adjective + preposition omadussõna + eessõna proud of, good at, married to adverb particle Some verbs are followed by adverb particles. Examples are: put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in. Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the object. •He took his boots off. •They called the doctor in. apposition a grammatical construction in which two usually adjacent nouns having the same referent stand in the same syntactical relation to the rest of a sentence (as the poet and Burns in “a biography of the poet Burns”) back-reference In grammatical analysis, the term reference is often used to state a relationship of identity which exists between grammatical units, e.g. a pronoun 'refers' to a noun or noun phrase. When the reference is to an earlier part of the discourse, it may be called a 'back-reference' (or anaphora); collective noun
Was and Were 104 2 The Capital Letter 6 The Past Progressive Tense 106 The Future Tense 108 Can and Could 112 May and Might 113 3 Nouns8 Do, Does and Did 115 Common Nouns 8 Would and Should 120 Proper Nouns 13 Singular Nouns 21 Plural Nouns 23 8 Subject-Verb Agreement 123 Collective Nouns 34 Masculine and Feminine Nouns 37 9 Adverbs 127 4 Pronouns 44 Personal Pronouns 44 10 Prepositions 132
The Article Table of Contents General Rules....................................................................... 2 The Definite Article ............................................................... 5 Names that take the Definite Article...................................... 6 No article.............................................................................. 7 Countable and uncountable nouns ....................................... 9 General Rules There are two articles in the English language – the Indefinite Article and the Definite Article. The Indefinite Article has two forms – a and an (a precedes words beginning with a consonant sound and an precedes words beginning with a vowel sound). It comes from the Old English word ãn, which meant one. The Definite Article is the. It comes from the Old English word ţis, which meant this.
Terms Language → A systematic, conventional (tavakohane) use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression. Human language at all levels is rule- or principle- governed (valitsema) meaning that language corresponds to the grammar. Natural language is usually spoken, while language can also be encoded into symbols (such as letters, morse etc) For example: Estonian, English. Linguistics → The scientific study of human natural language. Broadly, there are three aspects to the study which are Pragmatics (studies the use of language → interested in the gap between the sentence’s meaning and the speaker’s meaning). Semantics (concerned with the meaning of the language aspects and the way they change, also how objects and language and thinking and language are related). Syntax (concerned with the rules [grammar] and how sentences and words are formed).
I don't like to be shouted at. (NOT I don't like to be shouted.) This needs to be thought about some more. (NOT This needs to be thought some more.) 6. Don't use a present tense after It's time. It's time you went home. (NOT It's time you go home.) It's time we invited Bill and Sonia. (NOT It's time we invite Bill and Sonia.) 7. Use was/were born to give dates of birth. I was born in 1975. (NOT I am born in 1975.) Shakespeare was born in 1564. 8. Police is a plural noun. The police are looking for him. (NOT The police is looking for him.) I called the police, but they were too busy to come. 9. Don't use the to talk about things in general. Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.) I love music. (NOT I love the music.) 10. Use had better, not have better. I think you'd better see the doctor. (NOT I think you have better see the doctor.) We'd better ask John to help us. 11
function. cat, cat/s, laugh/ed, un/able, sheep Free morphemes: cat, laugh, eat, red Bound morphemes: prefixes: pre- prejudge dis- dislike suffixes: -ist typist infixes attached within another morpheme. Infixation is common in languages of Southeast Asia and the Philippines, and it is also found in some Native American languages. circumfixes morphemes that are attached to a root or stem morpheme both initially and finally. Morphs: the concrete realisation of a morpheme (`was' be, past, singular) Allomorphs: a/an Types of affixes: Derivational and infelctional Derivational affixes: Derivational affixes may change the grammatical class of the root verbs into nouns, nouns into adjectives (boy, boyish), and so on. Derivation is a lexical process which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by adding affixes to stems or roots
marker tunnus (mitmuse, oleviku, lihtmineviku, tingiva kõneviisi, käskiva kõneviisi, kaudse kõneviisi, umbisikulise tegumoe, ma- tegevusnime, oleviku kesksõna, mineviku kesksõna) derivational affix liide, tuletusliide, tuletusafiks (e.g. postwar, anti-American, wiser, greenish) parts of speech sõnaliigid English Estonian Definition Example noun (proper, common, nimisõna, Refers to words which denote classes and categories of book, water, sincerity, Mary, concrete, abstract) substantiiv things in the world, including people, animals, Estonia inanimate things, places, events, qualities, and states. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns and common
Linguistic stylistics--views linguistic facts from the point of view of their ability to convey additional shades of meaning. Any act of speech passes on 2 types of information: · The content as such · Additional inf. which finds expression in all kinds of extra shades of meaning that are attached to the main content The form of speech may vary depending on the speaker, the listener and the circumstances they both find themselves (to begin-to commence--to get going) Stylistics studies everything that makes the text or the utterance special. It cuts across all the basic linguistic sciences: · Phonetics--silent, sleepy streets · Morphology--speak, spoke, spake · Syntax--he came in-in came he · Lexicology--finish-terminate (synonymic pairs) A survey of the development of stylistic studies: It is a relatively new branch in philology; yet, its roots go back as far as ancient Greek
