Aristoteles (470-399 e.m.a) : väidete struktuur kui iseseisev uurimisobjekt 1967- IBM builds the first floppy disk Süllogism (Aristoteles): 1967 - Seymour Papert designed LOGO as a computer language for children. 1. eeldus: iga x on y. 1968 - Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore found Intel Corporation 2. eeldus: mõni z on x. 1968 - Douglas C. Engelbart, of the Stanford Research Institute, demonstrates järeldus: mõni z on y. his system of keyboard, keypad, mouse, and windows at the Joint Computer Iga b on a Conference in San Francisco's Civic Center
tõesed järeldused. Deduktsiooniks nimetatakse ka deduktiivse arutluse esitamist või arutlemist, mida vaadeldakse deduktiivset arutlust järgivana. 5 3. 1947 Bell Telephone Laboratories, William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen demonstrate their new invention of the point-contact transistor amplifier. Punkt-kontakt transistor võimendi. 1949 Maurice Wilkes assembled the EDSAC, the first practical stored-program computer, at Cambridge University. 1950 Engineering Research Associates of Minneapolis built the ERA 1101, the first commercially produced computer; the company's first customer was the U.S. Navy. 1951 The UNIVAC I delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau was the first commercial computer to attract widespread public attention. Although manufactured by Remington Rand, the machine often was mistakenly referred to as the "IBM UNIVAC." Remington Rand eventually sold 46
programm, mille tehnoloogia põhines vaakumtorudel 1950 ERA esimene avalikult esitletud arvuti 1951 UNIVAC I esimene arvuti, mis võitis avalikkuse tähelepanu 1962 võidab esimest korda programm inimest kabemängus. 1952 Heinz Nixdorf asutas Nixdorf Computer corp. Saksamaal hiljem 1990 ühines Siemensiga 1953 esimene elektrooniline arvuti 701 1954 Texas Instruments teatab silikoon transistorite tootmisest Logic Theorist is a computer program written in 1955 and 1956 by Allen Newell, Herbert Simon and J. C. Shaw.Newell, Simon and Shaw went on to construct the General Problem Solver, or GPS. The first version of GPS ran in 1957 1955 William Shockley leiutab Shockley pooljuhi 1956 IBM leiutab esimese kõvaketta RAMAC 305 5 MB 1956 valmib esimene transistorpõhine arvuti 1957 Fortran (Formula Translator) 1960 IBM avab masstootmishoone; AT&T esimene avalikult müüdav modem; COBOL üks vanimatest
Sissejuhatus infotehnoloogiasse 1. Loeng Algoritm on täpne samm-sammuline, kuid mitte tingimata formaalne juhend millegi tegemiseks. Näited: a. Toiduretsept. b. Juhend ruutvõrrandi lahendamiseks Algoritmiline probleem - probleem, mille lahenduse saab kirja panna täidetavate juhendite loeteluna. Programm on formaalses, üheselt mõistetavas keeles kirja pandud algoritm. Arvutid suudavad täita ainult programme. Analoogsüsteem andmeid salvestatakse (peegeldatakse) proportsionaalselt Näit: termomeeter, vinüülplaat, foto Digitaalsüsteem (pidevad) andmed lõhutakse üksikuteks tükkideks, mis salvestatakse eraldi Näit: CD, arvutiprogramm, kiri tähtede ja bittidena Ühelt teisele: digitaliseerimine The three major comparisons of computers are: Electronic computers versus Mechanical computers
1867 “Type writer” sholes,glidden,soule. function sumto(n: in INTEGER) ütle, et A ei ole tõsi!). Siis ei saa väide A ise olla 1986 – NNTP – uudised liiguvad TCP/IP return INTEGER is vale. Tõepoolest, kui A oleks vale, siis A sisu 1879 Kaasaegse loogika alus: Gottlob sum : INTEGER := 0; kohaselt peaks A olema tõestatav. Kuna me valesid (interneti) kaudu;inteli 80386
