians’
racist views on Gypsies are generalized and deplored (1992, p. 143), and the country
is subsequently stigmatized as ‘one of Europe’s most racist countries’ (1992, p. 231).
Hoffman interprets the Romanians’ somewhat placid reactions to a
violent political event (the miners’ arrival in Bucharest) as signs of ambivalence and
fatalism Á key labels in her representation of the Romanian ‘other’. Such attitudes
are sharply contrasted to what, in her opinion, stands for ‘normality’. Once again,
her discourse is a hegemonic one, which makes no
room for any
alternative cultural
behaviour:
Somehow, through this ambivalence or fatalism, the miners’ violent
advent , seemingly
so straightforwardly unacceptable from a ‘normal’ point of view, is accepted,
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
incorporated into the
muddle and murk of conjectures, interpretations, rumours.
(Hoffman, 1999, p. 255; italics mine)
3. Developments: characters, interpreters,
friends On a textual level, the
encounter with and the cultural translation of the other is the
main theme of the books. The narrators’ cultural immersion is achieved through the
presence of ‘the natives’, as inscribed characters who are always eager to get involved
in processes of intercultural communication. In spite of political isolation, in
Romania the East is linguistically prepared to meet the West and, in a broader sense,
for global encounters. Dervla Murphy immediately notices that the Romanian
language itself, in view of its
Latin origins, ‘is not an insurmountable barrier’ (1992,
p. 29). But what the two travellers take, somehow, for
granted is that the people they
accidentally meet on the
trains , in the streets, bars, and restaurants Á poor
318
R. Dimitriu
hitchhikers, waiters, soldiers, officers, receptionists,
shop -assistants,
workers , drivers,
to say
nothing of pupils,
students , teachers, etc. Á should be
able to
speak English,
French , or German.
Although the speakers’ level of proficiency in these
languages is
duly mentioned for each of
them , this
unusual and widely spread
gift for
communication in Western languages, after a long
period of nationalist dictatorship,
is never questioned by the travellers. It is never correlated with broader notions of
openness to the foreign, hospitality, generosity, and wish for acceptance into wider
global spaces. Such
qualities are only presented as part of the ‘positive side’ of the
Romanians’ inscribed identity. They are only highlighted in terms of language-
independent behaviour and illustrated by people’s readiness to invite foreign visitors
for
meals at their places, to offer free accommodation, gifts, company, etc.
The ‘supreme hospitality’ of
sharing the visitors’ language is never explicitly
associated to the other courtesies. Nor is the ordinary people’s ‘cultural capital’, their
occasionally
amazing encyclopaedic/
cross -cultural
knowledge , a matter of further
investigation. A
farmer in the
mountains well acquainted with
Fellini , a teenager
citing Voltaire and reciting from
Kipling , poor
houses with plenty of books on the
shelves (e.g. Goethe’s
Faust , Dostoevsky’s The Possessed, etc.) are cultural details,
only mentioned in
passing .
Native characters, also
acting as translators and interpreters, readily
submit to
the travellers’ inquiries, engaging in improvised, utterly spontaneous or well-
documented ‘translations’ of their culture Á and of themselves. In view of the
particular historical context of the travels, most discussions have a strong political
thrust, focusing on how Romanians coped with the political events
following the
1989 revolution, and with their newly gained
democracy . However, in their attempted
explanations, characters frequently refer to their (pre-communist and, more recent,
communist) past as the Á ultimately essentialist Á
cause of their
strength and also of
their weakness and ‘shortcomings’. In so doing, they offer their own,
ready -made
cliche´s about themselves fully contributing to their own stigmatization.
As the travellers also
notice , the characters’ transcribed discourses are frequently
apologetic, self-
critical , self-deprecating, and inferiority-ridden. A young man
comments: ‘In this country it is hard to get people to work on any day and
impossible on Sundays!’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 26). Eva Hoffman transcribes similar
instances of low self-esteem and accepted resignation. However, there are also more
assertive (although equally naive) constructions of cultural identity: ‘We are brave
people, our revolutionaries had no weapons, only they were brave, to go out and get
thousands killed to get
freedom for us all’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 41; italics mine); ‘You
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
see, that’s how we are, a very emotional people. We’re part
Greek , part Dacian, part
Latin’ (Hoffman, 1999, p. 243).