be needed to explain the basics of formal syntax, without having to omit presentation of some philosophical issues I consider essential to competence in the field. Since around 1980, some philosophers of language have taken a turn toward the philosophy of mind, and some have engaged in metaphysical exploration of the relation or lack thereof between language and reality. These adversions have captured many philosophers' interest, and some fine textbooks have focused on one or both (for example, Blackburn 1984; Devitt and Sterelny 1987). But I have chosen otherwise. Whatever the merits of those sorts of work, I have not found that either helps us sufficiently to understand spe- cifically linguistic mechanisms or the core issues of philosophy of language itself. This book will concentrate on those mechanisms and issues. (Readers who wish to press on into metaphysics or philosophy of mind should consult, respectively, Michael J
Ladusseva "Stylistic practice: Book I, Book II" - I. Ladusseva "A Guide to Punctuation" EXAMINATION TOPICS: 1. Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies 2. Inherent connotations. Phonesthemes Use lecture notes 3. Adherent connotations 4. Stylistic morphology: articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, number * 5. Expressiveness on the level of word-building 6. Phonetic expressive means Study independen tly 7. Phonetic SD ("Rhythm And Style") 8. Lexical SD* 9. Syntactic SD* Use lecture notes 10. Graphical means and devices 11
elegant use of language by developing and polishing stylistic devices. In the 18th century, an individualistic-psychological view on style and stylistics emerges. The late 19th and and early 20th centuries witnessed a utilitarian approach to stylistics. The tendency to regard stylistics as an applied science has been particularly marked in english- 1 speaking countries. It was believed here that the main aim of stylistics is to improve the style of the writer and of a textbook, that is to show how better to express one's thoughts. Of foreign linguists, it is the french Ch.Balley, G.Marduzeon who in the 20th century made a definite contribution. This happened because of the centuries-old tradition in France of interest in style. The classical works on english stylistics are those by the german scholars: Ph.Aronstein, M.Deutschbein, I.Galperin
been speaking. · putting emphasis on the Q: Will he have been course of an action speaking? Note: we use continuous tenses only for actions and happenings (e.g. they are singing/ it is snowing). Some verbs are not action verbs (e.g. know, like). You cannot use continuous tenses with the following verbs: like love hate want need prefer know realise suppose mean understand believe remember belong contain consist depend seem 4 The following verbs are usually only used in Simple Present (not in the continuous form). state: be, cost, fit, mean, suit Example: We are on holiday. possession: belong, have Example: Sam has a cat. senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch Example: He feels the cold. feelings: hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish
Pronouns By: Anneli Võikar Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. Types of pronouns Personal pronouns Reflexive pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative pronouns Indefinite pronouns Relative pronouns Possesive pronouns Reciprocal pronouns Pronoun case Personal pronouns Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on: number person gender Case
........................5 Word Order in Negative Sentences......................................................6 Word Order in General Questions.........................................................7 Word Order in Special Questions ..........................................................8 Word Order in Subject Questions ..........................................................9 Types of Sentences There are four basic types of sentences in English. AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE sentences both end with a full stop ( ) : . I live in Tallinn. I do not live in Tallinn. I never watch soap operas. INTERROGATIVE sentences end with a question mark ( ? ) : Do you live in Tallinn? Why do you never watch soap operas? EXCLAMATORY and IMPERATIVE sentences end with an exclamation mark ( ! ) : What a beautiful day! Do your homework at once! Parts of the Sentence The basic parts of the sentence are: THE SUBJECT (WHO? WHAT?) ,
must be in want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters. "My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?" Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. "But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it." Mr. Bennet made no answer. "Do you not want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently. "You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it." This was invitation enough. "Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is taken by a young man of large fortune from the north of England; that he came down on Monday in a chaise and four to see the place, and was so much delighted with it, that he agreed with Mr. Morris
My languages I love different languages. I mean, I really, really love different languages. I also believe and have been told that I pick them up rather easily. That might be true, although I did not pick any Greek up in Greece but that might have been because they spoke so damn fast that I could not tell if it was a word or an entire sentence. The first foreign language I learned was Russian. Considering I was ten when Estonia became a Republic, it makes sense. We began studying Russian in first grade, though it was simplified –
do it) 4. Extension of 3rd person ending ,,s" to 1st and 2nd person forms ,,I/You wants" (used by the working class) 5. Regularisation of ,,be" ,,Me/You/They was" 6. Regularisation of some irregular verbs draw/drawed/have drawed; go/went/have went 7. Optional ,,-ly" ending on adverbs ,,He writes real quick." 8. Unmarked plurality on amounts of measurement after numerals 10 pound, 20 year 9. Different forms of the relative pronoun ,,The man what lives there."/ ,,The man as lives there." 10. Regularisation of reflexive pronouns myself; herself; hisself; theirselves 11. Distinction between main and auxiliary verb ,,do" ,,You done it, did you?" 2) The spread of English. The Inner / Outer / Expanding Circle THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH · 16-18th century the spread took place. · By the beginning of the 19th century English had spread to virtually every part of the world. · 19-20th century the number of speakers only grew.