Programm on kommunikatsioonivahendid.2.Loob liidese failidele 1822 Babbage,Ada Lovelace(I programmeerija). Eestis 90a epost,USENET formaalses, üheselt mõistetavas keeles kirja ja riistvararessurssidele.3.Seostab kõik protsessid, pandud algoritm. Arvutid suudavad täita ainult failid jm omanikuga ja piirab protsesside 1837 Morse elektritelegraaf. 1990 TBL browser NeXTil,HTML ja www, programme..Analoogsüsteem - andmeid pöördumise failide/ressursside poole vastavalt
htm Loe läbi jutt ja proovi andmetega mängida: http://math.hws.edu/TMCM/java/DataReps/index.html Kahend süsteemi arvu(101101001) ->kümnend süsteemiks. Nr sisse ja bianarile punkt, ja vaatan base ten integeri kümnendarvudest annab Ecki appletis juuresoleva graafilise kujutise, teen kujundi ja vaatan base integeri mis vastab kahendsüsteemi arvule 1110001 ASCII tabelis? Nr sisse ja punkt bianari, vaatan ...teksti Kümnendsüsteemi arv 33 on kahendsüsteemis? 33 kirjutan ja Base-ten integer, vaatan bianary Loe läbi jutud Atbashi ja Caesari šifri (Caesar cipher) kohta: http://www.wikipedia.org 2 Tutvu ajalooga kuni 1970ndad: http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist/ 47-68 inglise keelne http://www.epemag.com/zuse/ konrad Zusest http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I räägib The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator Tee läbi Ecki laborid: http://math.hws.edu/TMCM/java/labs/xTuringMachineLab.html Noo ei saa aru
ABC computer 1939-1942 , Atanasoff-Berry esimene elektronarvuti Esimene transistor - 1947 EDSAC 1949, esimene praktiline stored-program arvuti, programmid olid aukudega peberiribadel ERA 1101 1950 ESIMENE KOMMERTS-TOOTMISES ARVUTI, hoidis bitte magneetilises trumlis, lõpuks suutsid kuni 4000 sõna hoida UNIVAC I 1951 Esimene kommerts-tootmises arvutis, mis äratas suurt tähelepanu, 46 masinat müüdi, 1 million dollarit tükk, Remington Rand tootis Prinz´s chess program -1951 Stratchey checkers program 1952 IBM saadab välja oma esimese elektroonilise arvuti 1953, nimi: (IBM) 701 Texas Instruments alustab silikon-transistoride kommerts-tootmist 1954 Shockley Semiconductor 1955 asutati Arthur Samuel 1955, õpetas Stratchey programmi põhjal tehtud programmi ise õppima, 1962 võitis see programm Connecticuti tsempionit ühe korra ja siis sai 6 korda järjest pähe. IBM toodab/arendab esimese kõvaketta 1956, 5MB mälu FORTRAN 1957, IBM
1889-1951Ludwig Wittgenstein. 1938, Shannon'i magistritöö sidus: Boole algebra. Elektrilülitid ja -skeemid. Bitid ja info kodeerimise. Info otsimise algoritmid.1939-1942 Atanasoff. esimene elektronarvuti?1939-44 Mark I (Aiken) IBMi elektriline(releed)digitaalne arvuti(5t).1941-1944:Konrad Zuse. Z3, Z4. Releedega digitaalarvuti.1948 I transistor(Shockley)- müüma hakkas Bell Corp.1949 - Maurice Wilkes koostas EDSAC, the first practical stored-program computer, at Cambridge University.1950 ERA 1101(I kommerts comp);ALGOL 58/60: Hoare, Perlis, Dijkstra, Kurtz, ..., Kotli;BCPL derivative of ALGOL (Strachey);B simplified derivative of BCPL (Ken Thompson);C derivative of B (Dennis & Ritchie).1952 - Nixdorf Computer Corp, liitus 1990 Siemensiga. 1953 - IBMi first electronic computer, the 701, Speedcoding: John Backus. 1956 - IBM develops the first hard disk, the RAMAC 305(math 5mb).
