Angela Merkel Introduction Angela Merkel is Germany's first woman chancellor. Early life Was borned in 1954 in Hamburg Her father Horst Kasner was a Lutheran pastor and mother was a teacher. Angela is the eldest of the three siblings. Merkel grew up in Templin. Templin Templin's town hall Early life Studied physics in Templin and at the University of Leipzig. In 1978 Merkel gained a physics doctorate. Worked and studied at the Central Institute for
It was a vote that would decide the shape of the German parliament. The opinion polls before the elections suggested that Angelina Merkel would keep the top job and she did. The Christian Democrats won with 33% of the votes. The Christian Democratic Union, the Christian Social Union of Bavaria, and the Free Democratic Party have announced their intention to form a centre-right government with Angela Merkel continuing as the Chancellor. It is said that Angelina Merkel is the biggest poker face in German politics. In her four years as chancellor she has outmanouvered her opponents and become the country's most popular politician and as the German economy is recovering from recession, the people see her as a safe pair of hands. With Angela Merkel as popular as she is, you might think that the result is a for gone conclusion, but in Germany people don't vote directly for a chancellor, they vote for a party
Adolf Hitler German politician from Austria National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) leader (1921-1945). Between 1934-1945, he was the dictator of Germany the official title of the German Chancellor (1933-1945) and the title of the head of state ("Führer and Chancellor"; 1934-1945). Adolf was born on April 20, 1889 a. Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary, a customs official Alois h otly excitHitler (1837-1903) and his wife Klara six children fourth. Only the children reached adulthood, he and his sister Paula. 1906. Hitler visited Vienna and ended up in a hotly excited waxed city buildings, art galleries and operas.His new ambition was to take the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. Further, he
some other provisions) protected by `eternity clause' · Separation of powers: Weimar problems Over-concentration of power Confused dual executive (Chancellor vs. President) Solutions Judiciary, with Constitutional Court at its apex, reviewing constitutionality of laws Legislature - the Bundestag and Bundesrat passing laws Executive (Chancellor and government): proposing and implementing laws · Single executive: President downgraded to ceremonial role Federalism: distribution of responsibilities between central and regional government
Paljude põlvkondade jaoks on Genti altar olnud ning jääb ka edaspidi ülima kunsti sümboliks, kõigi aegade ja rahvaste kunstiloomingu üheks tipuks. PORTRAIT OF A MAN IN A TURBAN Jan van Eycki oletatav autoportree Pildi raami ülaosal on tagasihoidlik moto: "Nagu ma suudan". Raami alaosale on kirjutatud: "Jan van Eyck tegi minu 21. oktoobril 1433." VASAKUL MADONNA WITH CHILD READING PAREMAL TE ARNOLFINI PORTRAIT VASAKUL MADONNA OF CHANCELLOR ROLIN PAREMAL LUCCA MADONNA KASUTATUD MATERJAL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck http://portfoolio.varstukk.edu.ee/Renessanss/html/lingid/ Eyck.html http://images.google.ee/images? ndsp=18&hl=et&lr=lang_et&client=firefox a&rls=org.mozilla:en US:official&um=1&q=jan+van+eyck&ie=UTF 8&ei=Fh3BSYuaFNnHjAeaytAm&sa=X&oi=image_res ult_group&resnum=1&ct=title
III chamber- social welfare, nationality, church law, school education, handicap Special courts Labour Court - 16 members - Only for labour unions or employer organizations Insurance Court - Deals cases concerning a person´s right to earnings The High Court of Impeachment - may be convened for cases dealing with criminal charges against the President of the Republic, a justice of the Supreme Court, a member of the Government, the Chancellor of Justice or the Ombudsman of Parliament. Lay judges in Finland The District Courts have lay members or "Lay Judges" Composition is: ordinary judge + 2 lay judges Appointed for 4 years Lay Judge must be: Finnish citizen, age between 25-63 and cannot have positions in the courts or penal institutions. District Court pay fee and reimburse them. Conclusion Thank you for listening!
