a textbook would probably sound equally strange, were it written in slang. • Levels of formality and social distance. Be able to list the different levels of formality and identify the approximate level of formality of an example sentence. What does it mean that people are socially more close or distant? How is this indicated in speech? How is politeness indicated in speech? Officialese – The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically prohibited in this establishment. Official – The consumption of nutriments is prohibited. Formal – You are requested not to consume food in this establishment. Neutral – Eating is not allowed here. Informal – Please don't eat here. Colloquial – You can't feed your face here. Slang – Lay off the nosh. Taboo – Lay off the bloody nosh. What actually determined the degree of distance and formality may be social status (people from lower statuses will address those at a higher
"), or when used independently standing for a person (metonymy) (e.g. "You are a beautiful 20."). EXPRESSIVENESS ON THE LEVEL OF WORD BUILDING (WB) Words may acquire expressiveness due to their structure. Affixation: suffix ish- with the adjective stem the suffix denotes a small degree of some quality (e.g. brownish). Another function is to coin tactful words that are often nonce words because the speaker does not wish to sound too categorically (e.g. dull dullish; big biggish; late lateish; etc.). Together with nouns ish forms adjectives that are negative: doggish, sheepish, childish, etc. The negative colouring is even greater with compound stems (e.g. honeymoonish, come-hetherish, etc.). Exception: the words "boyish" and "girlish" do not have negative evaluation. Suffixes may be added to proper names. The suffix ish- adds a negative colouring (e.g
1 1 staunchly / resolutely for the time being. 3 When it comes to politics, 2 By and large 4 They'll be here any moment now. Edward and his dad have a lot in 3 swiftly 5 Everybody makes mistakes once common. 4 loosely in a while. 4 Luke is the spitting image of Matt 5 categorically 6 My brother was still a baby at the Damon. 6 widely time. 5 Personality-wise, I take after my 7 resolutely / staunchly mum. 8 strictly 5 unaffected inappropriate 9 gravely
continued to call her "Liz.") The multiple-grounding strategy does not seem to help here. Rather, what matters is which cat I had in mind and believed I was naming in the ceremony. (Devitt (1981a: section 5.1) speaks of "abilities to designate," construing these as mental states of a certain sophisticated type.) If so, then repair of the CausalHistorical Theory on this point will require a significant foray into the philosophy of mind. 58 Reference and referring Objection 4 People can be categorically mistaken in their beliefs about referents. Evans cites E. K. Chambers' Arthur of Britain11 as asserting that King Arthur had a son Anir "whom legend has perhaps confused with his burial place." A speaker in the grip of the latter confusion might say "Anir must be a green and lovely spot"; the CausalHistorical Theory would interpret that sentence as saying that a human being (Arthur's son) was a green and lovely spot. Less
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