Bit Eksam/ EksamBitt 1 or 0 Byte Eksam/ EksamBait 8 Bits Kilobait Eksam(KB) 1 024 Bytes Megabait Eksam(MB) 1 024 KB kuidas Eksamtähti Eksamkodeeritakse: ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchain) 8bit = 16 * 8 = 128 märki EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) 8bit, IBM UNICODE (Extended ASCII) (utf-8), 1Byte for first 128, up to 4B for the rest~143 859 märki algoritm Eksam- Eksamtäpne samm-sammuline juhend millegi tegemiseks programm Eksam- Eksamformaalses üheselt mõistetavas keeles kirja pandud algoritm Ajaloost: Kreeka Eksamloogikud Parmenides (5 sajand e.m.a.) : kasutas pikki loogilisi põhjendusi. Zenon EksamEleast (5 sajand e.m.a.) -apooriad/paradoksid Sofistid -Sokrates (470-399 e.m.a) -Platon (428/427 -348/347 e.m.a)
1. nädal • Eksamiks: pead teadma suuruse-numbreid ja mida nad tähendavad: bitt, bait, kilobait, megabait jne; oskad selgitada, kuidas tähti kodeeritakse, mis on algoritm ja mis programm. Ajaloost: Kreeka loogikud, induktsioon, deduktsioon, süllogismid, lausearvutus (pead mh oskama tõeväärtustabelit koostada), Pascal, Leibniz, perfokaardid, kangasteljed, Babbage, Hollerith, colossus ja saksa krüptomasinad, Turing, Shannon, Zuse, esimesed programmeeritavad arvutid. Algoritm – täpne samm-sammuline, kuid mitte tingimata formaalne juhend millegi tegemiseks. Nt toiduretsept, juhend ruutvõrrandi lahendamiseks. Programm – formaalses, üheselt mõistetavas keeles kirja pandud algoritm. Arvutid suudavad täita ainult programme. Bitt – info mõõtmise ühik, tuleb mõistest binary digit – nö kahendarv kahe võimaliku väärtusega 0 ja 1. Saab näidata kahte võimalikku olekut. Nibble - 4 bitti.
A... AA Auto Answer AAA Authentication, Authorization and Accounting AAB All-to-All Broadcast AAC Advanced Audio Coding AACS Advanced Access Control System AAL Asynchronous Transfer Mode Adaption Layer AAM Automatic Acoustic Management AAP Applications Access Point [DEC] AARP AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol AAS All-to-All Scatter AASP ASCII Asynchronous Support Package AAT Average Access Time AATP Authorized Academic Training Program [Microsoft] .ABA Address Book Archive (file name extension) [Palm] ABAP Advanced Business Application Programming [SAP] ABC * Atanasoff-Berry Computer (First digital calculating machine that used vacuum tubes) ABEND Abnormal End ABI Application Binary Interface ABIOS Advanced BIOS ABIST Automatic Built-In Self-Test [IBM] ABLE Adaptive Battery Life Extender + Agent Building and Learning Environment [IBM] ABM Asynchronous Balanced Mode ABR Available Bit Rate
XX sajand elektronarvuti sünd ARVUTITE KOLM PÕLVKANDA II. Põlvkond transistor arvutid I. põlvkond lamparvutid III. Põlvkond integraalskeemidel põhinevad arvutid Tarkvara areng koos põlvkondadega I Jäiga ühe programmi täitmisega II multitöö ja katkestused, programmeerimiskeeled III OS keerukad programmeerimiskeeled ja andmebaasid IBM 701 1952 1958 Invention of the IC by Jack Kilbyat Texas Instruments IBM 360-40 1964 First microprocessor: Intel 4004 1971 The first commercial 4-bit microprocessor 4004: -2,300 transistors -10 µm features -10 mm2 die -108 kHz kHz 1974... Intel releases its 2MHz 8080 chip, an 8bit microprocessor. It can access 64KB of memory. It uses 6000 transistors, based on 6micron technology. Speed is 0.64 MIPS. In a desperate act to save his failing calculator company, MITS company owner Ed Roberts begins building a small
1. variant: 1) Mis kümnendil tehti transistor? Kas oskad nimetada ühe transistori tegija nime? 1947 a -William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John 7) Kus kohas kasutatakse algoritmi Minimax (või selle varianti Alpha-Beta)? Mida see Bardeedemonstrate algoritm teeb? 2) Mis firma hakkas esimesena tegema SQL andmebaase A minimax algorithm[3] is a recursive algorithm for choosing the next move in an n- vms? 1970 IMB player game, usually a two-player game. Valib välja kõige minimaalse ja kasulikuma 3) Mis aastal rajati Intel Corporation? Nimeta yks käigu.
