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Tallinna Ülikool - Kultuur-Kunst - Stilistika (inglise)

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FGI 1081 Stilistika ( Irina Ladusseva) Kab. 420 2 AP
Ends with an exam ; lasts only for 1 semester . At the exam you get 2 questions and an exercise (50 sentences : establish the device used, recognize it, and name it). Care about the pronunciation of the terms .
Books :

I. Galperin “Stylistics”
I. Ladusseva “ Rhythm and Text”
I. Ladusseva “ Vocabulary and Style”
I. Ladusseva “ Stylistic practice: Book I, Book II”
I. Ladusseva “A Guide to Punctuation”

EXAMINATION TOPICS:

Style, stylistics, a survey of stylistic studies

Inherent connotations. Phonesthemes

Adherent connotations

Stylistic morphology : articles , nouns , pronouns , adjectives, verbs , adverbs , number *

Expressiveness on the level of word-building

Phonetic expressive means
Study independently

Phonetic SD (“Rhythm And Style”)

Lexical SD*

Syntactic SD*

Graphical means and devices

Common literary and common colloquial vocabulary

Special literary vocabulary

Special colloquial vocabulary
14. Metre in English poetry . Modifications of metre (“Rhythm and Text”)
15. Typically English stanzas (“Rhythm and Text”)
16. Rhythm in poetry and in prose (“Rhythm and Text”)
17. Varieties of language (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
18. Emotive prose (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
19. Scientific prose style (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
20. Language of the drama (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
21. Publicistic style (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
22. The style of official documents (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
23. Newspaper style (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
*- very bulky questions – they will be split into several parts at the exam.
STYLISTIC TERMS:
Style
Stylistics
The styl. of lg.
The styl. of speech
Denotation
Connotation
Inherent
Adherent
Phonestheme
Expressive means
Stylistic devices
Phonostylistics
Phonetic. expr. means
Prosody
Orchestration
Euphony
Phonetic SD
Onomatopoeia
Alliteration
Assonance
Rhyme :
Full
Incomplete
Vowel
Consonant
Compound
Eye-rhyme
Internal
Head r.
Couplet r.
Cross r.
Frame r.
Lexical SD
Metaphor:
Trite
Genuine
Sustained
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Antonomasia
Irony
Epithet:
Syntactic
Phrase
Sentence
Metaphorical
Transferred
Oxymoron
Hyperbole
Understatement
Zeugma
Semantically false chain
Pun
Periphrasis
Simile
Euphemism
Personification
Bathos
Allusion
Quotation
Epigram
PU, deformed PU
Synonymic repetition
Lexical repetition
Syntactic SD
Ellipsis
Aposiopesis
Nominative sent .
Asyndeton
Apokoinu
Gap-sentence link
Framing
Anadiplosis
Tautology
Polysyndeton
Inversion
Detachment
Antithesis
Chiasmus
Anaphora
Epiphora
Climax
Anticlimax
Suspense
Rhetorical q.
Exclamation
Graphical Means, SD
Under / overstopping
Indented line
Graphon
Common Lit. Voc.
Special Lit. Voc.
Terms
Barbarisms / foreign w.
Archaic w.
Poetic diction
Neologisms
(nonce- words )
Common Coll. Voc.
Special Coll. Voc.:
Slang
Jargon
Cant
Vulgarisms
Professional w.
Dialectal w.
Rhythm
Foot
Metre:
Iambus
Trochee
Anapaest
Dactyl
Amphibrach
Spondee
Pyrrhic
Rhythmic invers.
Run-on line
Stanza :
Heroic couplet
Ballad stanza
Spenserian stanza
Ottava rima
Sonnet:
Italian
Shakespearean
Blank verse
Limerick
Accented verse
Monometer
Dimeter
Trimeter
Pentameter
Hexameter
Heptameter
Octometer
Phrasing
Syntagm
Monotonous rhythm
Jerky rhythm
Alternating rhythm
Rambling rhythm
Grading rhythm
Functional styles / registers
STYLE AND STYLISTICS
The term “style” is polysemantic (has many meanings): a Latin word “stilus” originally meant a writing instrument used by ancient people. Already in classical Latin the meaning was extended to denote the manner of expressing one’s ideas in written or oral form. The precise definition was given by Jonathan Swift , who defined style as “ proper words in proper places”. In present day English the word “style” is used in about a dozen of principle meanings:

the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses his/her ideas (e.g. style of Byron ).

the manner of expressing ideas, characteristic of a literary movement or period (e.g. symbolism, romanticism , renaissance).

the use of language typical of a literary genre (e.g. the style of a comedy , drama, novel ).

the selective use of language that depends on spheres / areas of human activity (e.g. style of fiction , scientific prose, newspapers , business correspondence, etc.).
These are called functional styles or registers.
Stylistics – is the study of style.
In spite of the variety of styles English Stylistics has not been discussed on the same scale as French or German stylistics; it has not been discussed thoroughly.
The very term “stylistics” came in more common use in English only some 45 years ago. However , it was recorded for the first time much earlier – in 1882, meaning “the study of literary style, the study of stylistic features ” ( Oxford Dictionary).
Stylist is a writer / speaker skilled in a literary style (e.g. Hemingway is considered a peculiar stylist – used a lot of repetitions). Stylistician is a scholar (a student ).
Style is applied to many things: clothing , architecture, hairstyles, etc. A linguistic style (style in language) is a variety of subsystems of language with its peculiar vocabulary, phraseology, grammatical and phonetic features that are used selectively to express ideas in a given situation.
Stylistics is a part of style; it studies principles of selecting and using different linguistic means (grammatical and phonetic) that serve to render shades of meaning. Stylistics studies different styles (4) and expressive emotional evaluative features of different linguistic units . Stylistics of language and of speech is not the same. The Stylistics of language studies different styles including registers, stylistic devices and expressive shades of linguistic units (words, construction of phrases ). The Stylistics of speech studies individual texts viewing the way the message or content is expressed. Literary Stylistics concentrates on artistic expressiveness that characterises a literary work or a writer, a literary trend or a whole time period. Thus Stylistics is a part of theory of literature (literary criticism) and poetics . Poetics is a science viewing a structure of a literary work and esthetic means “ employ with it”. Linguistic Stylistics studies linguistic facts from the point of view of their ability to convey extra shades of meaning (connotations – we call them ).
Any speech act (oral or written) is meant to pass an information. There are 2 types of information:

