Third World countries are often described as "developing" while the First World, industrialized nations are often "developed". A lack of material wealth does not necessarily mean that one is deprived. A strong economy in a developed nation doesn't mean much when a significant percentage (even a majority) of the population is struggling to survive. Politics have led to dire conditions in many poorer nations. In many cases, international political interests have led to a diversion of available resources from domestic needs to western markets
Massive deforestation brings with it many ugly consequences-air and water pollution, soil erosion, malaria epidemics, the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the eviction and decimation of indigenous Indian tribes, and the loss of biodiversity through extinction of plants and animals. Fewer rainforests mean less rain, less oxygen for us to breathe, and an increased threat from global warming. But who is really to blame? Consider what we industrialized Americans have done to our own homeland. We converted 90 percent of North America's virgin forests into firewood, shingles, furniture, railroad ties, and paper. Other industrialized countries have done no better. Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil, and other tropical countries with rainforests are often branded as "environmental villains" of the world, mainly because of their reported levels of destruction of their rainforests
The term "acid rain" was generated in 1972 Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1970s after the New York Times promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in Europe, China, Russia and areas down- wind from them These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation
phenomenon. The term "acid rain" was generated in 1972. [5] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1970s after the New York Times promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it. Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas.[2] Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in Europe, China,[8][9] Russia and areas down- wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.[10] The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation
The spreadsheet was used to determine how many kilowatt-hours were used during each day, each week, and each year for each energy consumption activity. The spreadsheet converted their energy consumption to show them the amount of money it costs for each energy consumption activity. In the end, they were shocked to see how much money Jules' energy using habits cost compared to Les' habits. USES OF ENERGY The United States is a highly developed and industrialized society. We use a lot of energy - in our homes, in businesses, inindustry, and for traveling between all these different places. The industrial sector uses almost one-third of the total energy. The residential and commercial sectors combined use 39 percent of all energy. These two sectors include all 4 types of buildings, such as houses, offices, stores, restaurants, and places of worship.
dietary reasons. FISHING DOWN THE FOOD WEB: It's not only the fish that is affected by fishing. As we are fishing down the food web the increasing effort needed to catch something of commercial value marine mammals, sharks, sea birds, and non commercially viable (vajabl) fish species in the web of marine biodiversity are overexploited, killed as bycatch and discarded, and threatened (trätnd) by the industrialized fisheries. Scientists agree that at current exploitation rates many important fish stocks will be removed from the system within 25 years. WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP?: Every long-term successful and sustainable fishery, near-shore or high-seas, needs to be managed according to some basic ground rules: Safe catch limits, Controls on bycatch, Protection of pristine (pristiin) and important habitats, Monitoring and Enforcement (inforsment)
economical or dietary reasons. FISHING DOWN THE FOOD WEB As we are fishing down the food web the increasing effort needed to catch something of commercial value marine mammals (imetajad), sharks, sea birds, and non commercially viable fish species in the web of marine biodiversity (bioloogiline mitmekesisus) are overexploited, killed as bycatch (kaaspüük) and discarded (ära visatud), and threatened (ohustatud) by the industrialized fisheries. WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP? Safe catch limits A constantly reassessed, scientifically determined, limit on the total number of fish caught and landed by a fishery. Controls on bycatch The use of techniques or management rules to prevent the unintentional killing and disposal of fish, crustaceans (koorikloomad) and other oceanic life not part of the target catch or landed.
about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth's surface than any preceding decade since 1850. More than 90% certain that most of global warming was being caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities.In 2010 that finding was recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized nations. Affirming these findings in 2013, the IPCC stated that the largest driver of global warming is carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuel combustion, cement production, and land use changes such as deforestation. Its 2013 report states:Human influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes in the global water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some climate extremes.