Samuel: 1952, esimene AI programm(kabe) Shockley semiconductor: 1955, William Shockley -----> Fairchild Semiconductors 1957 Fortran: 1957, FORmula TRANslator, proge keel mis kasutab loope Sage: 1958, sõjaväe radarivõrk Texas instruments: 1954 - esimesed silikon transistorid, hiljem integraal skeem. Integraalskeem: 1958, Kilby, esimesed integraalskeemid Cobol: 1960, common business oriented language Lisp: 1960, AI jaoks proge keel Pdp-1: 1960, esimene ekraaniga arvuti, DEC poolt tehtud System 360: 1964, IBM, arvuti Moore’i seadus: Transistorite arv kiibis double’b iga 2 aastaga Intel: 1968, Gordon Moore Amd: 1969, Sanders Engelbart: Arvuti hiir Unix: 1969, AT&T UNIX op systeem Esimene mikroprotsessor: 1971, 4004 microprocessor, esimene protsessor
has accounted for 72% of global cumulative shipments, compared to 16% for the GameCube and 12% for the Xbox. NPDFunworld (http://www.npdfunworld.com/) reported that console game sales in 2002 rose by about 20% over the record US$9.4 billion in 2001. Individual game sales are also increasing: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City from Take Two Interactive sold 1 Games Programming with Java and Java 3D an estimated 3 million copies in its first month of release. This game is likely to become the best selling title of 2002, and of all time. 1.2. Console Hardware Since consoles are so central to gaming, it is interesting to consider their capabilities. The PlayStation 2 processor runs with a clock speed of 294 MHz, has 32Mb of RAM, and a separate graphics chip that can render about 66 million polygons per second. The small amount of RAM is an important constraint upon games wishing to use Java.
1. OBJECT-ORIENTED PARADIGM The Model •The model defines an abstract view to the problem. This implies that the model focuses only on problem related stuff and that you try to define properties of the problem. These properties include: 1 •the data which are affected and 2 •the operations which are identified by the problem. Object-oriented Paradigm •Everything is an object •A program is a bunch of objects telling each other what to do by sending messages •Each object has its own memory made up of other objects •Every object has a type •All objects of a particular type can receive the same messages Domain Model •A domain model does not represent the entire domain as it is in the real world. It includes only the concepts that are needed to support the application. Object •Is a partitioned area of memory where object code is stored •The area of memory is protected
The idea of an intelligent information rich building model is not new. The identity of BIM dates back nearly 30 years, while the terminology of the “Building Information Model” has been in circulation for at least 15 years. Mass production and standardization that dominated the 20th century steel industry, is now, as a result of the proliferation of 3D computer aided design and manufacturing tools, turning into mass customization. The first notable steel structure to utilize 3D modeling was a copper-clad fish sculpture designed by Frank Gehry for Barcelona’s 1992 Olympic village. A key reason for Gehry’s adaptation of digital tools was the increasingly difficult task of describing the innovative new designs to the contractor. His complex three-dimensional forms, when represented in traditional two-dimensional plans, 2D sections, and 2D elevations appear to be even more complex (Lindsey, 2001).
