Kuid samas osades metsades jällegi jäljendatakse metsahäiringuid, et tagada piisava liigirikkuse olemasolu. Kasutatud kirjandus Dale, V.H., Joyce, L.A., McNulty, S., Neilson, R.P., Ayres, M.P., Flannigan, M.D., Hanson, P.J., Irland, L.C., Lugo, A.E., Peterson, C.J., Simberloff, D., Swanson, F.J., Stocks, B.J., Wotton, B.M. 2001. Climate Change and Forest Disturbances.- BioScience, 51(9), 723-734. Fraver, S., White, A.S., Seymour, R.S. 2009. Blackwell Publishing Ltd Natural disturbance in an old-growth landscapeof northern Maine, USA.- Journal of Ecology, 97, 289-298. Kulakowski, D., Veblen, T.T. 2002. Blackwell Science, Ltd Influences of fire history and topography on the pattern of a severe wind blowdown in a Colorado subalpine forest.- Journal of Ecology, 90, 806-819. Laas, E., Uri, V., Valgepea, M. 2011. Metsamajanduse alused. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus. 862 lk. Mitchell, S.J. 2012. Wind as a natural disturbance agent in forests: a synthesis.-
Secondly, using computers while studying can speed up the learning and also writing process, because it is known that the youth can find a missing word or a phrase on the internet in a matter of seconds. Also, they write a lot faster on computer than by hand, so it can drastically improve the speed of learning. On the other hand, students do not always use computers for learning. They use them also for playing games and communicating with their friends which can be really big factor of disturbance of the studying. Moreover, the students who use computers for other reasons than studying do not pay attention to the process of studying. In conclusion, I believe that the computers should be used while studying, but there is a catch. Computers should be used by only the students who can control themselves and not deal with other things while studying.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3764878 http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0756e/T0756E03.htm https://www.spc.int/lrd/ext/Disease_Manual_Final/b058__rabies.html http://www.who.int/rabies/epidemiology/en/ Pildid: http://www.thehindu.com/2005/05/01/stories/2005050103620500.htm http://osp.mans.edu.eg/elsawalhy/Inf-Dis/Rabies.htm http://www.askjpc.org/wsco/wsc/wsc99/99wsc17.htm http://www.vet.uga.edu/oldvpp/programs/afvet/attachments/disturbance s_of_circulation_notes.pdf http://www.who-rabies-bulletin.org/about_rabies/Virus_Structure.aspx
Most of this material is still present in sediments of the central Baltic Sea and can be terminated by near bottom currents. [2] Unsustainable factory farming made the Baltic Sea one of the world's most polluted seas. A really bad year was 2010 unprecedented potentially toxic algae bloom covered almost 377,000 square kilometers. This is an area larger than Germany. This affects marine ecosystems and can cause important disturbance to them. [3] In my opinion, people should stop all the companies that spread toxic pollutants into the Baltic Sea. We could help cleaning it by supporting companies like: http://helcom.fi/Documents/Baltic%20sea%20action%20plan/Baltic_Sea_Action_Plan_brochur e.pdf I believe that with enough resources, the Baltic Sea would be much more cleaner. I really hope that someday it would be clean and nice again! Sources [1] https://www.europeaninstitute.org/index
nägema Baggy- kottis Bag Fashionable Fashion Noisy Noise Confusing Confusion Interesting Interest Trendy Trend Attached- lisatud Attachment- manus Attach- lisama Deleted- kustutatud Deletion- kustutus Delete- kustutama Developed- arenenud Development- areng Develop- arenema Distrubed- häiritud Disturbance- häire Distrub- häirima Informed Information Inform Installed Installation Install Invented Invention Invent Producted Production Product Received- vastu Receiver- vastu võtja Receive- vastu võetud võtma Solved- lahendatud Solution- lahendus Solve- lahendama
Technology and advantages Instead of bottom-fixed phycical foundation, floating platforms are attached to the seabed with mooring lines. Three main types of floating wind platforms Ballast stabilized Tension Leg Platforms Buoyancy Stabilized (Hywind) BUOYANCY STABILIZED Technology and advantages Access to previously inaccessible waters. Commissioned and assembled at the quayside. Foundations not necessary 1. Sea life disturbance minimized 2. Reduced geotechnical requirements Also 3. Considerably less noise and visual pollution 4. Greater energy/cost value Initiatives - Hywind Developed by Norwegian energy company Statoil ASA World's first full-scale floating wind turbine 10 km off the soutwest coast of Norway 100 meters beneath the sea's surface Can be employed at ocean depths of 120 to 700 meters Main objective is to test the impact of wind and waves on the structure over a two-year period
close friends. She was engaged in an intimate friendship with actress Marie Dorval, which led to widespread but unconfirmed rumors of a lesbian affair. There is a Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa in Majorca, where she spent the winter of 183839 with Chopin and her children. This trip to Majorca was described by her in A Winter in Majorca, published in 1855. Chopin left her two years before his death, because of a family disturbance. He supported her daughter Solange's marriage choice, which had caused Sand to disown the daughter. Through manipulation, Sand attempted to isolate Chopin in Majorca which caused him ill health which led to his death. Writing career Sand and Jules Sandeau published a few stories in co-operation, signing them "Jules Sand." She adopted, for her first independent novel Indiana (1832) , the pen name that made her famous George Sand.