What would you like to me tell Did you have a party in your yester flat day? When were you here? Articles Rules: 1. Rule: When you have a single, countable English noun, you must always have an article before it. We cannot say "please pass me pen", we must say "please pass me the pen" or "please pass me a pen" or "please pass me your pen". Nouns in English can also be uncountable. Uncountable nouns can be concepts, such as 'life', 'happiness' and so on, or
Linguistic Stylistics studies linguistic facts from the point of view of their ability to convey extra shades of meaning (connotations we call them). Stylistics has no fixed single unit of study. Stylistics studies everything that makes the utterance of the text expressive. STYLISTIC STUDIES Stylistics is regarded as a relatively new branch of philology, yet its roots go back as far as ancient Greece and Rome. In the 18th century there emerged an individualistic psychological view of style and stylistics. According to this view style bears the stamp of individual usage. The late 19th century and early 20th century saw the appearance of the pragmatic approach to stylistics: the tendency to regard stylistics as an applied science. It was believed that the chief aim of the stylistics is to improve the style of the reader, to teach him to express his thoughts better.
What is your name? (formal) What is your name? (informal) My name is... Mucho gusto. / Encantado. Señor / Señora / Señorita Igualmente. moo-choh goo-stoh / en-cahn- sayn-yor / sayn-yor-ah / ee-guahl-mehn-tay tah-doh sayn-yor-ee-tah Same here. / Same to you. Nice to meet you. Mister / Mrs. / Miss ¿De dónde eres? ¿De dónde es usted? Yo soy de... day dohn-day eh-rehs day dohn-day ehs oo-sted yoh soy day Where are you from? Where are you from? (formal) I'm from..
http://www.english-4u.de/a_an_some_ex1.htm ◦ *some bananas *some cats *some monkeys *some 2. http://www.english-4u.de/a_an_some_ex3.htm balls ◦ *some eggs*some oranges *some umbrellas *some 3. http://www.english-4u.de/a_an_some_ex6.htm eagles We us the • when we talk about a specific thing. • when it is clear which thing or person we mean. A – AN - THE • when there is only one of something. Examples:
SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES are based on a peculiar place of the word or phrase in the utterance (text, sentence, etc).This special place creates emphasis irrespective of the lexical meaning of the words used. Categories: syntactic stylistic devises based on: SDD: based on ABSENCE OF LOGICALLY REQUIRED ELEMENTS OF SPEECH ELLIPSIS ELLIPSIS or ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES means leaving out one or both principle members of the sentence that is the subject or predicate. NT: Where is the man I'm going to marry? - Out in the garden. (no subject) What is he doing out there? - Annoying father. Here, in the dialogue, ellipsis creates the colloquial tone of the utterance. It also renders realistically the way the characters speak. The elliptical sentences convoy/render carelessness, familiarity, harshness. It makes the utterance tens and emotional or helps to stress most important elements
pleased more pleased most pleased 2 2) two-syllable Adjectives • with two-syllable adjectives ending in –ly, -y, -w, we also add –er/-est narrow narrower the narrowest NOTE! For adjectives ending in a consonant + y we replace –y with –i: happy happier the happiest • with some two-syllable adjectives we can use either –er, -est or more and most, e.g. clever, common, friendy, gentle, pleasant, polite, shallow, simple, stupid, quiet (consult the dictionary, but, to be on the safe side, you can always use -er, -est): simple simpler the simplest OR simple more simple most simple • with other two-syllable adjectives comparatives and superlatives are formed with more/most: A) adjectives ending in –ful or -less
again to keep the noise down. between Paul and Joe. 1D Sporting origins page 67 2 She recognised him at once. 2 Phobias can be genetically 3 He's working at his father's shop inherited. 1 1 staunchly / resolutely for the time being. 3 When it comes to politics, 2 By and large 4 They'll be here any moment now. Edward and his dad have a lot in 3 swiftly 5 Everybody makes mistakes once common. 4 loosely in a while. 4 Luke is the spitting image of Matt 5 categorically 6 My brother was still a baby at the Damon. 6 widely time
Harold McMillan articulated his now famous “winds of change” sweeping Africa. We had high hopes for Africa, for the Black race, that the insidious imposition of foreign rule on us, the looting of Africa’s natural resources by our colonial masters accorded us would be things of history. That is more than forty years ago. Unfortunately, the promise of independence has not been fulfilled. Today, Africa has become more desolate; there is more starvation, diseases and non-provision of essential services than when we got our independence. There are all kinds of wars in Africa than the rest of world put together. The majority of so-called Africans leaders want to stay in power until the day their bodies are put in the grave. Through buffoonery, utter mismanagement and downright stealing of the wealth of the masses, these leaders have so impoverished Africa that we are now nothing but a beggar continent. We beg for