In their cultural interaction with the foreign visitors, the natives always
position themselves as friends, rather than mere
service -providers. It is in this naively self-
assumed
capacity that they accommodate their guests, facilitate their cultural
adjustment in any way they can, try to
prevent further culture shocks, travel with
them, introduce them to other friends, who all see to the travellers’ welfare. Bringing
new acquaintances into the
picture sometimes makes interpreting
necessary . As
Murphy notices, interpreting is,
above all, a matter of politeness. Lonely travellers
need to be integrated in the community. However, interpreting not only involves
mediation between people, but also interpretation of ‘reality’, cultural translation,
and self-translation. It is
quite clear that, unwittingly or not, interpreters may distort
‘reality’ in their own direction Á that is why they are, sometimes, treated with
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
319
suspicion. Hoffman gives the example of an ‘interventionist’ interpreter, who tries to
manipulate her according to her own political allegiances.
The locals’ deferential
attitude is related to their metonymic translation of the
foreign visitors as standing for ‘the West’, a thing that unquestionably places them in
a position of cultural superiority. The ‘Westerners’ are also the people to whom locals
confess all their personal and historical misfortunes, and whom they ask for help and
advice .
Moreover , as leaders of opinion, they are
expected to be the only ones to
know what
needs to be done in a period of political confusion. ‘Our mental state now
is making it harder for us to behave the way the Occident thinks we should. You must
be patient
while we recover our self-
respect ’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 126; italics mine). In
their genuine wish to improve themselves and the society they
live in, students
repeatedly ask for ‘books about democracy’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 59) or ‘undistorted’
books of history.
However, there are also more
bitter feelings about the West, which are deeply
rooted in history and have survived the communist era,
telling a story of misplaced
trust. After World War II many opponents to the communist system had hoped in
vain for some kind of rescue coming from the West. Murphy reports that, in 1990,
American observers at the elections were abused by angry old men shouting: ‘Go
home! You’re forty years too
late !’ (1992, p. 165). More recent feelings of resentment
for ‘the foreign’
concern the media’s attempts to provide ‘bloody images’ from
Romania: ‘We have
pride and
dignity , we are not
crazy lunatics for Western people to
stare at!’ or: ‘Reporter go home! You’re late! There’s no
blood left !’ (Murphy, 1992,
pp. 41, 85).
Yet, such isolated, strictly circumstantial anti-foreigner undercurrents do not
affect the mutually accepted asymmetrical relation between travellers and locals, East
and West. If, in a sense, after the overthrow of communist regimes, the
doors were
wide open for the Eastern European populations’ faster integration in the general
process of globalization, in the Romania of the early 1990s the most palpable signs of
this
phenomenon were the presence in the country of the ‘global’ media and an
interest in emigration. Characters from both travel accounts aspire to go West, either
for studies or to fulfil their own version of the American
dream . But there is also and
already an undercurrent from the global centre
back to the peripheries.
After a
four -year
exile in Florida, driven by the high media coverage of the
Romanian revolution, a young woman
returns home because: ‘We make bad exiles,
we’re always homesick [. . .]’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 55).
Another character in Hoffman’s
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
book, who spent a year in New
York , confirms the
narrator ’s representation of
Easterners as deeply attached to their origins: ‘This is what cannot be fathomed from
the
outside : the million tendrils that attach us to home
ground , even when the ground
is harsh; sometimes,
perhaps , especially because it is harsh’ (1999, p. 259).
The two travel narratives are significant cross-sections of the Romanian society as
natives belong to a large variety of
social categories and
classes . Dervla Murphy’s
extremely easy-going travelling style enables her to practise intercultural commu-
nication with an amazing variety of people. Some of them are very low on a social
scale that communism did not abolish,
others are in
higher positions. They are men
and women of all
ages and occupations who
display different cultural behaviours,
according to their education and social belonging. These characters are also distinct
individuals, each of them with a life-story, marked by communism, in one way or
another.