with lower IQ's particularly in the FAS child. In addition to attention deficits, problems with judgement, comprehension, and abstract think are common. Some new research says that kids with FAS and FAE are more vulerable to alcohol exposure. Another thing is newborns exposed to alcohol before birth may have a weak sucking responce and irregular sucking patterns early in life. Some describe them as easily distracted and fatigued when sucking. Sleep disturbance, and jitteriness have also been reported in infants exposed to alcohol before birth. Some studies also show that a higher incidence of impaired vision and hearing, motor incoordination, and problem with balance are possible attibuted to alcohol use by the mother before birth of the infant. Fetal exposure to alcohol can also result in adnormal thyroid function and some decrease in the immune system effectiveness.
26 recognized as safe is that toxic doses (over 1000 mg for an average adult) are much higher than 27 typically used doses. Ordinary consumption has low health risks, even when carried on for 28 years there may be a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's 29 disease, heart disease, and certain types of cancer. Some people experience sleep disruption if 30 they consume caffeine, especially during the evening hours, but others show little disturbance 31 and the effect of caffeine on sleep is highly variable. 32 Caffeine is quickly and completely removed from the brain. Its effects are short-lived and it 33 tends not to negatively affect concentration or higher brain functions. However, continued 34 exposure to caffeine leads to developing a tolerance to it. Tolerance causes the body to become 35 sensitized to adenosine, so withdrawal causes blood pressure to drop, which can result in a 36 headache and other symptoms
History Stonehenge itself evolved in several construction phases spanning at least some 1500 years. However there is evidence of large scale construction both before and afterwards on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscape's time frame to 6500 years. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity at Stonehenge is not a simple task; it is complicated by poorly kept early excavation records, surprisingly few accurate scientific dates and the disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing. The modern phasing most generally agreed by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right, which illustrates the site as of 2004. The plan omits the trilithon lintels for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles and stones visible today are shown coloured. Function and construction
H. Palang, H. Sooväli. Tartu Ülikooli geograafia instituut väljaanne nr 91. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastuse trükikoda, lk 1821. • Palang, H. (2001).Maastikest siin raamatus– Maastik: loodus ja kultuur. Maastiku käsitlusi Eestis. /Toim. H. Palang, H. Sooväli. Tartu Ülikooli geograafia instituut väljaanne nr 91. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastuse trükikoda, lk 8-10. • Zhang, Y. (2016). Landscape pattern and transition under natural and anthropogenic disturbance in an arid region of northwestern China.- International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Väljaanne nr. 44. lk 1-10 • Vaz, E. (2016). The future of landscapes and habitats: The regional science contribution to the understanding of geographical space.- Habitat International. Väljaanne nr. 51. lk 70-78
Metapopulatsioon (metapopulation) – Rändavate või passiivselt levivate isendite kaudu omavahel seotud ning nõnda tervikliku süsteemi moodustavate populatsioonide kogum. Metapopulatsiooni iseloomustab osapopulatsioonide suhteline isoleeritus, nende suur kadumise tõenäosus ja tühjaks jäänud elupaigalaikude taasasustamine teiste osapopulatsioonide poolt. Metapopulatsiooni dünaamika on määratud osapopulatsioonide kadumise ja taasasustamise vahekorraga. Häiring (disturbance) – Populatsioonidünaamikat või koosluse arengut järsult muutev väline sündmus. Häiringud võivad olla juhuslikud (nt. maalihe) või regulaarsed (nt, kevadised üleujutused), looduslikud või inimtekkelised (nt, niitmine). Väikseim dünaamiline pindala (minimum dynamic area) – Väikseim pindala, mille korral (kaitse)ala häiringutes ümberkujunev maastik ei kaota ühelgi ajahetkel ühtegi elupaiga- ega kooslusetüüpi.