the content proper

additional information, which is connected with the conditions and participants of the act of the communication . This additional information finds expression in emotional overtones that are attached to the main content of the utterance.
Every speaker has experienced that the form of speech may vary depending on a speaker, a listener, and the circumstances in which they communicate:
Neutral Literary Colloquial
To eat to partake to gobble
To die to expire to go west
To kill to slay to make away / to do in
To begin to commence to get going
Stylistics is a very special science because it has no fixed single unit of study. In contrast to other linguistic sciences (e.g. lexicology (words), morphology (word structure), syntax (structure of sentences), phonetics (sounds and intonation ) stylistics studies everything that makes the utterance of the text expressive. Stylistics cuts right across all the basic linguistic sciences.
Phonetics: “silent sleepy streets” (alliteration; lexicology) ” quiet noiseless streets” – sentence is the same but the effect is different.
Morphology: “ spoke ” and “spake” – from the point of view of morphology these are just 2 variants of the past tense. From the stylistic point of view they are 2 different models of expression because they carry different stylistic overtones. “Spake” is archaic and therefore is used in elevated style or for the irony in everyday speech, while “spoke” is just the ordinary way of expressing.
In syntax the sentence structure may differ and the stylistic effect may be different: “He came in” (neutral) – “In he came” (more dynamic ). Here we observe inversion – different word order – it is more powerful .
In lexicology we find many examples of synonymic pairs in which the borrowed word carries bookish term and the native word is neutral (e.g. begin - commence, understand – comprehend, think – cogitate, etc.).
“He came home drunk” – no extra shades of meaning.
“He returned to his residence in a state of intoxication” – has extra shade of meaning (irony).
“He died poor” – no extra shades of meaning.
“He expired in indigent circumstances” – has extra shade of meaning.
“My parent has passed away” – bookish.
“My old man has kicked a basket” – colloquial.
The choice of words may be peculiar and so unexpected word combinations may arise . Any such phrase is of an interest in stylistics:
USUAL UNUSUAL
a week / month ago a grief ago / a smile ago / a cigarette ago
delicious meal delicious murder
ungrammatical sentence ungrammatical house
a crooked street a crooked hook
bloodthirsty killer bloodthirsty embrace
“Colourless green ideas sleep furiously” - ( highly original ).
OR: e. e. comings ( modernist poet ):
“My father moved through dooms of love
Through sames of am through haves of give …”
(here “am” becomes a noun , also “have” becomes a noun).
J. Joyce “ Ulysses ” – in last chapter for 44 pages comes no single mark of punctuation but nevertheless it has 8 paragraphs. Why? Because his wife ’s birthday is on the 8th of some month. It is very individual.
STYLISTICS AS A SCIENCE.
SURVEY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF STYLISTIC STUDIES.
Stylistics is regarded as a relatively new branch of philology, yet its roots go back as far as ancient Greece and Rome, when the rhetoricians cultivated the art of clear and elegant use of language developing and polishing stylistic devices basically.
In the 18th century there emerged an individualistic psychological view of style and stylistics. According to this view style bears the stamp of individual usage , that is – every writer has a unique pattern of habits that form his style (e.g. W. Woolf - some of her starting phrases begin with “For”). This approach is best illustrated in the well- known dictum of the French poet and stylist Georges Louis de Buffon: “Style is the man himself ”.
The late 19th century and early 20th century saw the appearance of the utilitarian (pragmatic) approach to stylistics: the tendency to regard stylistics as an applied science – it has been particularly strong in the English speaking countries. It was believed that the chief aim of the stylistics is to improve the style of the reader, to teach him to express his thoughts better (e.g. G. H. Vallins – books: “ Good English”, “Better English”, “Best English”). The other prominent trend was to regard style as pure form divorced from thought (ideas, message).
Speaking of foreign linguists it is the French – Ch. Bally and J. Marouseau – who have in 20th century made a definite contribution , this was due to old tradition of interest in style in France. The classical words of classic stylistics are those by German scholars Ph. Aronstein and W. Deutschbein.
In the 50s and 60s there was a rapid growth of interest in stylistics. Various conferences were held (e.g. USA 1958, GDR 1959 , USSR 1961, 1963, etc.).
The methods of structural linguistics were most popular in 70s and 80s. Present day stylistic studies have gradually taken a more systematic course . Increasing interest is apparent in a quantitative aspect. Thus the statistical word frequently, also computers have given stylistics a more exact basis. Computer assisted stylistic analysis seems quite promising (e.g. the study of cases of disputed authorship; or the influence of one author on another author’s style). Although still somewhat chaotic and unorganized stylistics is a vigorous young science with wide potential and prospects.

THE COLOURING OF THE WORD

Meaning of a word has: a denotation (meaning proper, we find it in dictionaries) and a connotation (an additional shade of meaning). Connotation is also: overtones, colouring, charge , and shade of meaning – all this actually means the same. The bulk of words have denotation (in any language)(e.g. tree, time, quick, to take, etc.). Connotation may be a permanent part of word meaning – it is then called inherent connotation. Connotation is ever present when the word is used. Adherent connotation is the shade of meaning the word requires in a particular context only. Outside this context this shade of meaning is not present.
Connotation is not uniform ( even ). On the one hand there are words that convey emotional or expressive overtones (e.g. OK – fine - gorgeous →“gorgeous” conveys emotional overtones). On the other hand they may contain evaluation (the speaker’s or writer’s negative or positive attitude ) (e.g. famous (positive) – notorious (negative).
Arnold : “For example the words: “girl”, “ maiden ”, “ lass ”, “ lassie ”, “ chick ”, “baby”, and “young lady ” have identical denotation and may be referred to one and the same person , but the use of this or that word depends not so much on the qualities of the girl herself as on the speaker’s attitude to the girl and on the social situation. “Girl” is used in any situation, it has no connotation, and it is stylistically neutral. “Maiden” is an archaic and poetic word, and has a lofty ring about it. Its usage is very limited (poetry) and if used informally it acquires a facetious or ironic connotation. “Lass / lassie” ( come from Scottish dialect and have a rustic colouring) they are words of endearment and connote affection . “Chick / baby” - are part of informal English; connote intimacy and familiarity. “Young lady” if used in formal conversation connotes social distance ; but otherwise acquires an ironic ring. Besides “lass / lassie” and “chick / baby” imply approval (positive attitude) and are more expressive than just “girl”.

INHERENT CONNOTATION (IC)

IC may be secured by the very object , quality or notion that word denotes. We mean that people appreciate some certain notions, either positive or negative (e.g. Positively charged words: noble, manly, virtue, beauty , love, etc. Negatively charged words: nasty , vulgar, greedy, sin, death , fool , etc.). This connotation is called referential, it depends on the referent (mean the thing the word stands for).

IC may depend on the structure of the word. Such words normally have a transparent structure and more often negative affixes are used (e.g. unkind, impolite, injustice, heartless, etc.). This kind of connotation is purely linguistic.

Emotional connotation characterizes words in synonymic sets that occupy the so-called final position (e.g. big – tremendous – “tremendous” has emotional colouring. Like – worship; interesting – amazing; good – marvelous, etc.). So the expressive use of language depends on the ability to choose the proper word among those that denote the same thing . The linguist R. M. Eastman illustrates it so: “You may speak of the “ fragrance ” of a certain perfume if you like it or of its “ reek ”, when you did not like it, or simply about its “odor” if you did not care”. (e.g. “ money ” (neutral) – “pelf” ( important ) – “dough” (do not care) – all these stand for the same thing but have different connotation.

IC may comprise the stylistic colouring of the word that is the word belonging to a certain style of language. Words are then either neutral – formal – informal (or: neutral – colloquial – literary). This colouring (formal – informal) is always present in a word (e.g. “ drink ” (neutral) – “beverage” (literary) – “ pull ” (colloquial); “home” (neutral) – “residence” (literary) – “digs” (colloquial).
Phonestheme is a subtype of IC. This is a repeated combination of sounds (not a morpheme) that has a more or less clearly perceived meaning. Thus in the words “ flight ”, “flimsy”, “flippant” – “fl” combination of sounds conveys the idea of airiness, brightness with the implication of insecurity. “ Slow ”, “sluggish”, “sloppy” – “sl” has the meaning of slowness and inactivity. “Spry”, “sprightly”, “springy” – “spr” conveys the idea of energetic, risk, and lively motion .
ADHERENT CONNOTATION (AC)
Is evoked only to create a particular context (e.g. O. Wilde : “I tell you what, you are very rude , and, after all, what are you? Only a student (negative here).” “He is some brainless (positive here), beautiful creature who should always be here in winter when we have no plants to look at” – these examples show that AC may be either positive or negative.
Negative adherent connotation

Grammatical negation results in words becoming negatively charged (e.g. “Science has not got a soul . Cannot help itself.” – science here becomes negative).

The neighbourhood or closeness of words bearing adherent negative connotation (e.g. “I saw myself as Mommy would see me uncouth (negative) and vulgar (negative) and working - class ” (due to previous 2 words it becomes negative too, otherwise “working-class” is neutral).

Vulgar words in the context lend their negative charge normally to the following word (e.g. “And you could not forget your bloody (vulgar) principles (become negative) for just one night ”)

The same do certain intensifiers (adverbs that intensify), such as: merely, only, too, too much, horribly, perfectly, so, etc. (e.g. “Books were too clean , too neatly arranged, too new.” – words after “too” become negative).

Repetition of a word in a sentence makes the negative charge stronger (e.g. “You are sitting here comfortably, preaching about it – everlasting preaching, preaching words, words.” – this makes the negative charge rather strong).

Graphic presentation – the inverted commas, quotation marks (e.g. “This ‘sweet’ lady has killed five husbands.”).