320
R. Dimitriu
In Hoffman’s
account , besides
accidental encounters, there are also carefully
planned ones, as well as more
formal meetings. Hoffman’s sociological
inquiry involves many intellectuals, a number of politicians, and some of the most important
Romanian literary
critics and novelists of the time. Magda Groza, the subsequent
Romanian translator of Hoffman’s (1989)
novel Lost in Translation is also present
and acts as an interpreter for the meetings with the literary figures. However, if some
of the
VIPs of the Romanian society and other ‘ordinary’ people are sketched out in
hasty , slightly caricatured, albeit pertinent touches, there is one exemplary character
whose biography is more consistently embedded in Hoffman’s narrative: Pavel is a
self-made man who speaks in ‘precise,
eloquent English’. He is a
former communist
who gradually and painfully understood ‘the discrepancy between
ideals and reality’
(1999, p. 285). His
interesting and instructive story could well be
expanded so as to
form in itself a
full -fledged novel of communism indictment, providing yet another
explanation for politically marked Á and distorted Á cultural behaviour.
The social cross-section of the travel books involves, in Murphy’s case, close
contacts with
ethnic groups
living in Romania. Her book is generously
dedicated to
her ‘many good friends in Transylvania and beyond Á Rumanians, Magyars,
Szekelys,
Jews , Gypsies,
Saxons , Swabians and Serbs’. The ethnic minorities’ cultural
behaviour towards the travellers (
particularly the Hungarians’) tends to be similar to
the Romanians’. The Western foreigners, unquestionably regarded as supporters,
friends, and confidants, are readily integrated in the community. Throughout their
intercultural contact with the Western travellers, minorities offer their own version of
history. Accordingly, Romanians are frequently stigmatized through strongly
negative cliche´s as ‘[. . .] very fiery people, very
wild and impetuous’ (Murphy,
1992, p. 35). On the other hand, Hoffman offers
examples of negative stereotyping in
the opposite direction. A Romanian general believes that Hungarians are
behind everything, and they manipulate public opinion and information (1999, p. 263).
4. The travellers Á narrators
In situations perceived as cultural clashes between ethnic groups, such as the ones
above, narrators endorse the supplementary
role of mediators, for Western readers,
between several foreign cultures. In response to negative cliche´s, in her capacity as
cultural mediator, Murphy attempts political
negotiations :
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
[. . .] Rumanians, Magyars and Saxons suffered equally under
Ceausescu , with the
important
difference that Magyars and Saxons could Á as many thousands did Á get
permission to migrate [. . .], etc. (Murphy, 1992, p. 35)
As
transient passengers in the foreign space, the travellers undertake their
journeys with their own cultural baggage. Both of them have complex cultural
identities, which are projected in their texts. Although Dervla Murphy
culturally translates
herself as unmistakably Irish, her language of communication is English,
which leads to occasional confusions of identity. Her
dialogue with a
senior officer is
yet another instance of intercultural communication
based on wrong cliche´s and
stereotyping:
‘You are British?’ On discovering his mistake he seized my hand again and this time
held it in both of his. ‘So you are Irish! Then you must very well understand our problem
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
321
because you have a revolution all the time!’ I felt too frail to embark upon
contemporary Irish politics, but
asked : ‘Why did you think I was British?’ He laughed.
‘You
look unusual, not like French or Germans or Americans. And after reading many
English books I think all the English are unusual. So I made a bad mistake and I am
sorry !’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 52, emphasis in the text)
On the one hand, Murphy is fully aware of her
authority both as an author and a
Western traveller, who is actually expected to observe, criticize, evaluate, and give
solutions. Her
positioning as a mediator is that of an ‘ethical
agent of social
change ’
(Tymoczko, 2003, p. 181). Throughout her narrative there is a
constant didactic,
prescriptive note on what Romanians ‘should do’. On the other hand, though, this
hypostasis does not prevent her from sharing a
minor culture’s solidarity with the
object of her investigation. (‘What Romania needs is a
Father Matthew, he who
rescued Ireland from a similar situation in the mid-
19th century’, Murphy, 1992,
p. 216). Nor does she hesitate to use irony and humour both in describing the others
and, with regard to herself, frequently
turning herself into ‘a funny character’ in her
own story.