Kuidas saada võrreldavaid andmeid biomitmekesisuse kohta tänapäeval ja minevikus. Maksimum tänapäeval biomitmekesisusel 10.-20 laiusel, trend, et poolustel väheneb. See siiski väheneb (mitmekesisus). Miks? Hüpoteese kümneid. On time stability hypothesis vanad ja stabiilsed hüpoteesid liigirikkad. 1980. lükati tagasi, rehabiliteeriti 1990. aastatel. Teine: habitat heterogenity hypothesis keskkonna heterogeensus toetab mitmekesisuse kasvu. Kolmas: intermediate disturbance hypothesis mitmekesisuse on suurim mõõduka häirimise tingimustes. Neljas dynamic equilibrium kooslused on keskonnamuutuste ja biointeraktsioonide tõttu pidevalt tasakaalust väljas. Neis kõikides on vastukäivusi ja ei saa öelda, et ükski pole neist mingis olukorras tõepõhi. On seos keskkonna stabiilsuse muutlikkuseg, kuid ükski neist ei seleta siiski mitmekesisust. Allikaid on otsata palju paleontoloogilised uurimused. Mõned keskmised on kindlals tehtud:
Suureneb liigiline mitmekesisus (erinev sekundaarse ja primaarse suktsessiooni korral) Muutub erinevate strateegiatüüpide esindatus Mullateke Ecological succession, a fundamental concept in ecology, refers to more or less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of anecological community. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe windthrow, logging) of an existing community. Succession that begins in areas where no soil is initially present is called primary succession, whereas succession that begins in areas where soil is already present is called secondary succession. The trajectory of ecological change can be influenced by site conditions, by the interactions of the species present, and by more stochastic factors such as availability of colonists or seeds, or weatherconditions at the time
would have dwelt probably on such factors as the invention of bicycle, motor-car, and flying- machine; the arrival of a cheap Press; the decline of country life and increase of the towns; the birth of the Cinema. Men are, in fact, quite unable to control their own inventions; they at best develop adaptability to the new conditions those inventions create. But this long tale is no scientific study of a period; it is rather an intimate incarnation of the disturbance that Beauty effects in the lives of men. The figure of Irene, never, as the reader may possibly have observed, present, except through the senses of other characters, is a concretion of disturbing Beauty impinging on a possessive world. One has noticed that readers, as they wade on through the salt waters of the Saga, are inclined more and more to pity Soames, and to think that in doing so they are in revolt against the mood of his creator. Far from it
The most suitable for the speed control is synchronous servo motor. Efficiency of the electrical drive is the power ratio of load to supply. Electromagnetic efficiency is measured in tesla. One of the first eletrical motors has been built by Jacobi. The best electrical drive has efficiency very high. Who studied electromagnetic field? Lomonosov/Gilbert/Coulomb/Oersted?? What kinds of disturbances affect the electrical drive behavior? The current is the motor response, not the disturbance. The external disturbances are the supply voltage and the counter-torque. Which components comprise the electrical drive? Which of them are mandatory and which are optional? The mains and the actuator (driven machine) are not the drive components. The drive includes, by all means, the motor and controller, and may additionally incorporate the power converter and gear. Test II In the very accurate drive, the over-speed is 1..10%.