Uncommon use of punctuation (e.g. “But I have always had to fight for my children while he sat over his books – and prayed.”).

Exclamatory and interrogatory sentences (e.g. “ Women and votes! It’s the last stage of the decomposition of the world.” – “women” and “votes” become negative due to the exclamation mark).

The writer may indicate the quality of the character ’s voice (e.g. –“And in 20 years do you know what those people would be? – “Society,” she said blackly ( shows speaker’s negative attitude). “Society” becomes negatively because of “blackly”).
Cases of negative AC are far more numerous than those of positive AC, and the reason is that in English we have a great number of words for conveying positive attitude and not so many of those expressing negative evaluation.
Positive adherent connotation

The closeness and neighbourhood of words with inherent positive overtones (e.g. “She kissed my hands. They are beautiful, she said, big, and red, and brutal.” – “beautiful” is positively charged and so it influences “big” and “brutal”).

We may have comparison a part of which the word becomes (e.g. O. Wilde “ Youth is so much valuable than the experience : it is much so far intelligent.” – “youth” becomes positive, it is compared to “experience”).

Words “ hope ”, “ wish ”, etc. may affect a word in the context (e.g. O. Wilde “You cannot go anywhere without meeting clever (negative here) people. . . . I wish to goodness we had a few fools (positive here) left .” – “fool” is normally a negative word but now it acquires a positive charge).

Repetition of a word (e.g. “Her ideal was a German world in which the rest of the nations should enjoy the benefits of German science, and German art, and German culture.” – here “German” becomes positive).

Complementary words.

Character’s voice (e.g. “-What do you feel now?” – “Hatred”, she said, her voice trembling with pleasure .” – “pleasure” turns “hatred” into positive).
As we have seen in some examples words that already possess IC may change its nature in the context and here we speak of AC and what we mean is that positively charged words become negative and vice versa (e.g. ”What attracts me to him is his singular dishonesty (becomes positive). Honest (becomes negative) people are so boring.”).
STYLISTIC MORPHOLOGY
Expressive features of separate part of speech:
NOUNS:
The expressive features of nouns are based on non-typical use of the number, the case , and pronoun substitution (e.g. “man” is ‘he’, “ woman ” is ‘she’ – it is normal). On a transposition of nouns from one semantic group to another this is observed in personification, in which objects, natural phenomenon and animals are attributed with human feelings , thoughts, or speech. Here the noun changes its usual connection with pronouns and also its lexical combinability (e.g. “The Wind laughed his evil laugh and ran away.” –“wind” is combined with typically human aspects).
Another case of transposition is zoonymic metaphor. Names of animals, birds , fantastic beings when applied to people become emotionally coloured and often offensive: ass, donkey, duck, mule , snake , wolf , angel, devil , witch, etc. Connotations vary when names of animals have synonyms (e.g. pig, donkey, monkey – they are rather positive or ironic; their synonyms: swine, ass, ape – are rude and negative).
Negative colouring is made stronger by constant epithets and emphatic constructions (e.g. “You impudent pup (puppy).” – you + adj. + noun: “You filthy swine”, “You lazy dog”).
Transposition may occur within different parts of speech. Adjectives when used as nouns become colloquial (e.g. “Listen, my sweat (noun)”, “come on, lovely (noun)”). When abstract nouns begin to function as personal (stand for people) – they become emotional (dealing with metonymy) (e.g. “The old oddity.” – an old odd person; “The little eccentricity.” – an eccentric child ; “He is a disgrace to his family.” – he is a disgraceful son).
Possessive case – the suffix apostrophe “`s” may be added to a phrase or sentence and the result is humor or colloquial touch (e.g. “She is the boy I used to go with`s mother .” “He is the niece I told you about`s husband .”). The ending of the plural may be added to the sentence with the same effect (e.g. “One I- sorry -for-you is worth twenty souls …”). Abstract nouns when used with the plural become very expressive (e.g. “Here reigned maenesses, cruels, …”).
ARTICLES:
The article with a proper name ads a colloquial touch (e.g. Hardy – Hardy`s: “The Hardy`s were rather late.” “He was engaged to a Mrs. Haggard.” “Have you a Tournel” (means a painting of Tournel).
Indefinite article:

with a family name creates evaluative meaning (e.g. “I do not claim to be a Caruso.” – means: I do not claim I sing well).
with names of common people suggests a contemptuous attitude toward them (e.g. “I will never marry a Malone or a Sykes – and no one will never marry me.”).
may convey a feeling of belonging to an aristocratic family (e.g. “Elisabeth was a Tudor .”).