technology, biotechnology, the pharmaceuticals industry and banking and insurance know- how. Swiss products can command high prices in world markets because consumers are ready to pay for high quality. But with such a strategy, Swiss companies cannot sit back on their laurels. There has to be a strong emphasis on research and development. In Switzerland, a higher percentage of people work in research and development than in other industrialized countries. Political Factors: Government type: formally a confederation but similar in structure to a federal republic. Political conditions: Switzerland has a stable government. Most voters support the government in its philosophy of armed neutrality underlying its foreign and defense policies. Foreign relations: Switzerland has avoided alliances that might entail military, political, or direct economic action. The foreign relations of Switzerland are handled by different
There also in the World Health Organization WHO, hich is helped by the richer memeber countries and the Food and Agricultural Organization FAO which experts have worked on every aspect of farming, fishing and forestry although it's basic idea was only to help the poorer countries to increase their food production. The final one is the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. Its help is more known more in the poorer parts of the world rather than the industrialized nations. 3. After the World War Two the United States and the USSR were the dominant military powers in the world, but they had very different forms of government and economy, the USA a capitalist democracy, USSR a communist dictatorship. The two nations were rivals who feared each other, each ideologically opposed. The war also left Russia in control of large areas of Eastern Europe, and the US led Allies in control of the West (each had atomic weapons) . Arguments also rose about Poland
and hot, dry summers. Much of the area is covered with farms producing wheat and other grains. The region is also rich in oil and natural gas. Central Canada includes Ontario and Quebec. It is not geographically the centre of Canada. The region gets its name because, historically, it has been the centre of political and economic power in the country. Central Canada is also the most heavily populated and industrialized area of Canada. The Atlantic Provinces is the easternmost province of the country. Fishing, shipping and farming are important acitivities for the people of this area. The region has many small coastal communities, although there are also major industrial centres. There are also mountains in that region, but they are old, rounded mountains. Valleys in the region are important farming areas producing fruit, vegetables and dairy products. Canada's North includes the Yukon Territory
Mostly wheat and other grains are produced. Cattle and sheep ranching is also part of the agriculture. The Prairie Provinces are known for their rolling plains and extreme climate with long, cold winters and hot, dry summers.The region is also rich in oil and natural gas. Central Canada This region consists of Quebec and Ontario. Central Canada is the centre of political and economic power in the country. It is the most heavily populated and industrialized area in Canada and because of that it is also the wealthiest region. The Great Lakes are located in Central Canada which are the biggest bodies of fresf water in the world. Another very important body of water in that region is St. Lawrence River. All the biggest cities were built along this river. It is still very important as a transportation route from the Atlantic Ocean to Canada's interior. Some areas in Central Canada are covered by the rocky Canadian Shield. The
renewable energy sources. Freiburg · Freiburg is a 900 year old city of under 250,000 people, perched in the wine growing region of southwest Germany · Citizens have high environmental awareness · Sunniest Region in Germany, Making it the "Solar Capital" · The Heliotrope (the world's first energy self-sustaining solar building) Germany and the Kyoto Protocol · Sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. · Between March 1998 and March 1999, 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol. · In March 2002, the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto. In May 2002, the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states. · Since signing and ratifying the protocol, Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012
19 trillion gallons of waste also enter the water annually. The problem of ocean pollution affects every nation around the world. This is especially true because water is able to transport pollution from one location to another. For many years, chemicals were dumped into bodies of water without concern. While many countries have now banned such behavior, it continues to go on today. As the world has industrialized and its population has grown, the problem of water pollution has intensified. The simple fact that millions of people live along coastlines and near rivers means that these bodies of water are likely candidates for heavy and destructive pollution. It is hard to know now what our oceans will look like in the future. Just how damaged they will be by pollution is uncertain. Acid rain The term acid rain refers to what scientists call acid deposition. It is caused by airborne acidic
Southwestern Alberta has the Rocky Mountains and some of the most spectacular scenery in the country. This region, which includes Ontario and Quebec, is not really the geographic centre of Canada. The region gets its name because, historically, it has been the centre of political and economic power in the country. Canada's capital city is Ottawa, Ontario. Central Canada is also the most heavily populated and industrialized area of Canada, particularly in the south around the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. The Great Lakes are the largest body of fresh water in the world. In order of size they include Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Some of the first settlements were built along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. Today, these waterways are still an important transportation route to Canada's interior. Though heavily populated, the Great Lakes-St
The Canadian Shield has much of Canada's mineral wealth, producing most of the country's iron ore. Central Canada, which includes Ontario and Quebec, is not really the geographic centre of Canada. The region gets its name because, historically, it has been the centre of political and economic power in the country. Canada's capital city is Ottawa, Ontario. Toronto and Montreal are the two largest cities in Canada. Central Canada is also the most heavily populated and industrialized area of Canada, particularly in the south around the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence River. The Great Lakes are the largest body of fresh water in the world. In order of size, they include Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario. These waterways along with the St Lawrence River are an important transportation route from the Atlantic Ocean to Canada's interior. Between Lake Eire and Lake Ontario, the Niagara River plunges over a rocky
edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a check digit, and can take values from 09 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit. Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs. A large or public collection requires a catalogue. Codes called "call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves
The soil is rich and the precipitation is medium. The area has very few trees or shrubs so it is very windy. Typical animals are bobcats, antelopes, snakes, rodents, rabbits, badgers, bisons. Prairies are located in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Those regions are called the ,,Bread-basket of Canada" because of the wheat and other grains they get from there. 9. Population Although Canada's population is growing slowly, their growth rate is higher than that in most industrialized countries. Their population growth is concentrated in areas with considerable environmental stresses, particularly around Toronto and Vancouver. Global population growth has global impacts that are felt in Canada, including pressures on the environment and demand for products that we export. The Aboriginal population of Canada is a diverse population with distinct cultures, languages, religious beliefs and political systems. There are many ways of defining
India. This is why he named the people he met Indians. The Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock in 1620 aboard the Mayflower. The Pilgrims had a feast in 1621, after their first harvest. This feast has become known as "The First Thanksgiving." The Civil War was the most bitter conflict within the United States. The source of the conflict between the North and the South was about different ways of life. Economy in the South was heavily based on agriculture and growing cotton. The North was heavily industrialized with factories and manufacturing being central to the economy. Growing and harvesting cotton required large numbers of workers. This work force was made up of about 4 million slaves. By the 1800's, the African slave trade had become illegal. But existing slaves were not freed. Men and women of the North wanted to abolish slavery. The South feared that losing the slaves would have a severe economic impact on cotton plantations.
konkurents t muutust t teravamaks. k K i tehnoloogia Kui t h l i liikus liik madalate palkade otsingul üle riigipiiride, tekkis uus riikide liik - uued tööstusmaad (NIC -newly industrialized countries), mis osutusid rahvusvahelistel turgudel üsna konkurentsivõimeliseks. Mis juhtus? 1. Tarbijad võitsid odavate importkaupade arvel, kuid paljud tööstustöölised jäid töötuks. 2. Riigid, kes suuna ära tabasid, kasutasid industriaalpoliitikat oma majanduse ümberseadmiseks ja mõningate uute probleemide tekkimise vältimiseks. 23 Lembit Viilup Ph.D IT Kolledz
At the beginning of the 19th century Napoleon started his invasions to The Russian Empire. The czar at that time was Alexander I. Napoleon made a big mistake with attacking Russia in the winter, because the army was not used to the merciless climate. Napoleon's army had to retreat and go back to France. The whole world understood now how powerful and strong the Russian empire was ( " I n v a s i o n o f r u s s i a , " ) . Russian empire became more industrialized and the political system stronger and stronger. The country increased its areas. The government was extremely conservative. By the 20th century people noticed that a czar is not the best choice any more. The next ruler Nicholas started to make some changes in the country ( " H i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e , " ) . These changes brought together the working class which gave a start to the Social Democratic party. In 1905 Nicholas was forces to accept with the new reforms
world, discovering many unknown lands like Australia, New Zealand and Tonga. British overseas colonies increased and the country became wealthier. Britain exporter coal, cloth, guns and other manufactured products. Imports included cotton, sugar, tobacco and tea. The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution began in the second half of the 18th century in which industry was transformed from hand-work at home to machine-work in factories. By 1800 Britain was the most industrialized country in the world. It was rich in coal, iron ore and wool and new methods of farming meant that England could produce enough food to feed herself and export some as well. However, the working conditions were brutal and unhealthy, safety was disregarded and there was a lot of environmental pollution. Travelling and communications were improved. Many canals and railways were built; telegraph lines, magazines and newspaper provided people with steady flow of information.
speaking minorities) 3.3% (2007) Religions: Lutheran Church of Finland 82.5%, Orthodox Church 1.1%, other Christian 1.1%, other 0.1%, none 15.1% (2006) Population: 5,262,930 (July 2012 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 79.41 years male: 75.94 years, female: 83.02 years (2012 est.) Health expenditures: 11.7% of GDP (2009) Education expenditures: 5.9% of GDP (2007) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2012, ISSN 15538133). 2.1.4 Economic Overview Finland has a highly industrialized; largely freemarket economy with per capita output roughly that of Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Trade is important with exports accounting for over one third of GDP in recent years. Finland is strongly competitive in manufacturing principally the wood, metals, engineering, telecommunications, and electronics industries. Finland excels in hightech exports such as mobile phones. Except for timber and
Moderate or high (different categorizations from different agencies) risks for workers and non-workers who exposed to formaldehyde of increased concentrations for long period of time. General toxicity Outdoor (non-worker) Airborne concentrations associated with sensory irritation as more sensible target are above 0.3 to 0.5 ppm. Recent studies showed mean concentration in different locations 0.002038-0.012795 ppm. Mean value in Central Europe 0.001223 ppm Measurements in a highly industrialized area with also heavy traffic conducted in Germany (1979 1984) gave annual mean values of 7 12 g/m³ 0.005705- 0.0978ppm Indoor (non-worker) Indoor air levels, measured in various countries, ranged between 0.815- 4.287 ppm. The concentrations are mainly dependent on the age of the building, building materials, type of construction and ventilation. Occupational exposure Many measurements were done in different countries with exposure range 0.00815- 0.302 ppm.