excessive lacrimation, epiphora, blepharospasm, also photophobia may be beneficial to look for to recognize such cases (Angelos, 2018). Often at first one eye is affected, but nevertheless there can take place the cross-infection and both eyes may be involved. If both eyes are damaged, then the animal may be hesitant to move. At this stage there may also develop corneal ulceration (Brown et al., 1998). The cattle lose some weight because the decreased appetite and ocular discomfort or visual disturbance that results in inability to locate food. Calves with IBK lesions have decreased weaning weight by 15–30 lb compared with unaffected calves (Cullen et al., 2016). Recovery is different and individual variation occurs. Some stronger cattle recover spontaneously from the disease, leaving a scar, while in others the disease becomes chronic (Postma et al., 2007). Prevention and transmission. IBK caused by Moraxella bovis depends on both host and environmental factors. These
looduslikule arengule (nt kraavide kinniajamine) ● Tugihoole – tegevus, mis soodustab rikutud süsteemi iseregulatsioonivõime taastumist (nt kotkapesade alused) ● Tugiasustamine – uute isendite lisamine Olulised mõisted ökoloogilises taastamises Terviklikkus (integrity) – struktuuri toimimise kõigi põhiliste komponentide olemasolu Vastupanuvõime (resistance) – võime häiringutele (disturbance) vastu seista, nende mõjul mitte muutuda Taastuvus e taastumisvõime (resilience) – võime taastada pärast häiringut oma häiringueelne struktuur ja koosseis Taastumatuse murdepunkt – kriitiline piir, mille ületamisel süsteem ise enam ei säilu Suunisliigid (focal species) – annavad tõuke mingi ala või koosluse kaitseks ● tunnusliigid (indicator species) liigid, mille kohalolu või arvukuse muutus annab tunnistust mingist kvaliteedist (samblad)
sensitivity to oil pollution. Impact of oil on coastal activities The effects of a particular oil spill depend upon many factors, not least the properties of the oil. Contamination of coastal amenity areas is a common feature of many spills leading to public disquiet and interference with recreational activities such as bathing, boating, angling and diving. Hotel and restaurant owners, and others who gain their livelihood from the tourist trade can also be affected. The disturbance to coastal areas and to recreational pursuits from a single spill is comparatively short-lived and any effect on tourism is largely a question of restoring public confidence once clean-up is completed. Industries that rely on a clean supply of seawater for their normal operations can be adversely affected by oil spills. If substantial quantities of floating or sub-surface oil are drawn through intakes, contamination of the condenser tubes may result, requiring a reduction in output
nende levised (II) ja nende kättesaadavus maastikel See mis limiteerib liigirikkust sõltub produktiivsusest Data collected 4 years after sowing showed that plant invasion and diversity were seed limited in unproductive sites, but microsite limited in productive sites. Effects of sowing on plant diversity along the natural landscape gradient were paralleled by significant effects of sowing on measures of local plant production and community resilience to disturbance. 4 These results support the shifting limitations hypothesis (SLH) that landscape gradients in local plant diversity should reflect shifts in the major regulating factor, from species pools to local ecological processes, as one moves from sites of inherently low to inherently high productivity. 5 Our findings also indicate that diversity at the level of the available propagule pool acts to constrain ecosystem productivity and stability by mediating local community
ACCESSIBILITY AND DISABILITY Making Woodlands More Accessible. http://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/pdf/OPENspace_Disabled_access_Task1.pdf/$ FILE/OPENspace_Disabled_access_Task1.pdf 104 Kaitsealade külastuskoormuse hindamise juhend: seiremeetodite arendamine ja rakendamine Bennett V.J., Beard M., Zollner P.A., Fernandez-Juricic E., Westphal L., LeBlanc C.L. 2009. Understanding wildlife responses to human disturbance through simulation modelling: A management tool. Ecological Complexity 6 (2), 113-134. Blaustein, A.R., Wake, D.B. 1995. The puzzle of declining amphibian populations. Scientific American 272, 52-57. Blaustein, A.R. 1994. Chicken little or Nero’s fiddle: a perspective on declining amphibian populations. Herpetologica 50, 85-97. Cochran, W. G. 1963. Sampling techniques. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Cole, D.N. 2004
These may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic. They include conditions which have been referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia, etc… They do not include learning problems which are due primarily to visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, to mental retardation, emotional disturbance or to environmental deprivation." SLD: specific learning disability: häired ühes või mitmes baasilises psühholoogilises protsessis, mis on haaranud arusaamist (räägitud/kirjutatud kõne). Võivad põimuda kuulmise-, mõtlemise-, rääkimise-, lugemise-, kirjutamise ja arvutamise kahjustusega. Nendel lastel peab olema normintellekt. Emotsionaalsetel põhjustel mitte õppida oskav ei ole SLD. Õpiraskuste käsitlused tänapäeva Ameerika Ühendriikides ja Suurbritannias.
