Definitions: Phonology is the study that describes the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonetics is the general study of the charecteristics of speech sounds – studies how different speech sounds are produced. Phoneme is a meaning-distinguishing sound in a language. E.g. artistic-al-ly To know if a sound is a phoneme use the minimal contrasting pair method where the difference is only one sound: pin vs pen. Allophones are different variations of how a phoneme is pronounced according to the context. E.g. dark and clear l – clear and dull. Segmentation is the act of dividing speech sounds into units. E.g. segment- ation Larnyx (kõri) is the voice box. Glottis is the opening between the vocal cords. Manner of articulation is the way the airstream is blocked when producing a sound – blocked vs partially blocked; vibrating vs no vibration. Different sound types:
contrastively/ the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. When there is a contrast in identical environment we must be dealing with separate phonemes - when we replace one sound with another, we get another word with another meaning, therefore that sound must be a phoneme. There are small shades of sounds that don't distinguish meaning phones. The different phones that are the realisations of the same phoneme are called allophones. Allophones - are the actual pronunciations of phonemes in different environments. Complementary distribution phonetic units that never occur in the same environment are said to be in complementary distribution. For example, clear/l/ and dark/l/. NB! The sounds we produce and hear are continuous: we move our organs of speech continuously and produce a continuous signal still it is possible to divide speech into units, which is called segmentation. The sounds of languages can be produced by:
languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). Grimm's law consists of three parts which form consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift. [1] The phases are usually constructed as follows: - Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives. - Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops. - Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced stops or fricatives (as allophones). Grimm himself already noticed that there were many words that had different consonants from what his law predicted. These exceptions defied linguists for a few decades, but eventually received explanation from Danish linguist Karl Verner in the form of Verner's law. VERNER'S LAW Verner's law, stated by Karl Verner in 1875, describes a historical sound change in the Proto- Germanic language whereby voiceless fricatives *f, *, *s, *h, *h, when immediately following
13. In Quebec, French is the official language. Quebecois would like to be recognised as a distinct society and independent from Canada as Quebec did not sign the Canadian Constitution. 14. Nunavut (Our Land) is the territory of the Inuit people in the north that was established in 1999. 15. First Nations aboriginal people of Canada Anglophones English-speaking people Francophones French-speaking people Allophones people who have some other language as their mother tongue USA 1. Three strong forces (John F. Kennedy): - Religious persecution - Political oppression - Economic hardship 2. The first permanent British colonies in America were Plymouth (1620) and Jamestown (1607). 3. Immigrants: - Before the mid-19th century from England - The second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century Continental Europe
like candle and ass. 1066 the Battle of Hastings-During the next century approximately 200 000 Normans settled in Britain. (Norman) French was prestigious. Ample borrowing. Otto Jespersen: "The Norman invasion broke the proud Teutonic backbone of the English language" From now on, English open to loanwords Flower, forest, valley, river*, face-norman french loans Peculiarities of Old English pronunciation and spelling /f/ and /v/ were allophones, i.e. there was no phonemic difference between them: no minimal pairs where /f/ and /v/ would make a difference in meaning. The letter f used for both. In a voiced environment the pronunciation voiced, ie /v/, in a voiceless environment unvoiced, ie /f/. At the beginning of words: debatable. By constrast, vowel length was phonemic: man /man/ human being, man mn /ma :n/ - evil; witchcraft In old manuscripts vowel length indicated by ´ (like a stress mark), in modern editions a
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