year term by private ballot in free elections. Government: it wields executive power, it issues orders and regulations, submits bills to the Parlament for passage into law and foreign treaties for ratifications, drafts the state budget for submission to the Parlament abd effects it after adoption. The President nominates a minister candidate for the post of Prime Minister. Court system: it is a 3-tier system. The chancellor of justice examines all new laws, regulations and other legal acts to ensure their compliance with the Constitution and existing laws. The auditor general checks the finances of government bodies and the use and management of public property. The president of the Republic is the Head of State and Supreme Commander of Nationak Defence Forces. He represents the state, appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives
Trade, becoming home secretary in 1910. The following year he became first lord of the Admiralty. He held this post in the first months of World War One but after the disastrous Dardanelles expedition, for which he was blamed, he resigned. He joined the army, serving for a time on the Western Front. In 1917, he was back in government as minister of munitions. From 1919 to 1921 he was secretary of state for war and air, and from 1924-1929 was chancellor of the exchequer. The next decade were his 'wilderness years', in which his opposition to Indian self-rule and his support for Edward VIII during the 'Abdication Crisis' made him unpopular, while his warnings about the rise of Nazi Germany and the need for British rearmament were ignored. When war broke out in 1939, Churchill became first lord of the Admiralty. In May 1940, Neville Chamberlain resigned as prime minister and Churchill took his place. His refusal to surrender to Nazi Germany
on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Noble Prize in Physics. Emigration from Germany, World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1933, Einstein decided to emigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler. He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. ere, he tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted
university in the world. The first one is the University of Bologna in Italy. But as for English speaking countries Oxford is a firm leader. There are evidence of teaching going far back to the 11th century, but a clear date is not known. In 1167, Henry II banned English students from studying in France which made Oxford's popularity grow rapidly. From then on, Oxford was named a real university and got it's first chancellor in 1201. For years, Oxford only accepted male students until four womens' colleges were opened thanks to the Association for Promoting the Higher Education of Women. First of them was Lady Margaret Hall, which was opened in 1878. Women have been able to be full members of the university and to take degrees since 7 October 1920, almost 900 years after the University was established. Nowadays, Oxford has built itself up to be one of the biggest universities in Europe. It has a
clock, with a muscular man inside it, patrolling the area. Pro Kapital activity in Kalarand raises questions about lawfulness of their actions and how society’s interests and consensus on the matter can be overruled. The situation in Kalarand has not changed from August. Pro Kapital has not got the permission from the City Council to start the construction work. The fence is still up and an unmarked car is still parked next to the property. One of Estonian parties Vabaerakond has turned to Chancellor of Justice in this matter but with no effect to the situation. The Estonian Chancellor of Justice responded only that in this situation it is important to have an open discussion and the developer has to provide clear developing plan. Similar situation has happened before in Estonia. Former president of Estonia, Lennart Meri, bought a peninsula peak Armuneeme, in Viimsi, in 1997. President Meri agreed with the
* The North was remote, unruly border country, poor and feudal * Wales, to the west, was at the beginning of this period still thoroughly Celtic * At the beginning of this period the literary model was Chaucer´s verse, there was none in prose Sir Thomas More * Born in London * known to Catholics as Saint Thomas More since 1935 * was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman, and noted Renaissance humanist. * He was an important councillor to Henry VIII of England and was Lord Chancellor from October 1529 to 16 May 1532 * He was canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1935 * He was an opponent of the Protestant Reformation and in particular of Martin Luther and William Tyndale. ´´Utopia´´ * "Utopia" a name he gave to the ideal and imaginary island nation, the political system of which he described in Utopia, published in 1516. * Written in Latvin * In it a traveller, Raphael Hythlodeaus describes the political arrangements of the
