lethal radiation. Yet the legacy of supernovas is as close as our own bodies. The carbon in our cells, the oxygen in the air, the silicon in rocks and computer chips, the iron in our blood and our machines--just about every atom heavier than hydrogen and helium--was forged inside ancient stars and strewn across the universe when they exploded billions of years ago. Eager to understand our origins and, in some cases, simply wild about things that go bang, astronomers have been struggling for decades to understand why stars that shine peacefully for millions of years suddenly blow up. Lately they've had two big breaks. One is a revelation about potent blasts of high-energy gamma rays that come from distant points in the heavens. For decades astronomers have puzzled over their origins, but space probes recently clinched the answer, which Woosley proposed more than a decade ago: Many gamma-ray bursts are the early warning signals from supernovas, emitted
8 was lost 10 have been written must exist on other planets. When 9 have been damaged Photocopiable © Oxford University Press 19 Maturita Solutions Upper-Intermediate Workbook Key you think how many stars there are Get Ready for Maturita 5 take on the world. When I came out in our galaxy astronomers think page 9192 of art school and didn't know what about 100 billion the chances are Reading I wanted to do, it was Mum's idea I pretty high that there are planets out should draw all the star signs for a · Elicit or remind students of
flash of brilliance, nor that Copernicus or Kepler or Galileo just woke up one morning and pronounced their discoveries to a world which became somehow instantaneously different. Past historians have looked at the history of modern science from precisely this point of view. Like the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution has been interpreted as explosive, a surge forward, a watershed [ sai alguse jõelahkmest ]. The scientists of the seventeenth century those mathematicians, astronomers, and philosophers had the enormous weight of centuries of thought resting on their shoulders. Even Isaac Newton was aware of the debt he owed to the past. Although this tradition was based largely on the work of Aristoteles and Dante, the scientific revolutionaries sought [ otsisid teed ] to break free from these traditional beliefs. They had to forge a new identity. The scientific revolutionaries needed to transcend [ ületama ] Platon, Aristoteles, Ptolemaios or
intelligence. Can the whole use the human mind to create things or bring about situations that are in alignment with its purpose? Yes, whenever there is inspiration, which translates as “in spirit,” and enthusiasm, which means “In God,” there is a creative empowerment hat goes far beyond what a mere person is capable of. CHAPTER TEN A NEW EARTH Astronomers have discovered evidence to suggest that the universe came into existence fifteen billion years ago in a gigantic explosion and has been expanding ever since. Not only has it been expanding, but it is also growing in complexity and becoming more and more differentiated. Some scientists also postulate that this movement from unity to multiplicity will eventually become reversed. The universe will then stop expanding and begin to
koguteos (Estonian Creation), vol. 4 (Stockholm: Välis-Eesti Kirjastustoimkond, 1946) 103. 3 Ibid, 103-104. 4 Carl G. Brinkmann, Revaler Zeitung 18 Apr. 1944. Sciences; Gustav Ränk (1902-1998), ethnologist; Oskar Loorits (1900-1961) historian and folklorist, greatly appreciated for research into the ancient religions of the Estonians and Livonians; Ernst Öpik (1893-1985), astronomer, founder of the Estonian School of Astronomers, author of a theory concerning the evolution of comets; Edgar Kant (1902-1978), economist and geographer, the last war-time Rector of Tartu University; Jüri Uluots (1890-1945), lawyer and statesman, the last Premier of the Estonian Republic; Johan Kõpp (1874-1970), Bishop of the Estonian Lutheran Church; Arthur Võõbus (1909-1988), clergyman, church historian and Orientalist. Tartu University lost 190 of its lecturers and professors1
have to be made to bring the hypothesis into contact with the experimental apparatus. Hypotheses do sometimes get disconfirmed, outright refuted if you like, but only because the scientists involved are holding certain other assumptions fixed, assumptions that are disputable and may even be quite wrong. Suppose we are doing an astronomical study, and we are verifying and refuting things by making observations through complicated telescopes. In using such telescopes, the astronomers are assuming virtually all of optical theory, and countless other things besides. Surprisingly, Duhem's point holds in everyday life as well. Take any good ordinary sentence about a physical object, such as "There is a chair at the head of the table." What is its verification condition? A first thing to notice is that "the" set of experiences that would confirm that sentence is in a way conditional, on one's hypothetical vantage point. We might try something
American rare book dealer named Wilfred Voynich purchased it for an undisclosed sum from the Jesuit school of Mondragone in Frascati, Italy. Eager to read the manuscript, Voynich generously supplied photostats to anyone who seemed likely to solve it. Many tried. Botanists thought they could read it-by identifying the plants and assuming their names as probable words; one difficulty here was that most of the flora were imaginary. Astronomers recognized stars such as Aldebaran and the Hyades but could not force a solution. Philologists tried the methods used for reading lost languages and failed. Cryptanalysts observed characteristics in common with ordinary ciphers and found that it resisted their well-tried techniques. Voynich heard from many specialists who were interested in the problem: palaeographer H. Omont of Paris' Bibliotheque Nationale, who had written a learned article about a 15th-
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