LEL 2E Notes on Vocabulary One of the key facts about the lexicon of any language is that it reflects in various ways the physical and cultural environment in which the language is spoken. A people unfamiliar with, say, horses is unlikely to have a word for `horse'; similarly with ploughs, printing presses, and internet porn sites. For the most part this is trivial it's hard to imagine how it could be otherwise, given the general nature of human language. People tend to make a great deal of the alleged fact (see Pullum 1989) that "the Eskimos have lots of words for snow", but it doesn't take much thought to realise that any language spoken in a given physical and cultural environment is likely to have efficient ways of referring to distinctions that are
Their names are still used today: Freya Friday, Thor Thursday, Angle-land England. The Anglo-Saxons divided the cuntry into small warring kingdoms Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent, East Anglia. Due to constant conflict weakened the kingdoms. The political power was in Wessex, which was the most powerful of the kingdoms. The Anglo-Saxons were farmers and fishermen and lived in small communities. They deployed a crop rotation over three fields; used heavy ploughs. In 787 AD came the Vikings from Scandinavia, who set up their own state Danelaw. Had their own religion, however their rituals did not demand sacrifices. Introduced new words (1800). Placenames withe suffixes -by and -dale. They had their own customs and laws, which we know due to sagas (oral history). They had no written language. Beowulf Beowulf is an epic or a long poem describing the adventures of an hero
It is also possible that they drove many of the older inhabitants westwards into Wales, Ireland and Scotland where they were eventually assimilated2. Celtic Culture The Celtic tribes continued the same kind of agriculture as the Bronze Age people before them. But the use of iron technology and more advanced ploughing methods made them highly successful farmers, the Celts used ox-drawn wheeled ploughs and this meant that richer, heavier land could be farmed. Under the Celts Britain became an important food producer. It now exported corn and animals, as well as hunting dogs and slaves, to the European mainland. The two main trade outlets eastwards to Europe were the settlements along the Thames River in the south and on the Firth of Forth in the north. It is no accident the present-day capitals of England and Scotland stand on or near these two ancient trade centres
metaphor). If personification is associated with symbolic or didactic tendencies, it becomes allegory - a figurative presentation of an abstract meaning. In allegory the actions are usually symbolic while the characters are expressed by personification (in fables), an abstract idea rendered through a concrete image (e.g. "It is time to turn ploughs into swords."). (8) V. Other cases (Lexical Stylistic Devices) 1. Bathos spoiling the lofty effect, bringing something down to earth. The usual function is irony or humour. - The author may mention elevated things side by side with down-to-earth objects. - Words belonging to different stylistic layers brought together are also bathos (colloquial + formal vocabulary). - Applying colloquial words to distinguished people (e.g
can visualize something it is personification; if not then it is metaphor). If personification is associated with symbolic or didactic tendencies, it becomes allegory - a figurative presentation of an abstract meaning. In allegory the actions are usually symbolic while the characters are expressed by personification (in fables), an abstract idea rendered through a concrete image (e.g. "It is time to turn ploughs into swords."). V. Other cases. 1. Bathos spoiling the lofty effect, bringing something down to earth. The usual function is irony or humor. FGI 1081 Stylistics (I. Ladusseva) 16 - The author may mention elevated things side by side with down-to-earth objects (e.g. "They kissed violently, passionately. The pigs in the sty grunted." "He liked
3100 BC. Stonehenge was produced by a culture with no written language. Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. There is little or no direct evidence for the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders. *The Celts in Britain and their legacy The Cets lived in Britain in The Iron Age. They were warring tribes who were battleful amongst themselves as well as inter-tribal war. They were not centrally governed. The Celts brought iron working, iron ploughs and metal swords, horses, wheels and chariots - all these things gave them an instant superiority over the native tribes. The Celts built a number of hill forts throughout the region. The society was divided into warrior aristocracy, agricultural commons and the priests, the druids. *Caesar in Britain - Britain was very rich in minerals but that wasn't the main reason Caesar wanted to defeat it. He could clearly see that Britain was a threat to his latest and greatest conquest - France
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