............................................................24 Identification with Things........................................................................25 The Lost Ring...........................................................................................26 The Illusion of Ownership........................................................................29 Wanting: The Need for More....................................................................31 Identification with the Body.....................................................................33 Feeling the Inner Body.............................................................................34 Forgetfulness of Being.............................................................................35 From Descartes's Error to Sartre's Insight...............................................36 The Peace that Passes All Understanding................................................37
Copyright © 2003 by Brian Tracy. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
A few (for countable nouns) and a little (for uncountable nouns) describe the quantity in a positive way: · "I've got a few friends" (= maybe not many, but enough) · "I've got a little money" (= I've got enough to live on) Few and little describe the quantity in a negative way: · Few people visited him in hospital (= he had almost no visitors) · He had little money (= almost no money) Some adjectives and adjectival phrases can only go with uncountable nouns (salt, rice, money, advice), and some can only go with countable nouns (friends, bags, people). With Uncountable Nouns With Both With Countable Nouns How much? How much? or How many? How many? a little no/none a few a bit (of) not any a number (of) some (any) several
It is intertwined with curiosity. An ideal education affords numerous and varied opportunities for students to touch, see, smell, listen, hear; to spark their curiosity. When I was a child the things that pleased me were largely other than the plants which have earned me a living as an adult. For example, I collected postage stamps, played basketball, was fond of listening to music, played all manner of games, but dealt only in a neutral, uninspired fashion with plants. The one thing that was constant and of supreme importance was my love of reading. I don't recall why, but by an early age, say age 9, I was a phenomenal reader of books, a habit that persisted all the way until college. Reading expands one's mind immensely. It fires the imagination, demonstrates grammar, teaches vocabulary, informs, challenges, helps one relax. In some cases it forces the mind to concentrate, as to understand. It can help build a moral or ethical framework, and help oneself
The train was late. Tom got up late this morning. NB! hardly means very little, nearly not; hard means very much 7. Many adverbs end in -ly, because many adjectives can be made into adverbs by adding –ly. E.g. quick/quickly, slow/slowly, brave/bravely, careful/carefully, bad/badly: They didn’t go out because it was raining heavily. Colin was disappointed to see how badly his son had done at the exam. NB! At the same time there are some adjectives which end in –ly as well. The most common are friendly, lively, lovely, ugly, silly, cowardly: Nobody has ever been so friendly to me. (adjective) He greeted me in a most friendly manner. (adverb) I don’t like your cowardly behaviour. (adjective) He betrayed me in a most cowardly way. (adverb) 8. Sentence Adverbs are words or phrases like certainly, perhaps, luckily, of course
7. Debunking the bunk is everyone's responsibility. 8. Don't ask me to pay for anyone else's mistakes. I make enough of my own. 9. Even those who possess real magic must beware of being misled by "magical thinking." 10. Everyone knows what shit tastes like. 11. Exclusive occupancy of a private room is a basic human right. 12. Fair compensation for genius is wealth. 13. God's not perfect, so it's a pretty good bet that you're not, either. 14. Good institutions help to overcome human moral inertia. 15. I am not one of your little friends. 16. If a dimension is anywhere it's everywhere. 17. If God's not crazy, why are you? 18. If one makes a promise one shouldn't have made it cannot stand against the obligation to do the right thing. 19. If you odn't give a certain amount of attention to filtering distractions, every distraction is a catastrophe. 20. If you don't know what your duty is, your duty is to find out. 21
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LEXICOLOGY 1. Size of English vocabulary 1) Old English – 50,000 to 60,000 words Vocabulary of Shakespeare OE – homogeneous; 1/3 of the vocabulary has survived • 884,647 words of running text About 450 Latin loans (Amosova) • 29,000 different words (incl. work, working, Viking invasions added 2,000 worked, which are counted here as separate 2) Middle English – 100,000 – 125,000 words) English becomes heterogeneous (Norman French, • 21,000 words English, Latin), hybrid of Germanic and Romance languages Norman French influence – about 10,000 words, 75 % are still in use (Baugh) Latin influence continues 3) Early Modern English – 200,000 – 250,000 English becomes a polycentric language; polyglot,
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