While listing adjectives normally one article is enough (e.g. “he was a nice , kind, pleasant man”). However the author may use an article with each of adjectives in order to emphasize every word (e.g. “he was a kind, a nice, a pleasant man”).
Absence of the article in the singular of concrete nouns is violation of the norm, yet is used for expressive purposes to convey the idea of utmost generalization (e.g. “Wife, child, house, dog – isn’t it too much?”).
PRONOUNS:
Instead of “I” the speaker may use: “one”, “you”; which reveals him as a reserved person (e.g. “One never knows.”). The same “you” and “one” create a close contact with the reader or listener. In colloquial speech the same effect is achieved by “man”, “girl”, “ chap ”, “fellow”.
The speaker may use pronouns “he”, “she” meaning himself as if viewing himself from the distance and this is a means of focusing more attention on the speaker (e.g. K. Mansfield: “I do not want to write; I want to live . What does she mean by that?” ).
The archaic second personal pronoun “thou” (“thee – thy – thyself”) and its forms may be used nowadays to create an elevated mood in poetry. In prose they may convey geographical or historical background (e.g. E. Hemingway rendered the speech of a Spanish person by using “thou”; or W. Scott in his historical novels used “thou” for ancient colouring).
“It”, “he”, “she” may be involved in personification (e.g. “The Moon smiled her smile.”). When applied to people transfers then to a class of objects and creates irony, humor or negative overtones (e.g. “The woman went along the road , then it stopped and ring.”).
“We” according to English norm may be used to denote only a speaker. “We” – the Majestic Plural – that is used in king or queen ’s orders or manifesto (e.g. “We, Queen Elisabeth ….”). The Modest Plural – is when “we” is used out of modesty as if involving the audience as well (e.g. “Last time we were discussing …”). The Modest Plural in prose creates associations with scientific prose (also in term papers) and creates a true to life effect (e.g. W. Scott used “we” in his historical novels – it made the reader to feel he is dealing with popular science fiction).
“They” becomes emotional when used independently (e.g. R. Kipling “All that people like us are “we”, and everyone else are “they”.).
“This”, “that” may express anger or irritation (e.g. “These people!”). In certain constructions these pronouns stand in the end and the whole expression or phrase becomes very expressive (e.g. “”This idea of his!” “That friend of yours !”).
ADJECTIVES:
Expressing features of adjectives concern the degrees of comparison, especially when rules or norms are violated. We do not apply to relative adjectives a comparison, yet it is done for the sake of expressiveness (e.g. “You cannot be deader than the dead.” “The house looked more stony than ever.”).
The ending –er or –est added to longer adjectives violates the norm and has different functions : to suggest excitement , humor, poor education (e.g. “It is getting curiouser and curiouser.” “She was the beautifulest woman.”). For the sake of humor or for efficient advertising the endings –er and –est are added to “bad”, “good”, “many” (e.g. “She is the baddest listener”). Sometimes even double forms are used (e.g. “”She was getting worser and worser.”).
VERBS:
The Historical Present (present tense) in the author’s narrative is used to render past events, creating the illusion of things happening at the present moment. Continuous tenses may express surprise , disbelief, indignation (e.g. “One day, when I am no longer spending time running a sweet stool, I am to write a book about us all.”). Sometimes continuous tenses are more polite and mild (e.g. “He is not feeling too well today .”). In the dialogue we may come across ungrammatical instances: we, I, he + ain`t; I says ; we says; times has changed; he done me harm ; etc. These cases reflect ungrammatical, uneducated, original, or excited state of mind.
Archaic verbal forms may be used to create the historical background or make the narrative more elevated. On the other hand they may suggest the colloquial speech, because these forms are preserved in dialects (e.g. ending –st (you live – you livest (second person Singular); -eth (indicates the 3rd person singular); -st (Past) (do – did (didst).
ADVERBS:
Are expressive when used as intensifiers (intensifying adverbs) (e.g. terribly smart , horribly polite, awfully pleased, to love fearfully, etc.). Such adverbs give a colloquial touch and their expressiveness depends on 2 incompatible clashing notions put together (oxymoron case). Also degrees of comparison may be involved (e.g. better – weller).
NUMERALS:
On the whole numerals are not expressive but become emphatic when used in exaggeration or hyperbole (e.g. “I have been away for 300 years.”), or when used independently standing for a person (metonymy) (e.g. “You are a beautiful 20.”).
EXPRESSIVENESS ON THE LEVEL OF WORD BUILDING (WB)
Words may acquire expressiveness due to their structure.
Affixation: suffix –ish- with the adjective stem the suffix denotes a small degree of some quality (e.g. brownish). Another function is to coin tactful words that are often nonce words because the speaker does not wish to sound too categorically (e.g. dull – dullish; big – biggish; late – lateish; etc.). Together with nouns – ish – forms adjectives that are negative: doggish, sheepish, childish, etc. The negative colouring is even greater with compound stems (e.g. honeymoonish, come-hetherish, etc.). Exception: the words “boyish” and “girlish” do not have negative evaluation. Suffixes may be added to proper names. The suffix –ish- adds a negative colouring (e.g. if the speaker has no respect for Dickens he can use suffix –ish- to show it, so he can say “dickensish”).
The suffixes –ien – and –ean – render the name as lofty (e.g. Dickensien, Shakespearean); suffix –esque- possesses positive connotation and forms an element of refine style (e.g. Turner – turneresque).
The main noun forming suffixes that render negative evaluation are:
-ard- (e.g. coward, drunkard, etc.),
- ster - (e.g. gangster, hipster, oldster, etc.),
-eer- (e.g. rocketeer, profiteer, blackmarketeer, etc.),
semi affix: -monger (e.g. war-monger, panic-monger, etc.),
-o- (e.g. kiddo (kid), oldo (old), coppo (cop), etc.); other suffixes of young people (slang) are:
- happy (e.g. car-happy), -dog (e.g. handsome -dog), -ola (e.g. chair  chairola). Their effect is often irony or contempt.
There are those affixes that are negative, indicating the absence of some quality, they are very expressive (e.g. “motherless / fatherless” – are more expressive than “orphan”). Their expressiveness is based on the fact that negation shows that ties between elements are possible yet do not exist . The romantic writers tend to bring together adjectives with these affixes and the text becomes very emotional (e.g. “He was unmoved, unshaken, unterrifyed.” – sounds more emotional than: “He was calm and brave.”)
Diminutive suffixes either express the small size or add a positive, humorous and sometimes a contemptuous colouring:
-let- (e.g. starlet, chicklet, etc.)
-kin- (e.g. lambkin, etc.)
- ling - (e.g. weakling, etc.)
-ette- (e.g. kitchenette, etc.)
-y / ie-(e.g. daddy , etc.)
Proceeding with composition we may say that unexpected models of compound words are humorous due to unusual combination of elements (e.g. chief: editor -in-chief, boy-friend-in-chief - this sounds funny and unexpected). Words standing for people may be coined out of a phrase ( usually they are negative) (e.g. “Ms. what-her-name”, “a might-have-been”, “an also-run”). This type of word building – compression – is often used to coin new words (nonce words):
nouns (e.g. “She greeted me with a pleasant-day-don’t-you-think-so smile.”)
adjectives (e.g. “Move-away-or-I-will-kick-you attitude”)
In general, nonce words are very expressive, because they are fresh , strikingly new and unexpected. This applies to words of uncommon structure and words build according to normal structure (e.g. an eyebrow, babydom (world of babies).
Words based on repetition and rhyme (e.g. helter – skelter, riff – raff, etc.) possess humorous and / or ironic overtones. The same applies to rhyming slang, which originates from Cockney (e.g. “joy of my life – wife”).
The expressiveness of the distorted words is humorous and proper understanding of these words is based on the fixed context (e.g. “I beg your pudding”). The same holds true for unusual shortenings (e.g. “ bacon and e.”, “He kn. at the door ”).
Phrasal verbs are more expressive than their one-word counterparts and they are colloquial. But in serious writing you should avoid them (e.g. give in  surrender).
Nouns converted from such verbs are even more colloquial (e.g. “a car was in a smash -up”, “a fall -out”, “a pick -up”, etc.).
PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
!
Every work of literature is a sequence of sounds, making up the whole utterance. Phonostylistics (PS) studies features that at the speaker’s or writer’s disposal are to emphasize words or the whole utterance.
The phonetic … … … … of the utterance does not exist … … … … … … with the meaning and message.
We distinguish between prosodic means and orchestration of sounds. Prosodic means include such elements of speech as loudness, pitch , acceleration or slowing down the tempo, pauses, stress , etc. In this respect the written text is far from perfect . Much of it can be pronounced differently and therefore understood differently.
LOUDNESS:
Depends on many factors. Diminished loudness expresses intimacy, mildness, shyness, but also threat and warning. A loud voice may express familiarity, good heartedness, excitement, etc.
PITCH:
Depends on a state of excitement. It is high when a person is angry or excited; or low when he is disappointed, desperate, sorrowful.
TEMPO:
The tempo of speech is normally slow with depression or sadness , but anger, fear, joy and other momentary feelings accelerate it.
PAUSES:
Pauses are chief means of making one’s speech emotional. Logical pauses divide the sentence into meaningful parts, which correspond to sense groups and are often marked in text by punctuation. Emotional pauses are introduced to draw attention to the word or phrase that follows and thus emphasize this word or phrase (e.g. “Do you mean to say that she is still / (a pause is marked) a virgin?”). Here the emotional pause corresponds to a dash and strengthen the speaker’s disbelief (e.g. “She is so gentle so / gently cruel.” – there is no punctuation in the sentence but the pause occurs before “gently cruel” to emphasize the contradictory nature of the character expressed by two incompatible adjectives (case of oxymoron). Such pauses may be marked in a text and may be introduced by a speaker.
STRESS:
We can speak about logical stress – it singles out words that are primary in the context (e.g. “I didn’t mean you, I mean everybody .”). Stress that is used to single out words that are emotionally important or to point out their hidden or specific meaning is called emphatic (e.g. “I told you he is unwell.”). Emphatic stress may be signaled graphically by the Italics , dots , exclamation marks, etc. Accompany means of emphasis may be prolongation of vowels and consonants. Vowels are usually prolonged to express positive feelings (e.g. “I am so glaaaaaad.”). Consonants become longer to express negative emotions (e.g. “Mmmmmonstrous idea”).
ORCHESTRATION:
Both oral and written speech may possess orchestration – the choice of words with respect to acoustic properties of sounds, their sequence, and repetition. Due to their acoustic features sounds may create certain feelings, ideas or images. This is called euphony (from Greek – “pleasant to the ear”). It may be argued that evaluation of sounds is rather subjective; an experiment was carried out to prove the contrary: 5 words were given to people:
kag keg kig kog kug
and the people were told that words stand for different degrees of illumination ( light ). People had to suggest which word would suggest maximum light and which maximum darkness and how they should be distributed. People put them in following order:
kig ( bright ) keg kag kog kug ( dark )
PHONETIC STYLISTIC DEVICES (I. Ladusseva book Rhyme and Text)
ONOMATOPOEIA – is sound imitation, echo writing. It is a combination of sounds suggesting the typical sounds the object makes. Traditional cases are: buzz, roar, whisper, ding - dong , splash, squeak, giggle, whistle, etc. More original and more expressive examples comprise nonce-coinages (e.g. “a jet whooshed into the sky”, “the train choo- chood to the station ”, “ punk , punk, punk – her needle broke the circle ”).
ALLITERATION (Rhyme and Text, page 41) - Alliteration is the repetition of single sounds or groups of sounds (usually word-initial sounds, especially consonants). Alliteration goes back to Anglo-Saxon poetry that knew no rhyme and did not yet rely on metre. The importance of alliteration is fully recognized by contemporary poets as well. They use it more sparingly, yet rather frequently and effectively. The complete alliteration of Anglo-Saxon poetry is sometimes used for humorous purposes. Further on, alliteration may have its share in producing an ironic effect. Alliteration may convey various shades of meaning. Another function of alliteration lies in connecting words by similarity of sound. The function of alliteration depends on the particular context; its rhythmical value goes hand in hand with the connotations it evokes.
There are attempts to define the expressive value of separate sounds. It has been noted, for instance , that the sounds [l, m, n] suggest slowness and peacefulness. An exhaustive study of consonants and some consonant clusters has been conducted by M. Boulton who claims the following:
b and p - suggest quickness, movement, triviality, scorn;
m, n, ng - provide various effects of humming , singing, music, occasionally sinister ;
l - suggests liquids in motion, streams, water, rest, peace , luxury , voluptuousness;
k, g, st, ts, ch - suggest harshness, violence , cruelty, discomfort, noise, conflict;
s, sh - hissing, also soft and soothing sounds;
z - appears in contexts of harshness;
f and w - and to a lesser extent v, suggest wind and any motion of a light kind;
t, d - like k, g, but less emphatic; are much used in contexts where short actions are described ;
r - depends on the sounds near it, but is generally found in contexts of movement and noise;
th - tends to be quiet and soothing (успокаивающий).
ASSONANCE (book, page 44.)
It is resemblance or similarity in sound between vowels followed by different consonants in two or more stressed syllables. Assonance differs from RHYME in that RHYME is a similarity of vowel and consonant. "Lake" and " fake " demonstrate RHYME; "lake" and " fate " assonance. Assonance or vocalic alliteration, as any other repetition, enhances (усиливать) the rhythmical pattern. Like alliteration, it has melodious and emphatic qualities. Normally, assonance does not appear alone : it is accompanied by other means of sound orchestration, i.e. alliteration, rhyme , etc.
There have been attempts to relate vowel sounds to the meaning they convey. The sound [I], for example, either alone or in diphthongs , is said to produce the impression of lightness, airiness, and brightness.
The length of vowels is also relevant . "... Long vowels tend to sound more peaceful or more solemn than short ones , which tend to give an impression of quick movement, agitation or triviality" (M. Boulton). The predominance of long vowels and diphthongs is said to render the sense of slow pace or slowness, heaviness.
RHYME (book, page 30-36.) - Rhyme (OE rim - "number") is a special kind of regular sound repetition occurring at the end of poetic lines or at other, symmetrically placed stretches of a poem . Rhyming words are often situated at a regular distance from each other.
Rhyme has a twofold nature. As any sound repetition, it plays an important role in sound orchestration. Being regularly repeated throughout poetic lines, it has pronounced rhythmical (and compositional) qualities. In other words, rhyme is the most obvious regular sound pattern in poetry that helps to structure ideas by linking lines together through similarities in the sounds of correlated words.
The rhyming words have either identical or similar sound combinations. Identity of sounds results in full rhymes, comprising the repetition of the last stressed vowel and the following consonant (or consonant): blushes - thrushes, tide - side, mellow - yellow , gold - cold , land - hand, grasp - clasp, miss - kiss .
Incomplete rhymes derive from certain modifications of full rhymes. Thus, incomplete Vowel rhymes require identical vowels, whereas consonants are different, as in: world - serve, bulb - skull , pen - best, storm - mourn, balm - path . The reserve principle is observed in Consonant rhymes consisting of identical consonants and dissimilar vowels, as in: blood - blade, love - live, felt - fault , burn - born, crisp – grasp. These rhymes are sometimes referred to as partial rhymes or pararhymes. As a rule, incomplete rhymes are made use of occasionally to introduce variety into the prevailing type of rhyme. They may also occur throughout a poem, producing a striking aesthetic impact on the attentive reader.
Compound rhymes are made up of two or more words, united by a single stress, that reproduce the sound form of a correlated word. The following instances are taken from G.G. Byron's poem " Beppo ": clamorous - enamour us, women - two men, adorer - before her, Verona - known a ..., fetter - beset her, Harvey - starve ye, grammar - d-n her, bottom - forgot'em. Compound rhymes are mainly employed to evoke a humourous response. They also add a colloquial touch to the text.
A peculiar property of English rhymes is the so-called eye-rhyme (or sight -rhyme). It contains identical letters while vowel sounds are pronounced differently: love - grove, farm - warm , path - hath, gush - bush, dew - grew, flames - Thames . It is obvious that eye-rhyme is appreciated by the eye rather than by the ear. Thus, it is a property of the written poem; its share in the rhythmical pattern is insignificant. The existence of eye-rhyme is conditioned mainly by historical changes in the vowel sounds in certain positions . Eye-rhymes are used by contemporary poets largely as a tribute to the poetic tradition of the past.
From the point of view of their position we distinguish between final rhymes (illustrated above), inner and head rhymes. Inner or internal rhymes occur within a poetic line. Head rhyme is rather uncommon. It connects the end of a line with the beginning of the next one by similar sound combinations. Head rhyme may appear in the form of stringing together lines beginning with the same sound, or syllable , or word.
According to the arrangement of rhymes in stanzas, rhymes fall into:

couplets - when two lines are rhythmically linked by the final rhyme (marked a a);

triple rhymes or triplets (a a a);

cross rhymes – (a b a b);
4. framing rhymes – (a b b a);
5. monorhymes – (a a a a ...)
The rhyme scheme may assume different patterns , allowing for a delay of the expected rhyme which creates a kind of poetic suspense and stirs the reader emotionally.
Rhyme is an essential feature, of classical poetry.
LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES (LSD)
I. LSD based on the interaction of lexical contextual and meaning

Metaphor – in metaphor lexical and contextual meaning is based on the similarity of two notions and thus metaphor is hidden comparison: one word is used instead of another because objects or things have something in common.
A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when different phenomena are brought together, are powerful to create images. The image may have faded due to long usage and such words are known as linguistic (or dead) metaphors (e.g. “the mouth of a bottle” – such metaphors are dead, they are not stylistic devices (they do not affect emotionally).
Stylistic metaphors fall into trite (are overused) and original metaphors (classified also as genuine and individual metaphors). A trite metaphor is commonly used in speech (e.g. “a ray of hope”, “to burn with passion ”, “a cup of joy”). A trite metaphor may become original if the writer or speaker prolongs it (e.g. “It compelled me to dash a cup of joy from her lips .” – somebody was rejoicing that something has happened but the speaker wanted to make this person sad). Genuine metaphors are the fruit of author’s imagination (e.g. “His lips were tight little traps ”, “Her voice was a song of castrated delight ”).
Simple metaphors are based on a single image (e.g. “He felt ice water flowing in his veins”).
A sustained ( developed ) metaphor – is when you have several metaphors contributing to the same image (e.g. “Our family rivulet joined other streams and the stream was the river pouring into the church .”).
Metaphor is expressed by all notional parts of speech: nouns (e.g. “the eyes are the windows of the soul”), verbs (e.g. “the time was bleeding away”), adjectives (e.g. “the word was tipsy”), adverbs (e.g. “the wind was blowing sadly”). The function of metaphor is to stress an important feature in an imaginative (!) way.

Metonymy – lexical and contextual meanings are based on the contiguity: one word is used instead of some other word because the thing they stand for occurs very closely in reality . In metonymy transfer of meaning is very logical (!) (e.g. “the crown ” – stands for king or queen; “a cup” – means ‘to drink’; “a hand” – a worker; “the cradle” – infancy; “the grave ” – death; etc.).
Typical types of association :

a characteristic feature standing instead of his possessor (e.g. “There are too much petticoats in business today.”)
the container standing for the thing it contains (e.g. “He resumed the earning of the weekly envelope.” (money)
the instrument standing for the action (e.g. “He wants the stick now and then, it will do him good.”)
the office may stand for employees (e.g. “The factory went on strike ”)
the effect may stand for the course (e.g. “She is the pride of our school.”)

