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Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis 2019 (0)

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Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis Kristjan Rannaäär Veterinary medicine, 2. year, 2. group Abstract Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is a highly contagious ocular disease and big  problem in cattle farms worldwide. It is the most common ocular disease of cattle caused by  bacteria Moraxella bovis. This study focuses on IBK despite having low mortality rate and  complete recovery, it causes significant loss of productivity in the herds affected due to the  costs of treatment and considerable impact on afflicted animals, including blindness. This  research is focused on the details, such as risk factors, pathogenesis, etiology, clinical signs  prevention, transmission, and treatment, which animal handlers should be aware of to  minimize the harm caused by IBK. Vaccination does not ensure lifelong immunity and not  prevent a primary and reinfection of the cattle. Therefore, it is necessary to keep the cattle in a healthy body condition to assure a high immunity level, which helps the body to defend itself  against the disease. This study is based on scientific articles from different magazines. The  purpose of the research is to learn more about IBK and how to handle it. IBK seems to be  hardly avoidable, but with right herding techniques it is possible to prevent huge outbreaks of  the disease. Introduction Infectious  bovine keratoconjunctivitis  (IBK) is one of the  most common  eye diseases  of cattle. Colloquially also known as pinkeye. It is contagious to all cattle breeds, but there are reported that it is more common in lighter-colored breeds, such as Hereford. IBK is a disease affecting cattle eye caused by the bacteria Moraxella bovis, which is a Gram-negative, rod- shaped bacterium and spread rapidly by direct contact or by insect vectors (Angelos, 2015). The disease has high morbidity rate, but it is rarely fatal. It causes a lot of pain and even 1


blindness   to   the   animal,   also   considerable   financial   losses   in   the   herds   because   of   the decreased weight gain, milk discard and costs of therapy (Postma et al., 2007). IBK can occur without clinical signs and bacteria can be cultured on the healthy cattle (Angelos, 2015). Problem   is   the   resistance   of  Moraxella   bovis  in   bovine   herds   and   the   establishment   of biofilms in the nasal cavity and eyes of ruminants without any sings of infection (Ely et al., 2017). Pathogenesis Moraxella bovis is a gram-negative bacillus causes IBK in cattle. The occurrence and clinical signs   depend   on   environment,   season   concurrent   pathogens,   host   immune   system   and Moraxella bovis  strain. The disease is highly contagious and can easily spread in the farm. Moraxella bovis is not capable to move but can cause the destruction of red blood cells (M.H. Brown et al. 1998). All Moraxella isolates of veterinary importance, including  Moraxella ovis, Moraxella bovis, and Moraxella bovoculi, have the ability to form biofilms. Researches have shown that biofilms are related to the chronicity because of the increased antimicrobial resistance and it is considerable defence mechanism for being washed away or destroyed by bovine tear secretions. One of the main defence factors in the bovine tear is lysozyme. Studies have shown that lysozyme have ability to reduce the production of biofilms, but do not have the capacity to destroy the preformed biofilms (Ely et al., 2017). In addition to the tear film there   are   other   protection   factors   such   as   epithelium,   phagocytic   cells,   local   secretory antibody. Cornea and conjunctiva epithelial surface are an effective barrier against bacteria invasion. Due to  the regeneration  of epithelial  cells  take  place  every  5-7 days, therefore microorganism must stick to cells in order to infect them, and this continuous turnover of epithelial cells slows down bacterial adhesion (Postma et al., 2007). In conclusion tear films are   likely   one   of   the   most   essential   mechanisms   to   avoid   fixation   and   colonization   by microorganisms in nature (Ely et al., 2017).  Etiology Moraxella bovis is the most common etiological agent isolated in chronic and severe instance of IBK. Some of the bacteria characteristics are responsible for taking crucial part to evolve the disease. Especially the components such as pili, discharge of cytotoxin and hemolysin, 2


