words are connected with each other. New facts in the lg cause some change in the meaning of some words. (nt, autumn pushed harvest out, harvest tähendas nii sügist kui ka viljalõikust) 4. Motivation. Folk etymology. Motivation reflects some feature of an object in a word (nt, cucoo! Duck ducan (sukelduma)). Types of mot: a)phonetics- called sound imitation (onomatopoeia), (nt, murmur, bang, giggle, whistle). b)morphologial mot- the meaning of a word is motivated by the meaning of morphemes(separate elements), (nt, speak-er, ice-cream, beauty-ful) c)semantic mot is based on the coexistance of the direct and figurative meanings(nt, the nose of the boat) d)faded vs clear mot new words are always motivated. (nt, ööbik-nighttingale, knight ja singer). Time goes, motivation shanges. If motivation is not clear, people try to give their own explanation. Folk etymology-when motivation is not clear, people give their own explanation to a certain extent. It is folk etmymology
For example: An Estonian word palk has two possible pronunciation ways. L can be palatalised or not. Phoneme is a smallest unit in language which distinguishes meaning. With other phonemes it can form morphemes and words. For example: The difference between words in English call and fall is a result of the exchange of the phoneme c and f. Morphology - The study of word formations and the internal structure of words.
1. Be ready to explain the terms (lecture 1): language, linguistics, synchronic approach to language, diachronic approach to language, linguistic competence, linguistic performance, what is grammar?, prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar; phonology, phonetics, phone, allophone, phoneme; morphology, morphemes (types of morphemes), morphs, allomorphs, types of affixes, derivational affixes, inflectional affixes; open vs closed class words; syntax. Language: a systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression. - human language at all levels is rule- or principle-governed. Linguistics: the scientific study of human natural language Synchronic approach to language: Diachronic approach to language: Linguistic competence: Linguistic performance:
•There are other ways of eliminating rats besides drowning them. •It’s no use having only one shoe. I don’t know where the other one is. function/grammar words In English grammar, a function word is a word that expresses a grammatical or structural relationship with other words in a sentence. In contrast to a content word, a function word has little or no meaningful content. Function words are also known as grammatical words, grammatical functors, grammatical morphemes, function morphemes, form words, and empty words. Function words include determiners (for example, the, that), conjunctions (and, but), prepositions (in, of), pronouns (she, they), auxiliary verbs (be, have), modals (may, could), and quantifiers (some, both). generic reference We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether. •A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
de-destroy, dis-dismiss, sub-submarine Suffixes: er- maker, or- actor, eer- mountineer, ier/yer- lawyer, ant- assistant, ent-student, ee- detainee, ist-artist, en-vixen, ess-actress, ine-heroine 9) Coversion A type of dervation where no suffix is used to change the word class. Catch as a verb and catch as a noun, brake-down as a verb and break-down as an adjective. 10) compounds Are formed by joining two or more root morphemes. Compounds are often idiomatic in meaning or at least not entirely transparent. Coffe plus pot equals coffeepot 11) Clipping Clipping ise the wordformation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts- shortening. Three types of clipping: Foreclipping- retain gthe fial part of the word- racoon-coon, telephone- phone Back-clipping- retains the beginnig crocodille- crock, doctor- doc, gasoline-gas Ambiclipping- middle part is retained- influenza- flu
Latin/Greek, French Thesaurus/treasure Abbreviation/abridge French, French Genteel/gentle Dragon/dragoon 14. Folk etymology Change in a word or phrase over time resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more familiar one. Unanalyzable borrowings from foreign languages, like asparagus, or old compounds such as samblind which have lost their iconic motivation (since one or more of the morphemes making them up, like sam-, which meant "semi-", has become obscure) are reanalyzed in a more or less semantically plausible way, yielding, in these examples, sparrow grass and sandblind. 6 o Foreign words Cucaracha – cockroach o One part of the word becoming obsolete Isle-land – island
------------------------------------------------------------ Kõige sarnasem suulises ja kirjalikus kõnes on esimene etapp: planeerimine. Hilisematel etappidel erinevused suurenevad. 4) Keeles esinevate sõnade hulk on piiratud - miks siiski väidetakse, et keel on loov? 5) Millistest lingvistilistest ühikutest koosneb lause "Keelel on reeglid" ja mis need on? Lingvistilised ühikud: · Foneemid (phonemes) on eristatavad heli kategooriad konkreetses keeles · Morfeemid (morphemes) on kindlad foneemide järgnevused, väiksemad keeleühikud, mis kannavad mingit tähendust · Sõnad koosnevad morfeemidest · Fraas on sõnade organiseeritud grupeering, kõneüksus, mis moodustab väikseima intonatsioonilise terviku · Lause koosneb fraasidest 6) Millised on keele omadused? Analüüsige, milliseid keele omadusi ei ole järgmisel lausel: "Venilased kodraselt volpusse kulmasid". Omadused:
asendavad seda kirjavahemärgid, lisaks kasutatakse fraase, mis viitavad järgnevale (aga, seevastu, sarnaselt). Saab kasutada ka käsi, keha keelt , näoilmeid, midagi rõhutada, millelegi osutada. 4) Keeles esinevate sõnade hulk on piiratud - miks siiski väidetakse, et keel on loov? Keel annab võimaluse teksti luua. 5) Millistest lingvistilistest ühikutest koosneb lause "Keelel on reeglid" ja mis need on? Foneemid (phonemes) on eristatavad heli kategooriad konkreetses keeles. Morfeemid (morphemes) on kindlad foneemide järgnevused, väiksemad keele ühikud, mis kannavad mingit tähendust. Sõnad koosnevad morfeemidest. Fraas on sõnade organiseeritud grupeering, kõne üksus, mis moodustab väikseima intonatsioonilise terviku. Lause koosneb fraasidest. 6) Millised on keele omadused? Analüüsige, milliseid keele omadusi ei ole järgmisel lausel: "Venilased kodraselt volpusse kulmasid". Osutamine keelemärgid tähistavad ja kirjeldavad ümbritsevat maailma, seisundeid ja sündmusi.