· Progressive Movement: Theodore Roosevelt Corruption, lack of democracy, stratification, economic panic of 1897 Exposing corruption, democracy, modernization, municipal reforms, trust-busting (4.) Lead by Theodore Roosevelt and Progressive party Women's suffrage · An American Empire (the Philippines, Cuba) New Imperialism - colonial expansion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries (5.) Increasing competition (over resources, strategic power, and prestige) between the industrialized nations (6.) Accelerate internal development (6.) Economical decline at the end of the 19th century · Dollar Diplomacy Political influence over foreign governments (China, Haiti, Nicaragua, Honduras, Dominican Republic) (8.) Providing money, and services to a country, and receiving an alliance in return (8.) Advance and protect American businesses in other countries · Monroe Doctrine European powers were to no longer colonize or interfere with the affairs of the newly independent
The mean population centre of the US has consistently shifted westward and southward, with California and Texas currently the most populous states. According to Californians for Population Stabilization, U.S. population growth is now the highest among developed countries and exceeds that of China. Births, supplemented by immigration, help to offset the aging population. The total fertility rate in the United States estimated for 2007 is 2.09, which is roughly the replacement level for industrialized countries. The total U.S. population crossed the 100 million mark around 1915, the 200 million mark in 1967, and the 300 million mark in 2006 (On Tuesday, October, 17). The U.S. population more than tripled during the 20 th - a growth rate of about 1.3 percent a year - from about 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000. This is unlike most European countries, especially Germany, Russia, Italy and Greece, whose populations are slowly declining, and whose fertility rates are below replacement
lahendamiseks aga ei ole kõikidele kultuuridele samavõrra kättesaadav (costly punishment, attraction to similarity, role of negative affect in depression). - Accessibility universals – kognitiivne vahend, mis on kõikides kultuurides, kasutatakse sama probleemi lahendamiseks ja kõikidele kultuuridele samavõrra kättesaadav (social facilitation, folk understanding of the laws of physics). WEIRD valim – Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic – ühiskonnad (kallutatus). Veel kallutatust: psühholoogiatudengid. Kultuuripsühholoogia peamine eesmärk on koguda teavet paljude kultuuride kohta, et kindlamatel alustel uurida küsimusi universalismide (universals) ja mitmekesisuse kohta. SOPH.00.309 Cross-Cultural Psychology |2 „Värvipime“ lähenemine („color-blind“ approach) – Inimesed on igal pool ühesugused. Samas, gruppide eristumisel – oma-võõras.