Murphy’s wide
experience in travelling to difficult places, her innate friendliness,
and genuine interest in people make her cultural adaptation a successful one,
although her voyage is not deprived of adventures and rough times. Her translations
from Romanian literature and reflections on this enriching experience
stand as vivid
proof in this respect:
A few
academics needed help with their translations into English of Rumanian
plays and short-stories Á a fascinating
exercise ,
during which they and I learned quite a lot
about the very different workings of Rumanian and English minds, as revealed through
the use of language. My supply of
translated Rumanian history, folklore,
poetry , essays
and
fiction was ample and illuminating. (Murphy, 1992, p. 198)
Eva Hoffman’s Eastern European roots
enable her to intuit the ‘more intimate
proximity between people’ in this part of the world, ‘with all the excesses of love and
hatred that follow’ (1999, p. 265), but she can no longer go beyond that
understanding . Once her (Eastern/Polish Jewish minor) cultural identity has been
(so painfully) translated into a Western one, as her novel Lost in Translation most
persuasively demonstrates, there is no other room for back translations. Moreover, in
a globalizing world, she is confronted, in situ, with a multiplicity of (history-
triggered) localizations:
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
‘A Hungarian’, ‘a Romanian’, ‘a Pole’, ‘a
Czech ’: after they’ve been invoked again and
again, as if they were concrete entities, they
begin , on the contrary, to seem like figures
of allegory, hobbling
across an abstract, worn
landscape of the mind. What can such
designations
mean in a world in which it takes less time to go from Poland to
Hungary than to sit through a Woody
Allen movie, and in which most
computers in Slovakia are
IBM compatible? But the problem is that these essences have so much history behind
and
within them. (Hoffman, 1999, p. 263)
Post-communist countries share in common with post-colonial cultures.
Hoffman’s adjustment to Á rather than integration in Á the Romanian cultural
landscape, her
means of survival, and
frame of mind in which she carries out her
intercultural communication with the locals is one of ‘negative capability’ and
relaxation , and her discourse is once again reminiscent of the post-colonial one:
322
R. Dimitriu
As long as I maintain my usual points of
reference , my ‘standards’, my
sharp observer’s
distance, life here seems practically impossible. But after a few
days Á perhaps because
I have no
choice Á I yield to a sort of negative capability. I begin to relax into the
ambiguity and lassitude of my surroundings as into a bath. [. . .] There’s no point in any
sort of effort, pretension, affectation, keeping a stiff
upper lip or
putting on a brave
front in Bucharest. One might as well relax. Temporarily, I
lose the sense of how to
judge anything at all; but I begin to understand how people got through. (Hoffman, 1999,
p. 265; italics mine)
II. Translating the cultural translations for the Romanian readers as
guidelines for
intercultural communication
The multiple processes of intercultural communication that the travel genre has to
offer could only come full circle through the translation of such books for the
members of the cultural community that forms the object of the travellers’
investigations. In such instances, unlike the author’s home readers, who are taken
on an exotic journey to a distant space, the translator’s home readers would
undertake an ‘endotic’ trip (Urbain, cited in Cronin, 2009), a ‘fractal travel’ (Cronin,
2000) to a familiar geographical space which the author of the travel book has,
nevertheless, already culturally translated. ‘When information crosses borders via
translation’, says Scha¨ffner, ‘the effects may be varied: it may be that the
local culture
uses this information to re-identify itself, to delimit itself from other cultures and
thus to evaluate itself higher (or
lower ); or common and different aspects may
become obvious, thus achieving mutual understanding in the sense of a growing
awareness of differences’ (Scha¨ffner, 1999, pp. 97Á98).
The ethical value of this kind of narratives resides in the further ideological
dimensions that the translation readers are prepared to assign to these interlingually
translated texts, and to the extent to which they are ready to internalize this ideology,
which could then be turned into cross-cultural behaviour. In the early 1990s, as
Kwiecinski points out, the purpose for the translation of Anglo-American texts on
Polish culture in the Polish press had been to help people better redefine themselves
(1998, p. 201). In our case, the main
objective of these translations, undertaken on a
regular
basis , within a distinct publishing house series, would be not so much to
satisfy the readers’ curiosity about how they have been stereotyped. The main
purpose for such an enterprise is to
encourage the target readers’ critical distancing
from simplifying cliche´s and the better mediation of their cultural identity in the
context of globalization. After all, as Mathews shows (2000, p. 23), ‘the
choices each
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
of us makes as to cultural identity are made not for ourselves but for
performance for
and in negotiation with others’.