funktsionaalsed tunnused. Klassifitseerimise 3 põhisuunda: 1.Evolutsiooniline, eluvormide tekke uurimine (Goethe, Serebrjakov); 2.Kirjeldav (Raunkiaer) 3.Ökoloogiline (Ramenski, Grime, MacArhtur & Wilson jpt) Elustrateegiad: 1.r-strateegia - suur järglaste arv ja suhteliselt väike ressurrsside paigutamine ühte järglasse (järglasi on palju, nad on nõrgad ja väikesed). r- strateegid on üldiselt lühiealised ja leivnud kasvukohtades, mida iseloomustab sage häirimine (disturbance). Populatsioonidünaamikat iseloomustavad suured kõikumised. 2. K-strateegia- väike järglaste arv ja suur ressursside paigutamine ühte järglasse (järglasi on vähe, need on suured ja tugevad). Strateegia on kohastunud eluks stabiilses keskkonnas, ka konkurentsiks. Populatsioonidünaamika (arvukus) stabiilne. Taime kasvusrateegiad Grime`i järgi: S-taimed stressitaluvad taimed. Kohastunud eluks kohtades, kus on väga madal ressurside kättesaadavus või mõni muu väga tugev
seisukohad lahknesid. Molekuli ja aatomi mõisteid kasutati läbisegi. Üks juhtivaid atomismi kriitikuid, ainehulga mõiste, mooli, vermija, Tartu Ülikooli vilistlane ja Nobeli keemiapreemia laureaat W. Ostwald tunnistas hiljem, et veendus aatomite olemasolus Einsteini tööd lugedes. 6 "This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat, and other radiations if any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws.". James Clerk Maxwell. Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". 1865. 14 Järgnes orkaan peale tormi. 30. juunil ilmus Einsteini kolmas artikkel ,,Zur Elektrodynamik
the bad cells and put the bad prisoners in the good cells to thoroughly confuse them...this also served to break the solidarity of the prisoners and make them question each others’ loyalties (were they informers?) Prisoners also were denied the right to use the bathroom; after “lights out” at 10pm, they had to use the bathroom in a bucket and were sometimes denied the right to empty it out Vang Nr 8612 Prisoner #8612 began suffering from acute emotional disturbance. He wanted to leave but Zimbardo reacted like a prison governor. He offered him security if he became a snitch. #8612 began spreading a message among the prisoners that it was real and they couldn’t leave. The line between role play and reality became further blurred. #8612 began to act “crazy” to the extent that Zimbardo released him Salaplaanid
These may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic. - They include conditions which have been referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia, etc… - They do not include learning problems which are due primarily to visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, to mental retardation, emotional disturbance or to environmental deprivation." SLD: specific learning disability: häirekd ühes või mitmes baasilises psühholoogilises protsessid, mis on haaranud arusaamist, räägitud või kirjutatud kõne arusaamise. Võivad põimuda kuulmise- mõtlemise- rääkimise- lugemise- kirjutamise ja arvutamisekahjustusega. Need ei ole probleemid, mis tulenevad primaarselt nägemis- kuulmis-füüsilises kahjustusest või VAA. Nendel lastel peab olema normintellekt
30. Mander, Ü. 1994. Changes of landscape structure in Estonia during the Soviet period. GeoJournal. Vol 33, No 1, 45-54. 31. Mander, Ü., Palang, H., Tammiksaar, E., 1994. Landscape changes in Estonia during 20th century. Anelysis of Landscape Dynamics Driving Factors Related to Different Scales. EUROMAB Research Program. Germany, Leipzig-Halle. 73-95. 32. Miller, T.E. 1982. Community diversity and interactions between the size and frequency of disturbance. Am. Nat. 120: 533-563. 33. Oksanen, J. 1996. Is the humped relationship between species richness and biomass an artefact dues to plot size? J. Ecol. 84:293-295. 48 34. Paal, J. 1997. Eesti taimkatte kasvukohatüüpide klassifikatsioon. Tartu Ülikooli Botaanika ja Ökoloogia instituut, Tallinn. 35. Paal, J., Ilomets, M., Fremstad, E., Moen, A., Borset, E., Kuusemets, V., Truus, L., Leibak, E., 1999. Eesti märgalade inventeerimine 1997. a