also outer membrane proteins and lipopolysaccharides. The different virulence strains of the disease are associated with capsular pili. Pili is important structural attributes that helps the bacteria   to   adhere   to   the   corneal   surface.   Attachment   keeps   bacteria   safe   from   blinking activity of the eyelids and being washed off by the lachrymal secretions (Postma et al., 2007). The pilated strain of  Moraxella bovis  is the only form able to cause infection and clinical signs. Nonpilated forms do not cause infections. Moraxella bovis has some factors associated with   fibroblasts,   neutrophils   and   collagenase   release   from   epithelial   cells.     One   of   these factors  are  hydrolytic   enzymes  which   have  the  ability   to  degrade  lipids,  matrix   proteins, mucopolysaccharides may cause corneal ulcerations. There are also necrotizing and cytotoxic factors released by bacteria, that exterminates corneal epithelial cells.  Moraxella bovis  has ability to produce hemolysin and it is essential virulence factor of bacteria. Nonhemolytic strains are not so capable to cause IBK. The source of hemolytic isolates can be recovered when there is enough UV radiation (Brown et al., 1998).  Clinical signs The clinical occurrence, stability of infection, animal condition and rate of progression of the disease will be different from individual to individual (Postma et al., 2007). The disease usually is acute and tends to spread rapidly in all species, specially Hereford or Hereford- crossbred cattle are more sensitive to the disease (Angelos, 2015). Earliest references of the disease are involuntary tight closure of the eyelids also known as blepharospasm, extreme sensitivity to light (photophobia) and copious watery ocular discharge, what soon becomes purulent. There also may be present abnormally large amount of blood in conjunctiva besides edematous and blepharitis may be present. These sings are also visible on the figure 1. During 24–48 h after the beginning of clinical signs, then there develops cloudiness, usually in the centre of the cornea and continues  to spread over the whole cornea (Postma et al., 2007). 3


Figure 1  IBK damage in a calf eye. Early IBK lesions can be quite small and difficult to identify. On the figure you can notice fluorescein dye uptake at 6 o`clock, this shows the characteristic   of   a   foreign   body.   In   addition,   other   clinical   signs   can   be   found   such   as excessive lacrimation, epiphora, blepharospasm, also photophobia may be beneficial to look for to recognize such cases (Angelos, 2018) . Often at first one eye is affected, but nevertheless there can take place the cross-infection and both eyes may be involved. If both eyes are damaged, then the animal may be hesitant to move. At this stage there may also develop corneal ulceration (Brown et al., 1998). The cattle lose some weight because the decreased appetite and ocular discomfort or visual disturbance that  results  in  inability  to  locate   food. Calves  with  IBK lesions  have  decreased   weaning weight   by   15–30   lb   compared   with   unaffected   calves   (Cullen   et   al.,   2016).   Recovery   is different and individual variation occurs. Some stronger cattle recover spontaneously from the disease, leaving a scar, while in others the disease becomes chronic (Postma et al., 2007). Prevention and transmission. IBK   caused   by  Moraxella   bovis  depends   on  both   host   and   environmental   factors.   These bacteria are very resistant, so bacteria can remain on the farm probably in carrier animals from year to year. The susceptibility of Moraxella bovis is increased by factors such as high stocking density, close confinement of animals in barns, host immune system, the presence of flies,  Moraxella   bovis  strain,   movement   of   stock   through   long   grass,   ultraviolet   solar radiation, pasture conditions and stress factors (Postma et al., 2007). Research have shown 4