We think that translators may play a major role in achieving such ethical projects.
Their
task , in these translation projects,
consists in further foreignizing the familiar
cultural space that was already translated as ‘foreign’ by the Western narrators for
their home cultures. It would be, obviously, naive to assume that this strategy of
defamiliarization would totally obstruct processes of identification on the part of the
Romanian readers, when Murphy’s and Hoffman’s books get translated. But, at the
same time, reading such travel books in translation, achieving cultural distancing,
would help the concerned readers better observe their cultural representation and
organize some kind of response.
In considering two possible translation scenarios for Transylvania and Beyond
and Exit into History, we have detected two particularly sensitive
areas for further
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
323
foreignization: (1) the samples of Romanian language in the text; and (2) the
conclusive cliche´ images of the Romanian culture.
1. (Re)translating the ‘exotic’ language for a Romanian audience
It is one of the travel writers’ well-
known and strikingly foreignizing strategies to
incorporate samples of the natives’ language into their accounts. Their presence
ensures verisimilitude to their narratives, and they, occasionally, add humorous
touches that may also signal the author’s (and her home readers’) distancing from the
narrated culture, people, and events. Dervla Murphy pays particular
attention to the
accurate transcription of some Romanian words and
phrases (proper
names of
people and places, culture-
specific items , greetings, very short fragments of direct
speech, etc.), an attitude that may well read as a
sign of respect for the minority
language,1 which is part and
parcel of the investigated culture.
These borrowings are generally left untranslated, as context clarifies their
meaning . Obviously, this foreignizing strategy could easily be lost in a Romanian
translation if the chosen samples of Romanian were left unmarked. The author’s
voice would easily be taken for the translator’s, and Murphy’s attempts at
linguistically accommodating ‘the foreign’ for her home readers might be annihi-
lated. On the contrary, a strategy of ‘further foreignization’ would entail, at least, the
translator’s typographic interference (through bolds, italics,
inverted commas) and,
perhaps, a footnote explaining that the stretches of language are part of the
original .
Other times, Murphy no longer transcribes the culture-specific items, but merely
paraphrases them, in order to preserve the fluency and intelligibility of her discourse.
Thus, after attending a funeral, the traveller receives some sticky
stuff to eat (1992,
p. 27; italics mine); a monk drums a suspended
length of wood in a high belfry (1992,
p. 74; italics mine). Literal translations of these paraphrases Á instead of their
replacement by the culture-specific items existing in Romanian language Á would,
obviously,
surprise the readers, and that is precisely why they need to be used.
Paraphrase, which was for the travel narrator a domesticating strategy, becomes, for
the translator, a foreignizing one, as it distances the readers from a culturally familiar
object, making them reflect on those elements that are regarded as different by the
foreign travellers.
The borrowings from Romanian in Hoffman’s text are even more problematic for
a Romanian translator as she attempts to balance the foreignizing effects of the
transcribed culture-specific items through some kind of phonological and spelling
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
domestication. Many of the selected terms (e.g. bizhnitze, which is frequently
repeated throughout her account, or bakshish) are of Turkish
origin and have
negative connotations, thus emphasizing the oriental image of Romania that prevails
in Hoffman’s narrative. However, once again, the phonological/spelling
domestica -
tions in the source text would become phonological/spelling foreignizations in the
translation with strange effects on the target readers. Moreover, Hoffman’s
orientalization of Romania is further reinforced by her incorporation of an Arabic
culture-bound
term , baba ghanouj (1999, p. 251), a name totally unfamiliar to
Romanians, for a
dish which is
commonly referred to as aubergine/egg-
plant salad.
The preservation of the term as such in the translation would have, again, a strong
defamiliarizing
effect .
