of the other. Orientational metaphor- happy is up, sad is down. Metonymy- is a word that is not called by its own name but by the name it is assosiated with. Nt hollywood- we know it as a filmindustry but acutally it is a palce name. 15) polysemy and homosemy Polysemy- the meaning of the word depends on the sentence. The content- where the word is placed in the sentence. Homonymy- words have same spelling, same pronounciation, but different meaning. Nt fair- laat ja õiglane. 16) Paradigmatic relations 17) synonyms A word that shares the same denotatiove, with another word, different spelling, pronaunciation but the same meaning. Nt male masculine Absolute synonyms- absolute aspects of meaning Near-synonym- nearly similar meaning Cognitive-nt I´m firm, you are subbourn 18) antonyms Opposite meaning. Contrary antonyms- gradable. Long-short Complementary- ungradable. Dead-alive Converse antonyms- relational by/sell, lend/ borrow 19) hypernyms and hyponyms
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OLD ENGLISH - 15 monophtongs, (7 long, 7 short, 1 central), 4 diphtongs, 17 consonants. Free variaton of R, and it was pronounced everywhere. Very much Germanic in character. Quite some special consonants that no longer exist. About morphology: synthetic with numerous aglutinating tendencies. System of tenses Germanic, but with a reduction of tenses. Paradigmatic leveling; Stress shift; Word order; Loan words (Old Norse, Old French). Dual pronouns. Determiners - no separate definite article. Strong and weak verbs. Word order relatively free with tendencies towards SVO. SVO, SOV, VSO most common. Adposition and podposition were both possible (eesliide ja tagaliide). About syntax: clauses were joined much simpler than nowadays, using and, then etc. Because of case syncretion
of the ideas had been anticipated in the works of other 20th century linguists), but rather for the innovative approach that Saussure applied in discussing linguistic phenomena. Saussure is one of the founding fathers of semiotics, which he called semiology. His concept of the sign/signifier/signified/referent forms the core of the field. Equally crucial, although often overlooked or misapplied, is the dimension of the syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes of linguistic description. Saussure's 'theory of the sign' defined a sign as being made up of the matched pair of signifier and signified. Signifier The signifier is the pointing finger, the word, the sound-image. A word is simply a jumble of letters. The pointing finger is not the star. It is in the interpretation of the signifier that meaning is created. Signified The signified is the concept, the meaning, the thing indicated by the signifier
Hypothesis: A is the cause of a. ● (+ The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference) Scientificity of social sciences What have been said as far applies on all sciences even though each has specifies. The scientificity of social sciences is often addressed in comparison with (undisputed) natural sciences. It is claimed that former are less scientific because of the lack of precise laws/predictions. It is sometimes said that social sciences are in a pre-paradigmatic state. This comparison is needless. Social sciences can maintain their specificities as long as they are practised with scientific method. The specificity of social sciences is that they study groups of human individuals, their actions and their intentions. Its object of study is not careless about how he is studied. This object studies the scientist who studies him. The object of study cares about how he is studied so it is difficult to establish if what we
Keith Donnellan notes that, even if Russell is right about some uses of descriptions, he has ignored a common sort of case in which a description is used "referentially," merely to indicate a particular person or thing, regard- less of that referent's attributes. Finally, there are further uses of descriptions, called "anaphoric" uses, which may defy Russellian treatment. 10 Reference and referring Singular terms In English or any other natural language, the paradigmatic referring devices are singular terms, expressions that purport to denote or designate particular individual people, places, or other objects (as opposed to general terms such as "dog" or "brown" that can apply to more than one thing). Singular terms include proper names ("Jane," "Winston Churchill," "Djakarta," "7," 3:17 p.m."), definite descriptions ("the Queen of England," "the cat on the mat," "the last department meeting but one"), singular personal pronouns ("you,"
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