These were cases of trite metonymy (often used).
Genuine (original) metonymy is created by unexpected accessions and institutions (e.g. “She asked the moustache to show her the way.”).
Metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivised numerals (e.g. “She was a pale eighteen.”).
Synecdoche – is a subtype of metonymy. Synecdoche is a part that stands for a whole or vice versa; the singular for the plural or vice versa (e.g. “She was all lipstick and cold hard eyes.” “I am all ears .” “I do not want to see his ugly face .” “I will never let a woman into my life.” – here author means women).

Antonomasia – came from Greek “name instead”. It is the use of proper name instead of the general idea (e.g. “He is a Napoleon of crime.” “He is a sort of male Emily Bronte.”). In the book a word or phrase may be spelled with the capital initial letters, which resembles a proper name (e.g. “Were so many Good Wives present.”). The effect is often irony (this part of antonomasia belongs to the written text. The use of meaningful names, which serve the writer to characterize a person (e.g. Snearwell, Mr. Snake, Mr. Blackbite, Mr. Boastall, etc.).

Irony – is a figure of speech where the literal meaning of a word is opposite of what intended, often a positive word is used in negative sense (e.g. “- I hope he brakes his neck. – That is dear of you.” ; “What a nice birthday present it would be if someone stuck me with a pig knife . But it won’t happen . No such luck .”).
II. Interaction of denotational and emotional meaning

Epithet – indicates an individual emotional evaluation of an object or state of action. Epithet is basically subjective and evaluative (e.g. “melodramatic hand”, “schoolmasterish finger ”, “tender sky”, “careless beauty”). The logical attribute is non-evaluative (e.g. “green grass ”, “white snow ” – these are just adjectives and not epithets). Through constant use epithets may become trite word combinations with the noun following and their predictability is great (e.g. “true love”, “sweat smile”, “rosy lips”).

Syntactic epithets, from the point of view of their composition, have the pattern: N + of + N or a + N + of + a + N (e.g. “a brute of a boy “, “a devil of a time”, “an elephant of a man”).

Phrase epithets: adjective deriving from a phrase or sentence (contain hyphens) (e.g. “an I-could-not-care-less attitude”).

Sentence epithets are expressed by one word sentence containing a noun and exclamation mark (e.g. “Fool!”, “Pig!”, etc.).

String epithet involves several epithets used side by side (e.g. “A nice, mild, kind, pleasant gentleman”).
Semantically epithets are classified into metaphorical (based on metaphor: e.g. “soft smile”) and transferred elements (the quality of one thing is transferred to its nearest neighbour (e.g. “He was tossing on the sleepless pillow .” – actually he was sleepless and not the pillow; “He shrewd his indifferent shoulders.”; “He raised an interested hand.”).

Oxymoron – is a combination of two words (attributive and adverbial), the meaning of which clash (e.g.: living corpse, calm nervous laughter, shout silently. Other patterns are less frequent : doomed to liberty). If repeated frequently, an oxymoron may lose its stylistic quality and become a colloquial phrase (e.g. awfully nice). The function of oxymoron is to stress, to bring out contradictory notions (e.g. an old young man).

Hyperbole – is used to evoke an emotional response, irony, humor. Hyperbole is an exaggeration not to be taken literally. Through frequent repetition hyperbole becomes trite: “I am dying to see him”, “scared to death”, “a thousand pardons” etc. Hyperbole is often combined with metaphor (e.g. “She cried in a voice that hit me between the eyebrows and went out at the back of my head.” “She swallowed men whole. You could see their feet sticking out of her mouth.”). Round numerals used in hyperbole seem rather trite (e.g. “I feel a hundred years old.” – trite. “I feel ninety-seven years old.” – original hyperbole).

Understatement

it is deliberately lessening the size or significance of something

it is expressing an affirmation through the denial of its contrary.
Understatement is an essential part of English humor (e.g. “He was just five words in his vocabulary.” “She has not a thought for years.” Affirming by denying: “She is not particularly honest indeed.” “My patience is not inexhaustible.” Not bad = good.). The function of understatement apart from humor is not to sound too categorical.
III. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of primary and secondary meaning.

Zeugma (from Greek “to join”) - a word stands in the same grammatical relation to two words in the context (e.g. “He opened the window ( direct meaning) and his heart to me (figurative metaphorical meaning).”) When it applies to the first word it has direct meaning, when to the other – metaphorical (e.g. “He took his hat and his leave.” “Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor, put on kimono , airs and the water to boil her coffee .” “She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic heart.”).

Pun (play on words) – the humorous use of a word in two meanings (polysemantic words) (e.g. “I am going to give (say) you some good advice . – Oh, do not. One should never give (give) a woman anything she cannot wear in the evening .” (O.Wilde) or the words that sound alike but have different meanings (homonyms) (e.g. “What makes the tower of Pisa lean (переводится:1.наклонятся, 2. стройный) – It never eats.”; “Did you hit a woman with a child. – No, sir. I hit her with a brick.”)

Semantically false chain – enumerating objects without logical connections (words here are used in the direct meaning) (e.g. “She was talking of Picasso, rain, cats, being pregnant , and her husband’s mistress.”). The function of such sentence is to render chaotic description .
IV. Stylistic devices based on circumlocution.

Periphrasis – the use of the longer and differently worded description instead of plain and short expression (a roundabout way to name objects). Traditional periphrasis are not specific (e.g. “one’s better half ” = wife; “a gentleman of a long robe” = a lawyer ). In original periphrasis the author expresses his ideas in a new unexpected way (e.g. “My cousin and I had been meeting since the day the man stayed just long enough to warm the chair.”). Periphrasis was an important part of the Bible , also of Latin poetry ( 16th century) to create elevated style. The excessive use of periphrasis should not be favoured.

Simile – (Lat. “like”) – figure of speech that draws comparison between two different things (e.g. “How strange the moon seems: she is like a woman rising from a tomb .” – like a dead woman: pale and quiet). When objects belonging to the same class are compared then we have comparison, not simile (e.g. “If he is like his mother, he must be a good looking chap.”). Similes appear in the following forms (apart from “like / as if”):

in negative forms (e.g. “You are not so unkind as man’s ingratitude.”)
degrees of comparison (e.g. “He had no more idea of money than a cow.”)
adverbial phrase containing (e.g. “With the quickness of a long cat she climbed up”)
lexically expressed reference to the fact of comparison (resemble, seem, remind) (e.g. “He reminded James of a hungry cat.”)

Many similes have become clichés (e.g. “blind as a bat”, “fresh like a rose ”, “smoke like a chimney”, etc.)

Euphemism – is a variety of periphrasis. It is a mild, vague expression for a harsh, rude one (e.g. “death” – Byron: “ dream sleep”, Alfred Tennyson “ crossing the bar”, Shakespeare “the journey ’s end”). Many euphemisms have become phraseological units: “a gentleman of fortune” (adventurer), “little Mary ” (stomach), “a gentleman in brown ” (a flea ). More original cases are of greater interest to stylistics (e.g. “China is a country where you often get different accounts of the same thing.”)

Personification – a figure of speech that presents inanimate things as human beings. The signs of personification are the pronouns (he / she); capital letters; verbs of thinking , speaking; and any qualities typical of humans (e.g. “The Face of London was now strangely changed; the voice of mourning was heard in every street.” “Then the Moon held a finger to her lips.”). Personification can be regarded as a kind of metaphor (if we can visualize something – it is personification; if not – then it is metaphor). If personification is associated with symbolic or didactic tendencies, it becomes allegory - a figurative presentation of an abstract meaning. In allegory the actions are usually symbolic while the characters are expressed by personification (in fables), an abstract idea rendered through a concrete image (e.g. “It is time to turn ploughs into swords.”).
V. Other cases.

Bathos – spoiling the lofty effect, bringing something down to earth. The usual function is irony or humor.