Hoffman’s wrongly transcribed names of people (*Daian Daianu instead of
Daniel Daianu, a Romanian public figure; 1999, p. 259) and places (e.g. *Piata
324
R. Dimitriu
Natiunile
Unite , 1999, p. 272, *Piata Universitate, p. 302, *Ghermanest, p. 271,
*Vladicescu, p. 270, etc.), which pass unobserved by the source text readers, may
widen, if preserved in translation, the cultural distance between the author and the
translation readers, whose culture is (mis)represented. Cronin (2003, p. 157)
mentions the tendency, in travel writing in major languages, to minoritize the
minority language. We could say in
addition that, by eliminating any reference to
‘reality’, the erroneous transcription of the minority language actually annihilates it.
Yet, credibility is achieved not only through samples of the natives’ language. As
previously mentioned, many characters in both texts Á sometimes also acting as
interpreters Áspeak either ‘the global language’, English, or French at various levels
of proficiency, from
highly advanced to very basic. In their wish to establish
intercultural communication, the speakers of foreign languages continuously
translate themselves (and their cultural identities) into the Western travellers’
language. Both accounts provide instances of broken English/French language
which, while ensuring verisimilitude, also fulfil other purposes. In translating their
identities, poor speakers of a foreign language may appear childish, immature, and
sometimes downright pathetic. In Murphy’s narrative, a character whose English was
utterly idiosyncratic utters the following discourse:
In
Australia they don’t receive me because I have no
money and no any friend there. [. . .]
Please forgive me for my English is not good. [. . .] But I learned myself, to give me more
chance . . . We are poor people but we have
rich hearts! (Murphy, 1992, p. 89)
The narrator’s response in this case is one of
compassion and understanding, but
the discourse generates its own implications and speaks for itself.
Even in foreignizing translation projects such as the one above, translating this
kind of language would
raise dilemmas as the translator may legitimately wonder
how much s/he could actually foreignize. Of course, the mere translation of a
Romanian’s speech into broken Romanian would be ‘illogical’ and ‘inauthentic’
unless it is supplemented by an intra- or extratextual gloss. Still, the strongest
estrangement effect could probably be achieved by transferring the English speech as
such with some kind of (clumsy) Romanian back translation in a footnote.
2. (Re)translating the culture: the authors’ final interpellations
As shown in section I, the two travellers carry out various kinds of intercultural
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
communication, as narrators and characters in their story for the main purpose of
translating the foreign/Romanian culture for their home readers. Their translation
strategies
vary from cultural filtering, stereotyping, foreignizing, to domesticating
strategies, meant to occasionally
reduce cultural distance.
However, a travel account needs to end with some kind of conclusions with
regard to the visited geographical space and its inhabitants. Such conclusions Á
comparable to a final diagnosis Á project a strong image on the culture(s) under
investigation that is likely to persist in the reader’s mind after closing the book. The
narrator is also
affected by the experience, in one way or another. Throughout her
trip, Murphy becomes, in an increasing
manner , emotionally involved with the people
and places she visits, so much so that she compares her experience to one of ‘falling
in love’. However, this
emic , subjective, inside observer side of her account does not
eliminate her concern for an ‘objective’, etic stance that she attempts to offer through
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
325
careful examination of ‘reliable’/Western documents, through a
journal (a kind of
mise en abyme
device for her narrative), and through the multiple points of view on a
similar ‘reality’ that her Romanian friends can provide. Her discourse deliberately
shifts from very sharp or merely amused criticism to empathy and admiration.
The answers that Murphy can, tentatively, give in order to explain the foreign
culture are deeply rooted in Romanian history which, in her (debatable) opinion, has
never known any period of democracy. Yet, her travel Á and intercultural
communication Á with Romanians and her own readers Á ends on an optimistic
note. On a personal level, what really seems to matter is that, in spite of
serious shortcomings (laziness, corruption,
racism in her opinion), Romanians can also be
stereotyped in terms of highly positive cliche´s: ‘courage, resilience, unstoppable
humour, disinterested kindness’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 235). On a cultural level what
counts is their ‘extraordinary inner strength’, a vividly defined cultural identity
(‘which has nothing to do with politically encouraged nationalism’), in spite of the
inferiority complex. Time and education may well ensure
economic Á and moral Á
recovery.