radiating that arresting impression of powerful demand. "Mr. Cross," Mark said behind me. "Sorry about the entrance." "Don't be. It was a memorable one." I wobbled on my stilettos when Cross set me down, my knees weakened from the full body contact. He was dressed in black again, with both his shirt and tie in a soft gray. As always, he looked too good. What would it be like to be that amazing looking? There was no way he could go anywhere without causing a disturbance. Reaching out, Mark steadied me and eased me back gently. Cross's gaze stayed focused on Mark's hand at my elbow until I was released. "Right. Okay then." Mark pulled himself together. "This is my assistant, Eva Tramell." "We've met." Cross pulled out the chair next to his. "Eva." I looked to Mark for guidance, still recovering from the moments I'd spent plastered against the sexual superconductor in Fioravante.
unwillingly. I am sorry to have occasioned pain to anyone. It has been most unconsciously done, however, and I hope will be of short duration. The feelings which, you tell me, have long prevented the acknowledgment of your regard, can have little difficulty in overcoming it after this explanation." Mr. Darcy, who was leaning against the mantelpiece with his eyes fixed on her face, seemed to catch her words with no less resentment than surprise. His complexion became pale with anger, and the disturbance of his mind was visible in every feature. He was struggling for the appearance of composure, and would not open his lips till he believed himself to have attained it. The pause was to Elizabeth's feelings dreadful. At length, with a voice of forced calmness, he said: "And this is all the reply which I am to have the honour of expecting! I might, perhaps, wish to be informed why, with so little endeavour at civility, I am thus rejected. But it is of small importance."
↓ Sprinkle calcium carbonate. Mix for 1 min Vacuum pack in regular Vacuum pack in regular ↓ vacuum pouch bag vacuum pouch bag Sprinkle desired amount of GDL. Mix for ↓ ↓ additional 1 min Store at 4°C without Freeze at –5°C ↓ disturbance for 24 hrs to set ↓ Quickly vacuum pack in regular vacuum ↓ Dice using a band saw to pouch bag Crust or deep freeze desired size and shape ↓ ↓ ↓ shape Dice to desired size and
writing from her broomstick, "Surrender Dorothy!" T h e people back away in terror, leaving our heroes alone outside the W i z a r d s door. Message: It s good for heroes to go into the main event in a state of balance, with confidence tempered by humility and awareness of the danger. N o matter how hysterical the celebrations in Oz, they always seem to be damped by an appearance of the Witch, a real party pooper. She is a deep disturbance in Dorothys psyche which will ruin every pleasurable moment until dealt with decisively. T h e isolation of the heroes is typical. Like Gary Cooper trying to line up support from cowardly townspeople in High Noon, heroes may find good-time companions fading away when the going gets tough. ANOTHER THRESHOLD Our heroes knock at the W i z a r d s door and an even ruder sentry, another ringer for Professor Marvel, sticks his head out. H i s orders are "Not nobody, not nohow" is
keylength factorial. Shannon has also viewed cryptology from a couple of other perspectives, which, while not as useful as information theory, are enlightening. The first, in fact, is a kind of corollary to the information- theory view. "From the point of view of the cryptanalyst," Shannon wrote, "a secrecy system is almost identical with a noisy communication system." In information theory, the term "noise" has a special meaning. Noise is any unpredictable disturbance that creates transmission errors in any channel of communication. Examples are static on the radio, "snow" on a television screen, misprints, background chatter at a cocktail party, fog, a bad connection on the telephone, a foreign accent, perhaps even mental preconceptions. Shannon is suggesting that noise is analogous to encipherment. "The chief differences in the two cases," he wrote, "are: first, that the operation of
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