that Moraxella bovis infection is growing step by step in spring and summer, when the there are highest values of ultraviolet radiation. The only known reservoir for Moraxella bovis are cattle (Brown et al., 1998). The bacteria are mainly transmitted by farm works or by direct animal-to-animal   contact   with   fomites,   nasal   and   ocular   secretion,   but   most   often   by mechanical vectors (Postma et al., 2007). One of the most active vectors are face fly, barn fly and the house fly, who can transport the bacteria to the cattle. The organism may live on the insect for up to 3 days. Therefore, it is recommended to use face dust bags, back rubbers and insecticide-impregnated ear tags (Brown et al., 1998). Some breeds are more susceptible than others. For example, Hereford cattle have noticeably higher risk to get infected compared with other breeds. The reason is about the eyelid pigmentation and decreased antibacterial efficacy of the tear (Postma et al., 2007). Study shows that younger animals were more susceptible to the disease than adults, it is also easily noticeable on the table 1. This research was performed in 11 dairy farms and one cattle cross-breeding farm in different parts of Aris region, south- east Ethiopia. Most cases of morbidity were observed among under one-year old animals shown on the table  1. This is probably because young animals  do not have so effective immune   system   and   they   do   not   have   previous   exposure   with   this   disease   (Takele   and Zerihun, 2000).  Table 1 The severity of infectious keratoconjunctivitis in various age groups of dairy cattle in south-east Ethiopia (Takele and Zerihun, 2000). IBK-Affected age group (years) Disease servity Number of animals <1 1-2 2-3 >3 Mild 39 21 8 5 5 Moderate 43 18 12 9 4 Severe 28 12 10 4 2 Total 110 51 30  18  11 To control bacteria spreading, there are some resort such as mowing high pasture grass, a durable   and   clean   shelter,   fly   control   programs,   controlling   dust   and   sources   of   other mechanical trauma, healthy and infected animals must be separately (Peek and Divers, 2018).  There is opportunity to decrease severity, incidence and increase host immunity via the use of vaccination against the disease. It is known that only pilated strains of Moraxella bovis can cause IBK in cattle. These are used killed Moraxella bovis cells as component in vaccine and it have been shown to be antigenetic and immunogenic. Vaccine efficacy against pinkeye is 5


very different. The effectiveness of the vaccines depends on the vaccine type, the similarity of the vaccine organism to the challenge organism, bacteria strains and other components to formulate the vaccine. Efforts to develop perfect vaccine is laborious due to the loss of pili during the cultivation. Lipopolysaccharides, outer membrane proteins, lipolytic enzymes and proteases in are also important components in the development of effective acellular vaccines against IBK (Prietoa et al., 2008). Treatment Thorough examination of the cattle`s eye preferably should take place with restrained in a chute with halter to get proper animal head position. During such examination of the eye look for the existence of foreign bodies, clinical signs and anything unusual. To avoid bacteria spreading, then it is important to stick to biosafety rules. It is hardly recommended to wear nonabsorbing protective clothes and gloves, because it is hard to avoid contact with ocular secretions and epiphora harbouring bacteria, when handlers and veterinarians are doing close- up examination.  Moraxella bovis  can easily infuse into the clothing of farmers performing such check-ups. Hands, clothing and tools used to examine the eye should be disinfected after next research of the animal (Angelos, 2018). Cattle can recover without treatment, but it is different individually. Some more stronger cattle recover spontaneously from the disease, while in others the disease becomes chronic (Postma et al., 2007). However, animals with no clinical signs can infect healthy animals, therefore animal handlers should be careful and take it into account. To avoid spreading over the farm then it is important to focus on the recovery and animal welfare (Angelos, 2018). Powders and dyes are not recommended to cure IBK because of the crystal structure, what cause irritation and lacrimation. As well oral drugs are not   eligible   if   infected   animals   are   not   separated.   Most   often   are   used   subconjunctival, intramuscular, intravenous and subcutaneous antibiotics (Brown et al., 1998). Studies show that most effective and best for healing time are antibiotics such as penicillin, florfenicol and cloxacillin   indicate   active   treatment   reduces   healing   time   compared   with   placebo.   Two cloxacillin dosages of 20 mg/kg should be administered via intramuscular or subcutaneous 72 hours   apart.   Florfenicol,   given   once   subcutaneously   (40   mg/kg)   or   twice   2   days   apart intramuscularly (20 mg/kg) to experimentally infected calves. On the figure 2 are shown the recovery processes, when the florfenicol is used to heal the pink eye (Angelos, 2015). 6