Hoffman’s Romanian experience ends in a much more ambiguous tone. Her
Romanian saga is a story of passivity (‘Why isn’t everyone shouting in protest?’;
1999, p. 252), of resignation and absurd behaviour (‘no wonder that Ionesco comes
from this place’; 1999, p. 267). To all this she can find no answer apart from Miorita
(the old essentialist ballad), communism, and, above all, ‘the Orient’. In her relaxed
state of negative capability, Hoffman watches the natives’ poor political performance
(‘another nonstarter, another unfinished gesture, another bit of muddle-as-usual’;
1999, p. 304, italics mine) in sharp contrast to a first-rate performance (Shakespeare’s
A
Midsummer Night’s Dream) in a theatre in Bucharest. Hoffman’s
obsessive repetition of the word ‘muddle’ throughout her account strangely reminds of
E.M. Forster’s novel, A Passage to India, in which what the British colonizers
stigmatize as ‘Indian muddle’ seems to be the final cause for unsuccessful
intercultural communication between East and West. Such implied intertextuality
seems to relegate Romania to the
status of a former
colony .
The final strong images and verdicts on Romania from both narratives seem to
corroborate the
fact that they belong to what Cronin (2000, p. 37) calls ‘ocular
travels’, i.e. travels in which the authors’ persuasive discourse makes the home
readers ‘take for granted what they are
told ’.
In keeping foreignization as the main strategy for their discourse, translators
would make no concessions for their readers, either in terms of language or in terms
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
of attenuation of culture shocks. This strategy would, no
doubt , highlight the
difference in cultural perception between the authors and the Romanian target
readers. Moreover, strategies of further foreignization would make the travels
‘epistemic’ (Cronin, 2000, p. 37) as the readers would not only ‘see’, but also, and
more importantly, they would have to reflect on what they see and make decisions.
3. Conclusions and consequences for intercultural communication
Ambitious ethical projects of translating travel narratives on one’s geographical
space and culture for publication in a distinct series have as a main purpose that of
eliciting the readers’ active response in terms of internalized principles of
intercultural communication. However, in carrying out such projects translators
cannot eliminate other possible levels of
reception . The two narratives under
326
R. Dimitriu
discussion are temporally, politically, and historically marked, and Romanian readers
will Á inevitably Á also regard them as testimonies from a bleak, not too remote,
period of their history. The two books refer to Romania in the early 1990s, and, from
a diachronic perspective, many things have changed in the surrounding reality. Yet,
these narratives are also about deeply held
beliefs , tastes, and mentalities that are
difficult to change. Through an ethical, instructive reading and a ‘fractal’ travel
across their country Á and inside themselves Á Romanian readers would be invited to
reconsider their cultural identity in view of intercultural dialogue.
This highly formative exercise would first entail a relativization of the Western
perspective from which the books were written. After all, if the trip had been
undertaken by an Eastern/Oriental traveller, the cultural filtering and translation of
Romania would have been considerably different. Such an approach would help the
target readers to (gradually) give up their unproductive, ‘small peripheral culture’
inferiority complex and thus de-hegemonize their intercultural relations.
Second, readers would have to question (instead of uncritically submitting to)
and
bracket (i.e. see through essentialist tendencies) but not
ignore the sometimes
even self-inflicted cliche´s (particularly the negative ones) which are projected on their
cultural behaviour. These cliche´s implicitly foreground them as ‘the other’ and need
to be further emphasized by a foreignizing translation. Even if the Western travellers
consider that Romanians have no cultural identity problems (in spite of Hoffman’s
claims for ‘muddle’), the tension that they notice between apologetic and defiant
behaviour may still suggest that they have serious uncertainties about who they are.
Third, readers would have to ponder on how compatible these cliche´s are with
what is known as ‘disciplines’ (i.e. ‘what to be aware of’) in intercultural
communication.2 Such disciplines
involve , for instance, avoiding preconceptions
and overgeneralizations, appreciating cultural complexity, seeking a deeper under-
standing of the prejudices and discourses which
lead one to otherize, as well as
seeking the representations of the foreign which are perpetuated by society, etc. (cf.