bills to the Parliament for passage into law and foreign treaties for ratification, drafts the state budget for submission to the Parliament and effects it after adoption. There are 12 ministries but there may be up to 15 ministers. The President nominates a candidate for the post of Prime Minister. The present Prime Minister Andrus Ansip. Judicial power is vested in a 3tier court system, the highest body of which being the Supreme Court, presided over the Chief Justice. The Chancellor of Justice examines all the new laws, regulations and other legal acts to ensure their compliance with the Constitution and existing laws. The present Chancellor of Justice is Allar Jõks. The President of the Republic is the Head of State and Supreme Commander of National Defence forces. He represents the state, appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of the republic, appoints and dismisses members of the government, nominates candidates for the posts of Chief Justice of the
the Speaker's sceptre. The speaker of the house presides over sittings, keeping order. The House of Lords decorated in scarlet and gold has all the grandeur one would expect in this chamber. This is where Her Majesty the Queen comes to open Parliament each November. Placed beneath a regal canopy, the gold throne which dominates the house is where the Queen sits to deliver the traditional opening speech. The Lord Chancellor sits opposite, on the famous Woolsack, this is a large scarlet cushion filled with wool, a tradition dating back to the middle ages when wool was England's largest export. http://www.aboutbritain.com/HousesParliament.html, http://www.londonnet.co.uk/ln/guide/about/gallbigb.html, http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Westminster_Palace.html, http://www.london-pages.demon.nl/london_big_ben.html, http://www.travellondon.com/templates/attractions/gallery_bigben.html,
- wrote while in jail • Sold 5 million copies, made him rich • Topics included: Jews were evil, Germans were superior race, Fuhrer principal, dislike of Communism and Democracy and need to conquer Russia Legal Rise to Power • Used popularity from failed revolution and book to seize power legally • Spoke to mass audiences about making Germany a great nation again • Nazi Party: – 1930 = 18% of vote – 1932 = 30% of vote – Hitler becomes Chancellor in 1933 Appeal of Hitler • Germany was in the midst of an economic depression with hyper-inflation • Hitler was a WW I hero who talked about bringing glory back to the “Fatherland” • He promised the rich industrialists that he would end any communist threat in Germany • Constantly blamed Jews for Germany’s problems, not the German people. • Hitler was an excellent public speaker. Strong Arm Tactics • The “Brownshirts” or SA (Stormtroopers)
Kõik millel on avalikku väärtust, sellega poliitika ka tegeleb nt: pere-, keskkonna-, regionaal - ning hariduspoliitika samuti rahvusvaheline poliitika ja ühiskonnaelu korraldamine. Poliitika võimaldab muuta ettepanekud ja programmid kindlateks tegevusteks, millel on konkreetne lõpptulemus. Minu jaoks iseloomustab poliitikat järjepidevus, sihikindlus ja ausus. Eelnimetatud omadustest kinni pidamine peaks tagama riigi toimimise ja arengu ning ühiskonna huvide eest seismist. Chancellor Bismarck ütles, et poliitika on valitsus kunst mitte teadus. Sain aru, et ta mõtles sellega kontrolli saavutamist ühiskonnas kollektiivsete otsuste tegemise ja jõustamise kaudu. Selline definitsioon tuleneb Vana-Kreekast, kus sõna polis tähendas linnriiki. Mina nõustun rohkem aga David Easton'i mõttega, millest selgub, et poliitika hõlmab palju rohkem avalikke ja era sektoreid kui Bismarck'i mõttest saab välja lugeda. Poliitikat ei tehta ainult
93. right to make proposals and give recommendations, fulfilment of which is not compulsory õigus teha ettepanekuid ja anda soovitusi mittekohustuslikuks täitmiseks ??? 94. to improve the situation olukorra parandamiseks 95. the function of reconciliation or negotiation leptamise ja läbirääkimiste funktsioon 96. questions arising between... küsimused, mis tekivad ... vahel 97. taken as an example võetud näidiseks 98. granting the functions andma funktsioone 99. Chancellor of Justice Act õiguskantsleri seadus 100. to monitor jälgida 101. observe human rights järgima inimõigusi 102. appointed to office ametisse määrama 103. to exercise supervision teostada järelvalvet 104. executive power täidesaatev võim 105. independent high state official sõltumatu kõrge riigiametnik 106. to guarantee garanteerima 107. the right to protection õigus kaitsele 108. inform the public teavitama avalikkust 109
5) Nimeta mereteed ja riigid, kes kust kaudu proovisid jõuda Indiasse. Hispaania üritas eesotsas Christoph Kolumbusega jõudas Indiasse lääne poolt, avastas hoopis Ameerika (ise seda loomulikult ei teadnud). Portugallased üritasid ja ka saavutasid meretee Indiasse ümber Aafrika lõunatipu. Teoorias oli võimalik Indiasse jõuda ka ümber PõhjaAmeerika ja PõhjaAasia, niisiis üritas inglane Richard Chancellor ebaõnnestunult purjetada ümber Venemaa. 1648. aastal avastas venelane Semjon Dežnjov lääne poolt Vaikse ookeani läbi Aasiat ja Ameerikat ühendava väina. Taani kuningas Christian IV lootis Gröönimaa kaudu Indiasse jõuda, end jääolude tõttu sai ruttu selgeks, et see pole võimalik. minu: neli erinevat suunda: 1) Portugal esindab Hendruque Meresõitja(13941946), 1434 aastal oli tal julgus ületada Gil