' · syntactical · replacement of the case functions by a fixed word order and prepositions. · lexical · first borrowing of French loan-words; · increased emergence of Scandinavian loan-words. · graphological · disappearance of Old English writing conventions;1.2 · increased use of Latin and Anglo-Norman. In general, Old English might be called a synthetic language, which uses inflectional morphemes to express the syntactical relationships. Middle English might be called an analytical language, which uses function words to constitute syntactical relationships. SHORTENING AND LENGTHENING IN MIDDLE ENGLISH Late in Old English, vowels were lengthened before certain clusters: /nd/, /ld/, /rd/, /mb/, //. Later on, the vowels in many of these words were shortened again, giving the appearance that no lengthening happened; but evidence from the Ormulum indicates otherwise. vt
Ambiclipping- middle part is retained- influenza- flu Clipping means beginning plus beginning, situation comedy- sitcom Blends blends form if you take beginning plus the end- money plus energy=monergy Clipped compounds compounds formed by clipping. Conversion A type of derivation where no suffix is used to change the word class. Catch as a verb and catch as a noun, break-down as a verb and break-down as an adjective. Compounds Are formed by joining two or more root morphemes. Compounds are often idiomatic in meaning or at least not entirely transparent. Coffe plus pot equals coffeepot Solid, hyphenated, and open compounds An open compound means that the words of the compound are written separately (credit card), a hyphenated compound separates the words by hyphen(s) (brother-in-law), a solid compound is formed when the two words are written as one word (typewriter), solid compounds typically begin as two separate
phonological well-formedness constraints”. Morphologists usually agree that English has no infixes. However, there is the possibility of inserting expletives in the middle of words to create new words expressing the strongly negative attitude of the speaker (e.g. kangabloody- roo, abso-blooming-lutely. Thus we could say that English has a process of infixation of (certain) words, but there are no bound morphemes that qualify for infix status. Such forms raise two questions. The first is what structural properties these infixed derivatives have, and the second is whether we should consider this type of infixation as part of English word-formation component or not. From a phonological point of view these forms are completely regular. From a semantic point of view, one could perhaps argue that expletive infixation does not create a new lexeme because the core meaning of the base word is not affected.
Kõneorganite muutmisel muutuvad helid, sellepärast saadetakse logopeedi juurde. Neid foneeme, mida meie keeles pole, on meil raske omandada ning see teeb sellest arusaamise raskeks. Me võime tuttavad helid ära tunda. Nt eesti keeles ei ole ühtegi sõna- mis hakkaks tl täheühendiga. Samas aTLas on ja selle oleme me suutelised ära tundma - teame, et see on mingisugune kaartide kogum. Foneemihääldus buss- puss, sõltub sellest kus asub sõna ühend- laps- lapsed · Morfeemid (morphemes) on kindlad foneemide järgnevused, väiksemad keeleühikud, mis kannavad mingit tähendust. (sõnajuur, tunnus, muutelõpp), sellel rajaneb sõnade ja sõnadest lausete moodustamine. Kannavad sõnatähendust- sisu ja tüvemorfeemid- ühesilbilised sõnad. Funktsioon morf- gramm eesmärkidel. Pöörded ja käändeid märkivad ühendid nali- tähendab ühte asja aga naljatati- nali, ta (tegevus) i- minevikus. Inglise keeles on 80000 morfeemi. · Sõnad koosnevad morfeemidest
9 Grammatical Terminology morpheme morfeem The smallest unit of meaning in a word. Some words un-help-ful consist of just one morpheme (help), some consist of several (unhelpful, consists of three morphemes: the base form help, the prefix un-, and the suffix -ful). non-count (uncountable) loendamatu A grammatical distinction of nouns which denote things They gave us some information. that are treated as indivisible wholes, for instance, materials and liquids, states of mind, conditions, topics,
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Why not? (Hint: see the previous paragraph.) Notes 197 Chapter 9 1 Here he follows Ziff (1960). 2 "Words" is not quite right. Some meaning atoms are smaller than words: affixes such as "un-" (prefix) and "-able" (suffix). Some words are only pleonastic parts of meaning atoms, as in the French "ne . . . pas." Linguists call true meaning atoms morphemes. But for convenience and familiarity I shall continue to speak of "words." 3 The compositionality thesis is simply assumed by most theorists, but it is hard to formulate precisely, and it has been seriously questioned, as by Pelletier (1994); see also Szabó (2007). 4 More sophisticated present-day descendants of the emotivists include Blackburn (1984, 1993) and Gibbard (1990); but they try to find ways of granting that moral
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