Figure 2 Progression of eye healing during 77-days. When the first clinical sings were noticed the calf was treated with florfenicol (40 mg/kg SC). Although the eye healed, unfortunately calf was permanently blind in the affected eye (Angelos, 2018). Using several antibiotics together in the treatment is not recommended for economic reason to avoid antimicrobial resistance.  Moraxella bovis  is usually considered to be influenced  by different   antibiotics.   IBK  Moraxella   bovis  is   normally   very   susceptible   and   should   be disturbed by every single-drug therapy (Angelos, 2018). Also, it is recommended to use eye- patches to avoid the irritation from sunlight, dust and flies. Direct sunlight is very annoying and painful to a pink-eye affected animal. Patches help to reduce the pain, so animals feel more comfortable,  reducing the  weight  loss caused by pinkeye  (Peek and Divers,  2018). When   the   ocular   secretion   is   increased   and   other   clinical   signs   are   getting   worse,   then treatment failure should be considered. Therefore, if the specific antibiotic treatment does not show any sign of recovery then it is necessary to collect ocular samples for bacterial culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing. There is also surgical treatment opportunity in cases which ulceration appears or if the eye is badly damaged by disease (Angelos, 2018). 7


Conclusion  Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) should be considered a serious disease, because despite having quite low mortality rate among cattle worldwide, it has quite high morbidity rate. The disease causes discomfort to the cattle and considerable financial losses to dairy industries because of decreased weight gain and milk production. Farmers should consider all the risk factors which cause cattle poor body condition and low immunity level, such as poor- quality nutrition and contamined shelter.  Moraxella bovis  being an extremely resistant and possibly remaining many years in farm, then IBK becomes a hardly avoidable disease and strong immunity helps the body to resist. To avoid spreading over the farm then it is important to focus on the biosafety, animal recovery and welfare.  There are many opportunities for cattle breeders to avoid and reduce exposure with Moraxella bovis. For example, they should separate   affected   animals   from   healthy   cattle   and   face   flies   should   be   controlled   using insecticides. However, it the signs of the disease is discovered, such as eye irritation with tears, severe inflammation, blood in eye, cloudiness, then it is important to start with the treatment process as soon as possible to avoid the worse.  8


References  Angelos, J. A. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (Pinkeye). Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 2015, 31, 61-79. Brown,   M.   H.,   Brightman,   A.   H.,   Fenwick,   B.   W.,   Rider,   M.   A.   Infectious   bovine keratoconjunctivitis: a review. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 1998, 12, 259–266. Cullen, J. N., Yuan, C., Totton, S., Dzikamunhenga, R., Coetzee, J. F., da Silva, N., Wang, C., O’Connor,   A.   M.   A   systematic   review   and   meta-analysis   of   the   antibiotic   treatment   for infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis: an Update. Animal Health Research Reviews, 2016, 17, 60–75. Ely,   V.   L.,   Vargas,   A.   C.,   Costa,   M.   M.,   Oliveira,   H.   P.,   Potter,   L.,   Reghelin,   M.   A., Fernandes, A. W., Pereira, D. I. B., Sangioni, L. A., Botton, S. A. Moraxella bovis, Moraxella ovis  and  Moraxella bovoculi: biofilm formation and lysozyme activity. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2018, 126, 369-376. Peek, F. S., Divers, J. T. Ocular Diseases. Rebhun's Diseases of Dairy Cattle: Third Edition. Saint Louis: Elsevier, 2018, 668-712.  Postma,  G. C., Carfagnini,  J. C., Minatel, L.  Moraxella  bovis  pathogenicity:  An Update. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 2008, 31, 449–458. Prietoa,   C.   I.,   Boscha,   A.,   Zielinski,   G.,   Cúneoa,   J.,   Yantornoa,   O.   M.   Vaccine   against infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis: A new approach to optimize the production of highly piliated Moraxella bovis cells. Vaccine, 2008, 26, 6542–6549. Takele, G., Zerihun, A. Epidemiology of Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis in Cattle in South- east Ethiopia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 2000, 47, 169–173. 9
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Extended essay: To what extent does a plant-based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease?