Nii portugallased kui ka hispaanlased olid Indiasse jõudnud lõunapoolkera kaudu. tegelikult oli olemas võimalus jõuda Indiasse ka ümber Põhja-Aasia või Põhja- Ameerika purjetades. Järgmised maadeavastused koondusidki kirde- ja loodeväila otsingutele. eriti agarad olid inglased, kes lootsid uute mereteede avastamisega olukorda portugallasi ja hispaanlasi edestada. XVI sajandi keskpaigas jõudis Aasiast põhja pool kulgevat mereteed otsiv Inglise meresõitja Richard Chancellor Põhja- Dvinaa suudmesse /praeguse Arhangelski kohal/. peagi selgus, et purjelaevadele jääb Põhja meretee siiski läbimatuks. see-eest aga loodi uus meritsi kulgev kaubatee venemaa ja Lääne-Euroopa vahel, mis tõi inglastele suurt tulu. Looduslikke olusid tundmata otsiti mereteed ka läbi kanada arktilise saarestiku. Sealgi tuli pettuda. Loodeväil õnnestus ilma talvitumata esimest korda läbida alles 1969. aastal, s.o samal aastal, mil esimene inimene Kuule jõudis. UUED PÕLLUKULTUURID
supremacy of Parliament. Parliament is the supreme legislative authority and consists of three separate element: the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. There are 650 Members of Parliament (MPs) each member representing one of the 650 geographical areas (constituencies). The House is presided over by the Speaker. The main function of the House of Commons is to legislate. The House of Lords is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. It is made up of Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal, the latter comprise all hereditary and life peers. The leader of the party which obtains a majority of seats in a general election is named Prime Minister. A number of ministers are invited by the Prime Minister to attend regular meetings to discuss policy and this group of ministers is known as the Cabinet. The main opposition party forms a Shadow Cabinet.
As a result the bills then become laws. There are 650 Members of Parliament in the House of Commons. Leaders of the Government and the Opposition sit in the front row and their supporters sit behind them. The House is presided over by the Speaker. He/she is elected by the MPs. The members of the House of Lords are not elected. This chamber consists of the Lords Spiritual. The House of Lords is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. There are about 1200 members there. There are 2 main parties: the Labour Party and the Conservative Party. The Labour Party has been in power from 1997 and have had some shorter spells before too. The leader of them is Tony Blair. He's also the Prime Minister as the leading figure of the party in power becomes also the Prime Minister and he can appoint himself his Government. The Labour Party is popular amongst the middle classes and
‘by goods, within the meaning of the … Treaty, there must be understood products which can be valued in money and which are capable, as such, of forming the subject of commercial transactions’1 In this case, dogs are classed as goods, because they have economic value and are subject of sale and import. Short overview: The German government banned the breeding of fighting dogs after the June 6th, 2001, when the pit bull tore up to a pieces a six-year-old boy in Hamburg. German Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder assembled an emergency meeting of the Council of Ministers, in consequence of which the prohibitive Law act was adopted that the following breeds: pit bull terriers, bull terriers, American Staffordshire terriers are restricted for breeding, import/export. The owners, who already had dogs, were asked to take them abroad. Some animals were sent for training, some resulted in the euthanasia of dogs
university and country to country, ranging from about three days to a month or even more (e.g. four or five weeks, depending on program, at Chalmers). The length of the week is often affected by each university's tradition as well as financial and physical constraints. During this period, students participate in a wide range of social activities, including live music and other performances, sports challenges, stunts, and open-air markets. Vice-chancellor The Chancellor of the High Court is the head of the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales The Russell Group is a self-selected association of twenty-four public research universities situated in the United Kingdom. The group is headquartered in London and was established in 1994 to represent its members' interests, principally to government and parliament; nineteen smaller British research universities formed the 1994 Group in response, which has since dissolved
from Rome. Henry became the supreme head of the Anglican church Fidei Defensor Means defender of the faith. Given to Henry VIII by Pope Leo X in 1521. Henry was against Martin Luther´s ideas and protestantism. However, Henry broke with Rome, to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon and established hismelf the The Church of England Supreme head Cardinal Wolsey Cardinal and statesman, Henry VIII´s chancellor, archbishop of York. Efficient aministrator both for the Crown and the church. Henry VIII delegated more state business to him, he was asked to use his influence in Rome to get a papal annulment for the divorce. Wolsey was anable to do this, his downfall began. He was accused of treason, he died on a journey to trial Catherine of Aragon A spanish princess, Henry´s wife. She had borne him 5 children, but only Mary survived.
