· SNARE homologues are involved in vesicle-mediated resistance to stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici). · Besides the extrusion of phytoalexins, the exocytosis of an array of defense-associated polypeptides, the so called pathogenesis-related proteins, into the apoplastic space is a common response to microbial attack that has been observed in numerous pathosystems. · In plant-pathogen interaction, an earlier study showed that the t-SNARE is necessary for endocytosis during the initial stage of development of plant-pathogenic corn smut fungus Ustilago maydis, underlying the importance of SNAREs for both partners of plant-microbe interaction. · In spite of the well understood role of secreted antimicrobial compounds and polypeptides at the cell boundary, the transport route from site of synthesis to the site of action is still a mystery. SNAREs are supposed to have a fundamental role in plant defense (Collins et al., 2003)
charged outer surfaces of cells are attracted to dishes coated in PEI, facilitating stronger attachments between the cells and the plate. However, polyethylenimine expresses some toxicity if excess is left in solution. Transfection reagent Poly(ethylenimine) was the second polymeric transfection agent discovered, after poly-l-lysine. PEI condenses DNA into positively charged particles, which bind to anionic cell surface residues and are brought into the cell via endocytosis. Once inside the cell protonation of the amines results in an influx of counter-ions and a lowering of the osmotic potential. Osmotic swelling results and bursts the vesicle releasing the polymer-DNA complex (polyplex) into the cytoplasm. If the polyplex unpacks then the DNA is free to diffuse to the nucleus.] PEI is extremely cytotoxic, by two different mechanisms, the disruption of the cell membrane leading to necrotic cell death (immediate) and disruption of the mitochondrial membrane after
Eksogeenne rada Eksogeensed antigeenid võetakse sisse ja degradeeritakse endotsüütilises kompartmendis happeliste, pH-sõltuvate endosomaalsete ja lüsosomaalsete ensüümide poolt ja need kombineeruvad MHC klass II molekulidega CD4+ Th rakkudele esitlemiseks. Professional APCs specialize in presenting antigen to T cells. They are very efficient at internalizing antigens, either by phagocytosis (macrophages and dendritic cells) or by receptor-mediated endocytosis (B cells), processing the antigen into peptide fragments and then displaying those peptides, bound to a class II MHC molecule, on their membrane. Non-professional antigen presenting cells include all nucleated cell types in the body. They use an MHC class I molecule coupled to beta-2 microglobulin to display endogenous peptides on the cell membrane. 18. T rakkude areng. Positiivne ja negatiivne selektsioon tüümuses. AIRE. MHC restriktsioon
106. 1 ATP produced ; + + 2 Na or K pump / maintains concentration gradient / repolarisation ; transmission of impulses 3 acetylcholine / neurotransmitter formation ; 4 vesicle formation ; 5 movement of vesicles ; 6 exocytosis / vesicles fuse with membrane ; 2+ 7 ref. active transport (of ACh / Ca ) ; 8 AVP ; e.g. ref to microtubules / endocytosis 4 max muscular contraction 9 ATP attaches to myosin head / ATPase ; 10 hydrolysis of ATP / ATP → ADP + P ; 11 myosin head tilts / shortening of sarcomere ; 12 ATP / energy, required for detachment of myosin head ; 13 from actin ; 14 calcium pumps in sarcoplasmic reticulum ; 15 synthesis of protein (for repair, growth) ;
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