The author may mention elevated things side by side with down-to-earth objects (e.g. “They kissed violently, passionately. The pigs in the sty grunted.” “He liked her ever so more than the don don whores.” (Aldington).
Words belonging to different stylistic layers brought together is also bathos (colloquial + formal vocabulary) (e.g. “I ain`t attempting to discuss the celebrated moral aspect of parental affection.”).
Applying colloquial words to distinguished people (e.g. “That Shakespeare chap most likely had written countless books of poetry.”).

Allusion – a reference to something presumably known to the reader, frequently to the literature, history, facts of everyday life. Usually no source indicated. Allusions create new associations in a new context, because they call forth compression. Usually they create festive overtones, also humor (when used “inappropriately”) (e.g. “Death may be knocking at the door like the Commandor’s statue.” Bathos: “She addressed herself to the drunken man who had now begun to emerge from the ditch like Venus rising from the foam .” “The fellow follows me everywhere like Mary’s lamb.”)

Quotation – a phrase, passage from a literary source marked by inverted commas. Usually the author’s name is supplied unless he is widely known. Quotations often assume a new meaning (e.g. “I do not know if Kipper noticed that my brown was sicklied o`er with the pale cast of thought. (Hamlet Shakespeare)” “Jeeves, I yelled and then remembered that he had long since Gone With the Wind.”)

Epigram – short, compact statement , which stresses an idea. Epigrams are independent when taken out of context. Coined by well-known people (e.g. “The child is father of a man” Wordsworth ; “A favourite has no friend.” Gray; “ Beware the fury of a patient man.” Dryden)

Proverbs and idioms – make the text emphatic and colloquial due to their everfresh qualities. They may appear in their traditional form or they might be violated or deformed (by adding new words, replacing or changing word order, reviving the meaning of certain words). DEFORMED: “the winner takes all” → “the looser takes all” (G. Greene). REVIVED: “to have something up one’s sleeve”→ “I had so many new schemes up my sleeve that I had to wear kimonos to keep them.” Deformation is usually funny, ironic.

Lexical repetition – repeating a word, phrase or sentence without any definite regularity. The function is to emphasize the repeated unit (e.g. Dickens “Scrooge went to bed again and thought, and thought, and thought it over, and over, and over.”)

Synonymic repetition – two or more synonyms placed together to explain the notion more fully. The second, and other synonyms express an additional shade of meaning (e.g. “Joe was a mild, good-tempered, easy -going, sweet-tempered fellow.”)

Contextual synonyms – “She told his name to the trees . She whispered it to the … …”
SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES
They are based on a specific place of a word or phrase in the sentence or utterance, which creates emphasis irrespective of the lexical meaning of the word or phrase.
I. Absence of logically required elements of speech

Ellipsis – (elliptical sentence) – omission of one or both principle members of the sentence ( subject , predicate) (e.g. “ – Where is the man I am going to marry? – Out in the garden. (elliptical sentence) – What is he doing out there? – Annoying father.” (subject, part of predicate is missing ). Ellipsis in the dialogue contributes to the colloquial tone . In the author’s narrative it makes the utterance tense, emotional; or helps to stress the most important elements (e.g. “I went to Oxford as one goes into exhale; she to London.” – predicate is dropped ).

Aposiopesis – (from Gr. “silence”) – it is break-in-the-narrative – an unfinished sentence in which the speaker suddenly breaks off in the middle as if unable or unwilling to proceed. It suggests strong emotions paralyzing the speaker or his deliberate stop to conceal the meaning (e.g. “She must leave – or – or, better yet – may be drown herself – make a way with herself in someway – or – or.” → sentence is interrupted, the final dash marks the sentence is unfinished, the speaker is too emotional; “And it was so unlikely that anyone would trouble to look there – until – well.” → the speaker is unwilling to go on, to specify .).

Nominative sentence – it is the sentence containing a noun or a noun phrase. Such sentences evoke a more or less isolated idea of an object without any relations with other objects. Such sentences appeal to the reader’s imagination, it is a kind of kaleidoscope (e.g. “London. Parks. Horse riders. Streets. Noisy traffic . A policeman.”). Such sentences strengthen the dynamic nature of the narrative (e.g. “But what if they should guess ? The horror ! The flight! The exposure ! The police !”).

Asyndeton – deliberate omission of conjunctions , which disregard norms of literary language. Asyndeton is used mostly to render energetic organized activity; or to show the succession of minute immediately following each other actions (e.g. “People sang . People cried. People fought. People laughed. People hated . Others were sad. Others gay. Others with friends . Others lonely.”; “He yawned, went out to look at the thermometer, slammed the door, patted her head, unbuttoned his shirt , yawned, waned the clock , went to look at the furnace, yawned.”). The sentences become more rhythmical.

Apokoinu constructions – a blend of two clauses into one at the expense of omitting the connecting word (normally “who” or “that”). It is ungrammatical, it is characteristic of irregular, excited, careless or uneducated character of somebody’s speech (e.g. “I am the first one saw her.” (who); “It is your unfairness disgusts me.” (that); “There is no one enjoys good food more than he does.” (who).

Gap-sentence link – seemingly illogical construction of the sentence in which parts are connected so that the reader himself must reconstruct the gap between them. This device is signaled by “and” and “but”. The function is to introduce the interior monologue , to give a subjective evaluation, to introduce an effect of some course (e.g. “It was not Capetown that where people only frowned when they saw a black boy and white girl ….. but here he loved her.”). The gap-sentence link makes the reader very active .
II. Devices based on the redundancy of elements of speech
Types of REPETITION:

Framing – repeating the same word, phrase, sentence at the beginning and at the end of the sentence or passage (e.g. “The street (word), so soft and sunny , the street (word).”; “Here he comes. (sentence) She smiles and stretches out her arms. Here he comes. (sentence)”). Function is to make the repeated part stronger, to emphasize it.

Anadiplosis – (catch repetition) – repeating a word or a phrase at the end of a clause , or sentence, and at the beginning of the following one (e.g. “Fishers went sailing out into the West. Out into the West as the sun went down.”; “Such was his life – life without hope.”).

Anaphora – repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several clauses or sentences in succession (e.g. “Supposing she does come, supposing the darkness lift , supposing.”; “Heroes come and go. Heroes eat and drink. Heroes kiss women and enjoy life.”). Anaphora involves notional parts of speech. Usually nouns, adjectives, or verbs are repeated.

Epiphora – repetition of a word or phrase at the end (e.g. “She is mad, unhappy and mad, cheerful and mad.”; “I know he ran away from the battle . He did not want to kill or be killed, so he ran away from the battle.”).

Tautology – redundancy in words which is objectional in literary speech. There is:

grammatical tautology - using the double subject, predicate in a sentence (e.g. “Miss Webster, she slept forty days before waking up.” (double subject); “I know what the like of you are, I do.”). Occurs in dialogues. The one who uses it shows carelessness (part of colloquial speech).

lexical tautology – saying the same by rephrasing it. It also serves to characterize the person negatively (e.g. “She always sleeps late. I mean she never wakes up very early.”; “He is leaving now. I mean, he is going.” – lexical tautology).

Polysyndeton – deliberate repetition of conjunctions in close succession. It slows down the utterance on the one hand, but on the other it makes the utterance more rhythmical. “or” stresses equal importance of the listed items ; “and” gives energetic impact (e.g. “And the coach , and the coachman, and the horses rattled, and jangled, and whipped, and cursed, and swore, and tumbled all together.”; “Miss Smiles, or he, or they both will come, or will not come, or will send a note, or will send somebody, or will not send anybody.”)