illustrated Gospel stories that greatly influenced later history-writing. The gospels were kept safe from the Vikings and are now in display in the Library of the British Museum. 28. Downing Street. A little by-street running off Whitehall. Since 1732 no. 10 has been the residence of the British Prime Minister. The Cabinet meets there in the Cabinet Room. 11 Downing Street is the official residence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The expression “Downing Street” in colloquial use often refers to the government. 29. The Tower of London. UNESCO World Heritage Site. Date back to 1066. The tower has had many functions, having served as a royal residence, armory, treasury, mint and, most famously, as a prison for the enemies of the crown. The Tower is home to the English Crown Jewels. There are many ceremonies in the Tower. A small group of
To amend muutma, parandama Substantial law materiaalõigus Head of state riigipea (really safe to use everywhere) Procedural law menetlusseadus Unicameral ühekambriline (parlament) Legislative authority/power legislatiivjõud Convene kokku kutsuma Accede ühinema, liituma Accession treaty ühinemisleping Eligible ? valitav mingile kohale Ineligible? ei saa valida seda inimest Extraordinary elections erakorralised valimised Regular elections - ? Chancellor of justice - õiguskantsler Larceny, theft vargus Adopt a law seadust vastu võtma Case law systems kohtuasi; kohtulahend ???? Court ruling kohtuniku tehtud otsus Statute statuut To administrate law seaduste/õiguste tagamine, Civil disputes tsiviilvaidlus Uniform application seaduste 1kordne rakendamine Doctrine of precedent pretsedendi doktriin Was bound kohustatud Binding kohustuslik, siduv
Fifth level Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife 1434 Oil on oak 82 x 60 cm National Gallery, London Click to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Jan van Fourth level Fifth level EYCK The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin 1435 Wood 66 x 62 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris Click to edit Master text styles Second level Hieronymus Third level Fourth level Fifth level Bosch Crucifixion with a Donor 148085 Oil on oak 74,7 x 61 cm Musées Royaux des BeauxArts, Brussels
by the Imprisonment Act article 90 sections 3 and 5. A hypothesis was set that the restrictive measures established to the detainees by the Imprisonment Act article 90 sections 3 and 5 are not in accordance with The Constitution of the Republic of Estonia articles 19, 20, 26 and 34. An importante incentive on choice of subject was that the topic is problematic and actual with reference to the letter sent by Chancellor of Justice to the Minister of Justice in which the Chancellor of Justice questions the constitutionality of Imprisonment Act Article 90 Sections 3 and 5, mainly because of the sometimes occurring long detention time. The thesis analyses the effectiveness and conformity with the principle of proportionality of restrictions arising from the execution of custody. To do this, first off all it is nessecary to ascertain formal constitutionality of te Imprisonment Act article 90 sections 3 and 5. Secondly
institutsioon, mis hakkab kujunema välja 18 sajandil pol vajadusest pol parteide tegevust kuidagi raamidesse seada, mis kulmineerib 19 saj lõps 20 alguses väga tugeva peaministri institutsiooni väljakujunemisega ( peaministrikeskne parlamnetarism ja demokraatia, peaministril suur kontrollivõimalus nii pol partei kui ka monarhi üle). Royal personal prerogatives: - dissolution of Parliament (House of Commons), - appointment of Prime Minister (First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, Privy Councellor). 20 saj alguse Britannia pol pilt oli selline : Big parties Conservatives (Tory) Labour Party (since 1900) Võib väita, et oli välja kuj I põlvkonna briti pol ideede maastik. Neeed pol parteid , misi tekivad monarhia võimu vähendamisest ja marginaliseerumisest e konservatiivid ja liberaalid.Monarhia vastasus pole enam päevakohane teema . Liikumine briti pol parteide II põlvkonna poole. Selle