international market decreased. In different countries in economic situation was very different after the first World War. For example, the impact of the First World War were to the U.S. and Japanese economy very good, but the impact to the German economy was terrible. The Great Depression affected almost every country in the world, at least every capitalist country, some more, some less way. Great Depression most heavily affected the U.S. and Germany. In the developed industrialized countries nearly 30 million people became out of work and capitalist countries' production decreased 44%. To come out of the economic criseis govermnets began to regulate the economy. Although the most countries could stop the falling of domestic product in 1933, they wasn't able to rise the domestic production above the crisis level before of the Second World War. The Great Depression filled a major prerequisite for the emergence of the hard power, because of
products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and petrol. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrialized civilization itself, and thus is critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32 percent for Europe and Asia, up to a high of 53 percent for the Middle East, South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world at large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8 km³) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largely consist of developed nations
111.111.110· A creates Ethernet frame with R's physical willbe fragmented into twoor more smaller frames, contributing to Ethernet designed for industry... scheme, called binary Exponential Backoff:· Goal: adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current address as dest,Ethernet frame contains A-to-B IP datagram· A's data link layer excess use of thebandwidth and increased collisions. Standard IEEE 802.3 in an industrialized design load -heavy load: random wait will be longer sends Ethernet frame· R's data link layer receives Ethernet frame > Runt, Long, Giant, Dribble, Jabber What causes these? Higher temperature ranges Exp
Levin finds the whole experience surreal, and Kitty finds it entirely peaceful, even though she is in a great deal of pain. When he first sees his newborn son, Levin is surprised by what he feels: pain. He knows his son will suffer in the world, simply because his son is human. There are five chapters dedicated to the birth process, emphasizing the intensity of childbirth. Chapters 18-22 In these chapters we see what Levin fears as the future of Russia--one that is entirely industrialized. The story returns to Stiva, who has ever-worsening finances. He is trying to get a government job with the Committee of the Joint Agency of the Mutual Credit Balance of Southern Railways and Banking Houses. It is a long-winded, bureaucratic name for the position, and the job itself is bureaucratic and jejune. Karenin, of all people, decides to help Stiva get the job. This seems like an odd pairing, since Stiva has been the one asking Karenin to divorce Anna all along
tõusu majanduse ja poliitika arengus. K. DEUTSCH - SOTSIAALNE MOBILISATSIOON (individuaalsel tasandil) protsess, milles olulisemad valdkonnad sotsiaalsetes, majanduslikes ja poliitilistes kohustustes on lõhutud ning inimestele muutuvad kättesaadavateks uued sotsialiseerumise ja käitumise mudelid. Kultuur ja muudatused K.MARX protestantliku religiooni kui kultuuri ja kapitlismi vahel on side. Näit: JAP kultuur ajendab inimesi rohkem tööd tegema ja vähem kulutama. Newly Industrialized Countries NIC (JAP; S-COR; TAIWAN, MALAISIA + BRA; MEX; IND...) Hilisemate tööstusmaade toimimise strateegiad: 1. Avatud uste poliitika väliskapitali ja korporatsioonide suhtes. 2. Agraarreform toetamaks väikeeeraettevõtjaist farmereid 3. Astmeline areng linnatööstustes kergetööstusest (tekstiil, jalanõud) kuni laevaehituse, elektroonikatööstuseni. 36 37
However, nitrite meat). Microbes may also increase oxidative is by no means a guarantee for full safety. changes in meat. In sausages, however, there are efficient antioxidative agents. Nitrite sta- bilizes heme iron, which results in a much Recent and Future Trends lower oxidation rate. Phosphates also have an antioxidative effect as they chelate prooxida- The salt intake in modern industrialized tive cations. Ascorbates are also antioxidants, countries has been connected to elevated although they are primarily used as color blood pressure and consequently to an enhancers. Finally, the use of packaging that increase in coronary heart disease. Only the 324 Chapter 17 salt that is detected by the taste receptors will gated linoleic acid (Martin et al. 2008). be considered salty. Therefore, there have Vegetable fats usually melt at lower tempera-
"E achfrontLouismanof Guillette in this room is half the man his grandfather was." PhD, a researcher from the University of Florida, opened his discussion in a congressional committee without preamble. Named one of just 20 Howard Hughes Medical Institute professors nationwide, Guillette was not speaking in metaphor. He had the data to prove it. The sperm counts of men in the United States and 20 other industrialized countries have been falling since 1942 at a rate of roughly 1% per year in healthy males. The average northern European sperm count in the 1940s was more than 100 million sperm per milliliter (million/ml) of ejaculate. In 2008? "The sperm counts of the majority of 20 year old European men are now so low that we may be close to the crucial tipping point of 40 million per milliliter spermatozoa ... we must face the possibility of more infertile couples and lower fertility rates in the future
established between Pokorny's group and Deub-ner's; together they laid open virtually every Russian cryptogram that their posts intercepted. And they were guaranteed a good harvest when the headquarters of a Russian army was given permission to use radio for its front-line activities because its linemen were busy with repair work. Thus it was that the Central Powers learned from Russian wireless that the Grand Duke Nicholas was forming a huge phalanx of seven armies to rumble into the industrialized heart of Silesia in east-central, Europe. By the end of October, the picture of the composition, disposition, and strength of the Russian forces that Hindenburg and Ludendorff had before them could not have differed much from the official one at Stavka. Only the date of the advance was unknown, but the Germans assumed that it would take a little time before this ponderous Russian steamroller could get up momentum. They determined to seize the initiative and attack first in the hope of throwing
annaabi.ee 