Extended Essay Research Question: To What Extent Does a Plant Based Diet Lower the Risk of Coronary Artery Disease? Subject: Biology Word Count: 3482 Abstract: Because there has been much debate over whether plant based diets are beneficial or not, I’m willing to learn more about it and since there’s eligible data available on the effects of vegetarian/vegan diets on cardiovascular diseases, my research question is formed accordingly: To what extent does a plant based diet lower the risk of coronary artery disease? The importance of this study lies in my own curiosity and my desire to acquire further knowledge on the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease. In this investigation I will study two similar prospective studies on plant based diets and cardiovascular diseases, mainly coronary artery disease, to find out if the outcomes of one have anything common

Inglise keel
A short overview of veganism
18
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A short overview of veganism

A short overview of veganism Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from What is the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the veganism? commodity status of animals. Eating vegan has a number of benifits that include: Why do Improving one`s health people go Helping the environment vegan? Saving the animals Our planeet is tumoil, humans are ailing in health, and animals are suffering everyday, but that can be fixed by simply going vegan, if you should be interested in contrbuting. So what? A vegan diet benifits everything and everyone on ? our planeet Simple changes in your diet and lifestyle can make a huge impact for yourself and the planeet we live on. Processed meat was rightfully demonized as contributing to rising cancer rates by the world

Inglise keel
Rational Use of Diagnostic Tests
3
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Rational Use of Diagnostic Tests

Rational Use of Diagnostic Tests Screening tests Diagnostic tests are often used to screen asymptomatic patients and identify risk factors for occult disease. Screening tests should be generally noninvasive, inexpensive, and of minimal risk to the patient. Screening tests should have high diagnostic sensitivity, which means few false negative results would be expected, as the goal of testing is to rule out the presence of disease. Screening tests should be used to screen for diseases that (1) have serious consequences if left undetected, (2) are reasonably prevalent within the population, and (3) have treatment options readily available. Should a positive result be obtained, a more accurate, confirmatory test should then be performed. One example of a screening test would be the urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio (Cort:Crt)u, which is used to screen symptomatic patients for canine hyperadrenocorticism.[1,2] The (Cort:Crt)u ratio tests for the presence or absence of u

Inglise keel
Biogas – The source of future energy
26
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Biogas – The source of future energy

Tartu Miina Härma gymnasium Biogas ­ The source of future energy Report Tartu 2010 Table of Contents Introduction......................................................................................................... What is biogas?................................................................................................... Producing process............................................................................................... Nowadays............................................................................................................ Areas where biogas is used in............................................................................. Biogas as replacement of fuel.......................................................................... Other benefits..................................................................................................... Healt

Inglise keel
MRSA
10
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MRSA

MRSA: Understand your risk and how to prevent infection James Steckelberg, M.D. MRSA - or methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus - has been a problem in hospital and health care settings for years. But this highly drug-resistant bacterium has gained attention in recent years for its role in several deaths among otherwise healthy school-age athletes. Are MRSA infections on the rise? What are the real risks of MRSA infection for you or your child? And what can you do to protect against MRSA infection? James Steckelberg, M.D., an infectious disease specialist at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn., answers these and other common questions about MRSA. What is MRSA, and why is it sometimes referred to as a "superbug"? · MRSA in hospitals. MRSA infection is caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria - often called "staph." Many years ago, a strain of staph emerged in hospitals that was resistant to the broad-spectrum antibiotics commonly used to treat it. Dubbed

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