a substantial portion of Karelia. In turn, Russia paid two million Riksdaler and surrendered most of Finland. The Tsar retained some Finnish lands close to Saint Petersburg, which he had made his capital in 1712. Later years Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 22 October 1721, soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed Emperor of All Russia. Some proposed that he take the title Emperor of the East, but he refused. Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title Tsar following a speech by the archbishop of Pskov in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia, and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word emperor connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that
pärisorjuse Religioon Euroopa majandusliku arengu mõjutajana. Silmaringi avardumine ja kommunikatsioon. Indiasse viiva meretee otsingud. Hispaania üritas eesotsas Christoph Kolumbusega jõudas Indiasse lääne poolt, avastas hoopis Ameerika (ise seda loomulikult ei teadnud). Portugallased üritasid ja ka saavutasid meretee Indiasse ümber Aafrika lõunatipu. Teoorias oli võimalik Indiasse jõuda ka ümber Põhja-Ameerika ja Põhja-Aasia, niisiis üritas inglane Richard Chancellor ebaõnnestunult purjetada ümber Venemaa. 1648. aastal avastas venelane Semjon Dežnjov lääne poolt Vaikse ookeani läbi Aasiat ja Ameerikat ühendava väina. Taani kuningas Christian IV lootis Gröönimaa kaudu Indiasse jõuda, end jääolude tõttu sai ruttu selgeks, et see pole võimalik. India meretee avastas eurooplastele hoopiski Portugali meresõitja Vasco da Gama, kes liikus Hea Lootuse neemelt edasi piki Aafrika idarannikut ning jõudis 20. mail 1498 Aafrika idarannikult
Declaration of Breda. According to it, Charles had promised religious toleration, liberty of conscience, general amnesty and respect for existing prperty relations. *The Clarendon Code It was a series of four legal statutes which effectively re-established the supremacy of the Anglican Church after the interlude of Cromwell's Commonwealth, and ended toleration for dissenting religions. The Code was named for Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, who was Charles II's Lord Chancellor. Clarendon enforced the laws despite his personal opposition to many of the provisions of the Code. The Clarendon Code effectively ended any possibility of the Anglican Church and Nonconformists coming together under one religious and social banner. *The emergence of the two-party system, the Whigs and the Tories (the cabinet system) The emergence of the two-party system resulted partly from the controversy surrounding the succession of James Duke of York
meeskonnaliikmega pardal. Edasised avastusretked. Nii portugallased kui hispaanlased olid Indiasse jõudnud lõunapoolkera kaudu. Teoreetiliselt oli olemas võimalus jõuda Indiasse ka ümber Põhja-Aasia või siis Põhja- Ameerika purjetades. Järgmised maadeavastused koondusidki kirde- ja loodeväila otsingutele. Eriti agarad olid uute mereteede otsinguil inglased, kes lootsid omakorda portugallasi ja hispaanlasi edestada. 1553. aastal jõudis inglise meresõitja Richard Chancellor Põhja-Dvinaa suudmesse praeguse Arhangelski kohal. Peagi selgus, et purjelaevadele jääb Põhja meretee siiski läbimatuks. See-eest aga loodi tulutoov meritsi kulgev kaubatee Venemaa ja Lääne-Euroopa vahel. 17. sajandil jõudsid lääne suunast Vaikse ookeanini Vene kasakad. 1648. aastal purjetas Semjon Deznjov läbi Aasiat ja Ameerikat eraldava väina. Euroopale jäi see maadeavastus teadmatuks: alles sadakond aastat hiljem avastati Deznjovi aruanne ühest Siberi arhiivist
just me—you too." Both states protested, but the Viennese greeted them with a blank stare, a shrug, and a bland profession of ignorance. Despite this, the j existence of the black chamber was well known to the various delegates to the Austrian court, and was even tacitly acknowledged by the Austrians. When the British 'ambassador complained humorously that he was getting copies instead of his original correspondence, the chancellor replied coolly, "How clumsy these people are!" Enciphered correspondence was subjected to the usual cryptanalytic sweating process. The Viennese enjoyed remarkable success in this work. The French ambassador, who was apprised of its successes from papers sold him by a masked man on a bridge, remarked in astonishment that "our ciphers of 1200 [groups] hold out only a little while against the ability of the Austrian decipherers." He added that though he suggested
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