There are two manuals describing the setup and operation of the CPM1A: the CPM1A Operation Manual (this manual) and the CPM1/CPM1A/CPM2A/ CPM2C/SRM1(-V2) Programming Manual (W353). This manual describes the system configuration and installation of the CPM1A and provides a basic explanation of operating procedures for the Programming Consoles. It also introduces the capabilities of the SYSMAC Support Software (SSS). Read this manual first to acquaint yourself with the CPM1A. The CPM1/CPM1A/CPM2A/CPM2C/SRM1(-V2) Programming Manual (W353) provides detailed descriptions of the CPM1A’s programming functions. The SYSMAC Support Software Operation Manu- als: Basics and C-series PCs (W247 and W248) provide descriptions of SSS operations for the CPM1A and other SYSMAC C-series PCs. The SYSMAC-CPT Support Software Quick Start Guide (W332) and
C o clou o l d I T opportu I 0 Academic essay (ITI0103) 2019 spring Introduction “Data is Everything and Everyone is Data. “[1] The ability to collect, organize, structure and analyse data on a large scale is probably the most significant trait that sets us, humans, apart from our primate friends. [1] To comprehend the opportunities and threats regarding big data located within the cloud, one must first realize the essence of them. Big data is not only what its name says, but it is also so much more. What is Big data? Big data is a term, which is used to describe a broad spectrum of concepts: from the technological ability to collect, aggregate, and process data, to the cultural shift that is pervasively invading industry and society, both drowning in information overload. [2] Big data can be described by the following properties: - Volume
järgmise ruuterini. Kiirus sõltub edastusmeediast ja jääb vahemikku 2*10^8 – 3*10^8 m/s. Kui d on kahe ruuteri vaheline kaugus ja s edastuskiirus, siis viide on d/s. Millisekundites. 14. Arvutivõrkude ja interneti ajalugu * 1961 – 1972 – the development of packet switching. 1961 – Kleinrock – queuing theory shows effectiveness of packet-switching 1964 – Baran – packet-switching in military nets 1967 – ARPAnet conceived by Advanced Research Projects Agency 1969 – first ARPAnet node operational 1972 – ARPAnet demonstrated publicly, first e-mail program * 1972 – 1980 – Internetworking, new and proprietary nets 1970 – ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii 1973 – Metcalfe’s PhD thesis proposes Ethernet 1974 – Cerf and Kahn – architecture for interconnecting networks * 1980 – 1990 – new protocols, a poliferation of networks 5
GRAMMAR GRAMMAR BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR Book 1 Book 1 Younger students at beginning to intermediate levels will greatly benefit from this step-by-step approach to English grammar basics. This is the ideal supplement to your language arts program whether your students are native English speakers or beginning English language learners. Skill-specific lessons make it easy to locate and prescribe instant reinforcement or intervention. · Illustrated lessons are tightly focused on core concepts of grammar · Nearly 70 practice exercises are included for ready reinforcement · A wealth of examples are provided on every topic · Concise explanations are bolstered by extra grammar tips and useful language notes
Philosophy of Language Philosophy of Language: a Contemporary Introduction introduces the student to the main issues and theories in twentieth and twenty-first-century phi- losophy of language, focusing specifically on linguistic phenomena. Topics are structured in four parts in the book. Part I, Reference and Referring, includes topics such as Russell's Theory of Descriptions, Donnellan's distinction, problems of anaphora, the description theory of proper names, Searle's cluster theory, and the causalhistorical theory. Part II, Theories of Meaning, surveys the competing theories of linguistic mean- ing and compares their various advantages and liabilities. Part III, Pragmatics
HECHO EN CHICAGO, U.S.A. SIGNET, SIGNET CLASSICS, SIGNETTE, MENTOR AND PLUME BOOKS are published by The New American Library, Inc., 1301 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10019 FIRST PRINTING, FEBRUARY, 1973 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA To my Parents and my Grandmother Contents A Note on the Abridged Version Preface A Few Words 1. One Day of Magic: I 2. One Day of Magic: II 3. The First 3,000 Years 4. The Rise of the West 5. On the Origin of a Species 6. The Era of the Black Chambers 7. The Contribution of the Dilettantes 8. Room 40 9. A War of Intercepts 10. Two Americans 11. Secrecy for Sale 12. Duel in the Ether: I 13. Duel in the Ether: II 14. Censors, Scramblers, and Spies 15. The Scrutable Orientals 16. PYCCKAJI Kranrojioras 17. N.S.A. 18. Heterogeneous Impulses 19. Ciphers in the Past Tense 20. The Anatomy of Cryptology Suggestions for Further Reading Index
5 The thief grabbed my bag and ran The photos are connected with the 1B Past and perfect tenses off. topic of school. Both photos show page 4 6 He dropped a leaf into the water students in class. In the first photo I imagine that 1 1 ate and watched it drift under the they're about 13 years old. 2 have/'ve met bridge. It looks like a science lesson 3 have/'ve caught 7 As she got older, her health
