Hardly anything is left from the Germanic culture. The AngloSaxons established a number of kingdoms. The most powerful ones were Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. King Offa of Mercia was the most powerful king. Government and society The Saxons created institutions that made the state strong for 500 years. First of them was the kings council the witan. It issued laws and charters. The land was divided into small administrative areas shires counties which were ruled by sheriffs who worked for kings. The AngloSaxon brought a new but heavier plough to Britain which changed the land ownership and organisation. The land was now divided 23 big fields which were into long thin strips. Each family had a number of strips to plough. One of these fields was for spring crops, the other for autumn crops and the third was left to rest for a year. In each district there was a manor where people came to pay taxes
When he became independent, he became involved in wars & got foreign advisers. This upset the nobles. Their leader Simon de Montfort took over the government and called a Great Council in 1258. It included knights, barons & bishops. It forced Henry III to get rif of his foreign advisers and he signed a document in Oxford. In 1265 de Montfort called Parliament. For the first time nobles & spokesmen from both towns & shires met. It was made up of barons, bishops and abbots as usual, but also included 2 knights from every hire and 2 burgesses from every borough. Many nobles didn't support Simon de Montfort, a civil war broke out. De Montfort was defeated and killed. In 1295 Henry III's son Edward I brought together the ,,represantive institution", ,,Model Parliament", the 1st to include nobles, clergy & commoners. It was a mixture of ,,gentry" knights & wealthy freemen from the shires & merchants from the towns
When a king died, the Witan chose a successor. The Anglo-Saxons had little use for towns, which fell into disrepair. But they had a great effect on the countryside, where they founded the thousands of self- sufficient villages which formed the basis of English society during the next thousand or so years. They cut down many forest areas in the valleys to make new fields. 32 The Anglo-Saxons divided the land into new administrative areas shires. Over each shire was appointed a shire reeve (OE scir-gerefa), the king’s local administrator. In time his title became shortened to sheriff. These shires, established by the end of the tenth century, have remained almost exactly the same for a thousand years. ‘Shire’ is the Saxon word which is now obsolete; it has been replaced with the Norman word county but still exists in the names of over 20 modern counties in England: Derbyshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, etc.
upper classes and administration until the 14 th century. The origins of Parliament are to be found in the region of John's successor, Henry III. It was a meeting of the king and his barons and servants at which various administrative and financial problems were discussed. In order to make it easier to put the decisions taken into practice, each shire had to elect a number of knights to attend these meetings and report the decisions to the shires. The Hundred Year's War fought between France and England had a devastating effect on the English economy. The high taxation necessary to finance the war and the Black Death led to extreme hardships for the peasant class that there was a revolt. Although the peasants' revolt was soon put down, it lead to improved conditions for the peasant class and was the first step towards the ending of the feudal system in England. No sooner was the Hundred Year's War over than a long power struggle
One of them was the King's Council, called the Witan, issuing laws & charters. It had the right to choose kings & to agree the use of the king's laws. Without its support the king's authority was in danger. Large council meetings were called by the king during major festivals such as Christmas & Easter, or to solve major disputes. Even today the king or queen has a Privy Council, a group of advisers on the affairs of the state. The Saxons divided the land into shires. Over each shire was appointed a shire reeve, in time became shortened to ,,sheriff". Shire moots took place regularly. The first lords were called aldermen. As many bishops & monks were from France & Germany, close contacts with Europe were encouraged. England exported woollen goods, cheese, pottery, hunting dogs, metal goods. It imported wine, fish, pepper, jewelry and wheel-made pottery.
power and it gave more power to the origins of Parliament. The origins of Parliament are to be found in the reign of John's successor, Henry III. It was a meeting of the King and his Barons and servants at which various administrative and financial problems were discussed. In order to make it easier to put the decisions taken into practice, each Shire had to elect a number of knights to attend at these meetings at report the decisions to their Shires. Edward I continued this experiment and in 1295 called a parliament that became known as the Model Parliament. The House of Commons as a separate Chamber resulted from the unofficial meeting of these knights and burgesses. The person chosen to speak for these commoners in Parliament became known as the speaker. The Hundred Years War fought between France and England had a devastating effect on the English economy. The high taxation necessary to finance the war and the Black Death
coil changes the overall heat transfer coefficient. 32 33 5 Bibliography Coulson, J. M. & Richardson, J. F., 2004. Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering Volume 1 - Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer. Fletcher, P., 1987. Heat transfer coefficients for stirred batch reactor design. Geankoplis, C. J., 1993. Transport Processes and Unit Operations, Third Edition. Hewitt, G. F., Shires, G. L. & Bott, T., 1994. Process Heat Transfer, chapter 31. Jeschke, D., 1925. Wärmeübergang und Druckverlust in Rohrschlangen. http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1176/ 34 30 APPENDICES A.1 Calibration of the rotameter The rotameter was calibrated using a timer and a scale. The value of the rotameter was set to constant and the amount of water went through the system was scaled. The points on the
Nende maa ja vara omastati ning jaotati normannide toetajate vahel laiali. See tekitas tsentraliseeritud kontrolli, kui seni anglosaksi perioodil oli maapiirkondadel suur suveräänsus, siis nüüd oli oluline mitte lasta maakohtades suurmaavaldajatel oma suva järgi tegutseda ning seetõttu saadeti sinna kontroll – rida ametnikke, oluliseim SHERIFF. SHERIFF- Kujunesid 16.sajandini, olid kõige tähtsamad nii administratiiv kui kohtuvõimu esindajad. Olid suurmaavaldajad igas shires v countys. Said väga kiirelt kõige vihatumaks amentikuks, kuna tegutsesid jõuliselt kuninga huvides: finantsasjades, sõjanduses, kohtuasjades, kuninga korralduste ja seaduste kuulutamisel ja täitmise kontrollimises olid nad kuninga huvide kaitsjad. Liikusid ka ringi ja võisid tüliküsimusi lahendada. Olid ametlikud eesistujad ka krahvkonna kohtutes. Rahukohtunikud (justices of the Peace, JP), nende teke ja funktsioonid. Tudorite
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