Holliday et al. 2008, pp. 48Á49). Only on such terms would translation readers be
able to rethink their cultural identity by analogy with that of the foreign outsiders.
Finally , by translating travel books on a particular socio-cultural space for that
particular socio-cultural space, translators
reverse the conventions of the travel
genre: instead of finding out more about the other, translation readers are invited to
reconstruct themselves, as partners in intercultural communication, and act
accordingly. After all, as van Wyke shows (2010, p. 115), ‘translation does not
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
merely reproduce ideas and information, but plays an active part in creating culture
and civilization. As it gains visibility, and as we explore its complex implications,
translation can also help us rethink the ethics of cultural encounters that
define relationships among the
peoples of the world’.
Notes
1.
In this paper we adopt Venuti’s
broad definition of minority as ‘a cultural or political
position that is subordinate [. . .]. This position is occupied by languages and literatures
that
lack prestige or authority, the non-standard and the non-canonical, what is not
spoken or read much by a hegemonic culture. Yet minorities also
include the nations and
social groups that are affiliated with these languages and literatures, the politically weak or
underrepresented, the colonized and the disenfranchised, the exploited and the
stigmatized’ (1998, p. 135).
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology
327
2.
In intercultural communication ‘disciplines’ are defined as ‘basic principles about
understandings which need to be achieved in order to interact with different individuals
in different contexts’ (Holliday et al., 2008, p. 2).
Notes on contributor
Rodica Dimitriu is Professor of Translation Studies at the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of
Ias¸i, and
Director of Undergraduate and Postgraduate Translation and Interpreting
Programmes at this university. Her books and
articles in the
field of Translation Studies
focus on ideology and cultural
issues in translation, on translation and pragmatics, as well as
on translation teaching. She is a
member of several international advisory boards, a co-editor
of LINGUACULTURE and of the Translation Studies series at the Institutul European
publishing house in Ias¸i, Romania.
References
Primary sources
Hoffman, E. (1999). Exit into history: A journey through the new Eastern Europe. London:
Vintage.
Murphy, D. (1992). Transylvania and beyond. London:
Arrow Books.
Secondary sources
Beaven, T. (2007). A life in the sun: accounts of new
lives abroad as intercultural narratives.
Language and Intercultural Communication, 7(3), 188Á202.
Cronin, M. (2000). Across the lines. Travel, language and translation.
Cork : Cork University
Press.
Cronin, M. (2003). Translation and globalization. London: Routledge.
Cronin, M. (2009, March). Translation and translator training in a globalised world. Paper
presented at the 3rd DGT Conference European Master’s in Translation (EMT),
European Commission,
Brussels .
Hoffman, E. (1989). Lost in translation. London:
Penguin Books.
Holliday, A., Hyde, M., & Kullman, J. (2008). Intercultural communication. London:
Routledge.
Katan, D. (2009). Translation as intercultural communication. In J. Munday (Ed.), The
Routledge companion to translation studies (pp. 74Á92). London: Routledge.
Kwiecinski, P. (1998). Translating strategies in a rapidly transforming culture. The Translator,
4(2), 183Á206.
Mathews, G. (2000). Global culture/
individual identity. Searching for home in the cultural
supermarket. London: Routledge.
Polezzi, L. (2001). Translating travel. Contemporary Italian travel writing in English translation.
Aldershot: Ashgate.
Polezzi, L. (Ed.). (2006). Translation, travel,
migration [Special issue]. The Translator, 12(2).
Downloaded by [KU Leuven University Library] at 06:11 02 June 2015
Scha¨ffner, C. (1999).
Globalisation , communication, translation. Current Issues in Language
and Society, 6(2), 93Á102.
Tymoczko, M. (2003). Ideology and the position of the translator: In what sense is a translator
‘in between’? In M. Calzada Pe´rez (Ed.), Apropos of ideology: Translation studies on
ideology- ideologies in translation studies (pp. 181Á201).
Manchester : St Jerome Publishing.
Van Wyke, B. (2010). Ethics and translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.),
Handbook of translation studies (pp. 111Á115).
Amsterdam : John Benjamins.
Venuti, L. (1998). Introduction. The Translator, 4(2), 135Á144.
Kõik kommentaarid