Trickster 77 BOOK T W O : Stages of the Journey 81 Ordinary W o r l d 83 Call to Adventure 99 Refusal of the Call 107 Meeting with the M e n t o r 117 Crossing the First Threshold 127 Tests, Allies, Enemies 135 Approach to the Inmost Cave 143 T h e Ordeal 155 Reward 175 T h e R o a d Back 187 T h e Resurrection 197
In a re- lated vein, the book might be seen as a way to demonstrate that, properly presented, what often seems like dry science can actually prove to be lively, useful, and relevant to all readers' personal lives. Comment on the Fifth Edition of Influence: Science and Practice It has been some time since Influence was last published. In the interim, some things have happened that deserve a place in this new edition. First, we now know more about the influence process than before. The study of persuasion, compli- ance, and change has advanced, and the pages that follow have been adapted to re- flect that progress. In addition to an overall update of the material, I have devoted special attention to updated coverage of popular culture and new technology, as well as to research on cross-cultural social influence-how the influence process works similarly or differently in various human cultures
Engineering, Technion Israel Institute of Technology Consultant: Roode Liias- Professor and Dean, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Tallinn University of Technology Title: Integration of Lean Construction and Building Information Modelling Archived: University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Construction ABSTRACT This research can be divided into two. The first part investigates the current state of the construction industry, while the second part looks at new emerging business models in particular, Lean Construction (LC) and Building Information Modelling (BIM), as well as an integration of these two. Given that the construction industry does not have a particularly good reputation among the public, the first part of this thesis focuses mainly on this problem and its sources. It is the reason why we need
Cyprus, Island 97 3S'OO'N 33'OO'E Cyrenaica,region 91 2S'OO'N 24'OO'E 2. T he index tells you th at D alla s is a lik e to co mpare it to th e World Vegeta tio n m ap, Czech Reo.. country 84 49'OO'N lS'OO'E city in Texas and that it can be you can use the tabs to find that map q uickly found on page 50. You will also and easily. Dakar, Senega! 90 14' 42'N 17'27'W learn that Dallas is located at Dallas, TX 50 32' 47' N 96' 48'W Dalmatia, region Dernareland, region 85 91 44' 00'N 16'0 0'E 21'00'5 19'OO'E
CHAPTER 1 GETTING TO KNOW THE TOEFL WHAT IS THE TOEFL? The TOEFL is a comprehensive English language examination required by more than 3,000 colleges and universities in the United States, Canada, and other parts of the world. In addition, foreign born professionals frequently need a TOEFL score for certification to practice their profession in the United States or Canada. The TOEFL is a timed test that consists of the three sections listed here. THE TOEFL Section 1 Listening Comprehension 50 questions
Handbook of Meat Processing Handbook of Meat Processing Fidel Toldrá EDITOR A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication Edition first published 2010 © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Editorial Office 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply
UNO SOOMERE ESTONIAN SYMPHONIC MUSIC. THE FIRST CENTURY 1896-1996. AN OVERVIEW With a Historical and Cultural Summary IN MEMORY OF THE GREAT ESTONIAN COMPOSERS CONTENTS ESTONIA AND THE ESTONIANS FOREWORD IN THE FOLD OF TSARIST RUSSIA. EMERGENCE AND FIRST STEPS ON THE CLASSICAL-ROMANTIC PATH. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION I. MUSICAL LIFE IN TARTU AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY. TRAILBLAZERS: ALEKSANDER LÄTE, RUDOLF TOBIAS, ARTUR KAPP. II. THE FIRST DECADE OF THE 20TH CENTURY. ARTUR LEMBA: THE BEGINNING OF ESTONIAN SYMPHONY AND OPERA. III. NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN CULTURAL AND MUSICAL LIFE: THE END OF THE TSARIST PERIOD. THE INDEPENDENT REPUBLIC OF ESTONIA: THE INTRODUCTION OF INNOVATIONS FROM WESTERN ART AND THE EVOLUTION OF
Despite concerted evolution that homogenizes a large number of rDNA gene copies, the presence of different gene variants within a genome has been reported. Characterization of an organism by defining every single variant of tens to thousands of rDNA repeat units present in a eukaryotic genome would be quite unreasonable. Here we provide an alternative approach for the characterization of a set of internal transcribed spacer sequences found within every rDNA repeat unit by implementing direct sequencing methodology. The prominent allelic variants and their relative amounts characterizing an individual can be described by a single sequencing electropherogram of the mixed amplicon containing the variants present within the genome. We propose a method for rational analysis of heterogeneity of multicopy genes by compiling a profile based on
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