III. Unusual position of elements

Inversion – violation of the accepted rules of word order. Its function is to emphasize part of a sentence that is inverted. Types of inversion:

complete inversion – here the subject is proceeded by the predicate or part of it (e.g. “Unhappily went he.”; “Beautiful she is.” – to emphasize the adjective; “Go I must.”; “Nice she was.”)

partial inversion – when the direct object is coming before the subject (e.g. “Her love letters I returned to the detective.”), or adjectives coming after the noun (e.g. “ Spring begins with the first flowers, cold, and shy, and wintry.”), or the subordinate clause coming before the main clause, the subject becoming emphatic (e.g. “Whether she changes or does not change, I do not care.”).
IV. Syntactic structures beyond one sentence

Syntactic parallelism – repeating the syntactic pattern (repeating word order) to enhance the semantic and rhythmic effectiveness.

complete parallelism – the word order is completely the same (e.g. “In the beginning, blankness. In the end, voidness.”)

partial parallelism – some deviations from the pattern (e.g. “The cock is crowing,/ the spring is flowing.”; “The small birds twitter , / the lake does glitter.”)

Antithesis – the opposition of two strongly contrasted ideas combined with syntactic parallelism (e.g. “I am the poet of the body / I am the poet of the soul.”; “Crafty men condemn studies; simple men admire them.”). The function of antithesis is to strengthen a controversial nature of things. Antonyms are used.

Chiasmus – reverse parallelism – the word order of the second sentence is inverted compared to the first sentence.

lexical chiasmus – words change their places, but the word order remains the same (e.g. “I love my dog and my dog loves me.”).

grammatical chiasmus – the word order of the second part is inverted (e.g. “Up went the curtain , the curtain went up.”).

Climax – gradation; constructing the sentence so that each new part grows in intensity (e.g. “It was a mistake, a blunder, lunacy.”). The function of climax is to show the significance of things as the author sees them.

quantitative climax – is based on words whose choice is logical (e.g. “An hour , a day, a week, a month, a year passed.”). Numerals appear here.

qualitative climax – reflects the individual way the author views an event happening, etc. (e.g. “He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die.”).

Anticlimax – creates a comic, satiric effect by arranging sentence in such a way that the aroused expectations are disappointed. Paradoxes are often based on anticlimax (e.g. O. Wilde “Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything – except the obvious.”; “In the drinking well / which the Plummer built her, / aunt Elisa fell - / we must buy a filter .”)

Suspense – a specific structure of the longer sentence that keeps the reader in tense participation, because the important part of information comes last. Less important descriptive parts are introduced in the beginning (e.g. “The day on which I take the happiest and best step of my life – the day on which I shall be more enviable than any other man in a world – the day on which I give Bleak House its little mistress – shall be next month.”). Information is withheld and only later we have a subject and a predicate, or they are separated and predicate comes last.

Detachment – is the separation of secondary members of the sentence from the rest of it, in order to stress the isolated part. The effect is stronger when the full stop is used (e.g. “I have to beg you for money. Daily .”; “I saw him. In his car.”; “She was there too, with a painter.”; “They were heard – immediately.”). If we remove the punctuation mark then these parts will form a nice sentence. When this cannot find place – then it is not a detachment.
V. Syntactic structures used in a new function

Rhetorical question – requires no answer ; is used to emphasize the point. In public speeches it expresses sarcasm, indignation. In colloquial speech it often conveys irony. It is the means of making the reader more active (e.g. “Is it fair to take an advantage of a man like this?”; “Who can stop me?”)

Exclamatory sentence – used as an intensifier or interjection to make stronger the expression of a sudden emotion (e.g. “She was so happy!”; “How fantastic the tree looked!”)

GRAPHICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
The outward shape of the printed page is very important. The author is acutely conscious of various types of prints, the division of text into paragraphs, italics, punctuation marks. In poetry the author attaches great importance to the division of stanzas, arrangement of lines. The peculiar feature of poetry – combination of graphical means and sound form.
Graphical means are indispensable, in order to pass over to the reader the features that in oral speech are rendered by prosodic elements (stress, the tone of the voice, pauses, intonation, the length of sounds, etc.). A prominent place is taken by graphical means.
The stylistic loading of the stylistic marks is unequal – the more prominent ones are exclamation and interrogation marks. They suggest high emotionality (e.g. “Winter! So cold! White snow! White icicles? Icicles! Huge and splendid!”).

The exclamation mark is often used with sentences that are not exclamatory in form. In these cases it shows mostly ironic attitude or indignation (e.g. “A truth, a faith , a generation of men goes – and is forgotten , and it does not matter !”). Sentences that are interrogative in structure may have the exclamation mark to express strong surprise or distrust (e.g. “Does she think of me so often!”).

The dash and dots create emotional pauses to suggest indecision, uncertainty, embarrassment, nervousness – device is aposiopesis. In the dialogue dash and dots are used to render the speech realistically. These two punctuation marks indicate a longer pause before an important word to draw attention to it (the shortest pause goes with the comma - one beat; dash, dots, full stop – two beats; end of the paragraph – three beats) (e.g. “You come after dark, it is so – embarrassing.”; “And then she saw a – ghost .”).

The stylistic function of the full stop may be different: over-stopping and under-stopping. In the over-stopping the full stop is used abundantly, separating words or phrases that normally do not form a sentence (e.g. “I would not call her beautiful. Or clever. Because she is boring.”). Over-stopping creates a peculiar abrupt rhythm. Under-stopping - too few full stops – may also reflect the dynamic, rhythmical features of the text. The two devices are especially favoured by modernist writers (e.g. T. S. Elliot “Triumphal Marsh ”, or an extreme case of under-stopping is the last chapter of J. Joyce’s novel Ulysses – no single punctuation mark for 40 pages).

The inverted commas for quotation marks may signal the unuttered thoughts of characters or they may suggest that these words or phrases belong to other characters and the author feels ironic about these words, or these words or phrases are used in a specific narrowed meaning.

The indented line also belongs to punctuation marks. In scientific prose the paragraph division is caused by logical treatment of the problem – the new paragraph is developing a new idea. In fiction paragraph division influences the reader, it adds connotations. Here the indented line singles out parts of the text that are important in the writer’s vision. If the writer presents his description as one unbroken paragraph – it means he attaches equal importance to every sentence. If a separate sentence is patterned as a paragraph – it stands out as emotionally very prominent (e.g. “She hated Rosemary Barton . If thoughts could kill, she would have killed her. But thoughts do not kill – Thoughts are not enough.” (A. Christy)
From the rhythmical point of view alternation of long and short paragraphs adds to the rhythmical effect of the text. Long paragraphs in succession create a monotonous rhythmical effect. A sequence of very short paragraphs creates a jerky rhythm.

Capital letters – are involved in antonomasia and personification (lexical device). Words may contain capital letters only for emphasis or to suggest that they are pronounced loudly (e.g. “Will You Be Quiet!” – he shouted.”). In poetry it is a tradition to start every line with the capital letter ; nowadays this tradition is dropped, either partly or at all – to achieve the intimacy with the reader. Even in titles small letters tend to be used. Some poets even spell their names with lover case letters.

The arrangement of lines on a page is a significant feature of modern poetry. The, so called, figure poems have appeared (e.g. poem has a shape of a star , a leaf , etc.) – the shape depends on the poem’s content.

Multiplication of letters – letters are doubled or multiplied suggesting the way they are pronounced (e.g. “lllarge”, “rrrrruin”).

Hyphenation – splitting up the word into syllables or letters to suggest additional stress on the word (e.g. “He was s-l-a-i-e-d in Africa .”).

Italics – shows that the word is important in this context and should be pronounced accordingly. Traditionally foreign words are italicized.

Graphon – is distorted spelling. It occurs in prose only (in dialogues). It suggests careless, incoherent pronunciation caused by young age, intoxication, or ignorance of the discussed topic (temporary reasons ). There appear also social and educational factors. There is permanent Graphon – used by many writers (e.g. “fellow” → “fella”; “somewhat” → “summat”; “ tomorrow ” → “tomorra”; “ hell of a” → “helluva”; “don’t know” → “dunno”; “give me” → “gimme”; “what do you do” → “whado”; “old” → “ole”; “where are you” → “whereja”; etc.) (e.g. “We lov ar ticher.”; “She gave permissen for operashun.”). This spelling is very close to how we pronounce words. Rendering them in Russian or Estonian is rather difficult.
THE STYLISTIC COLOURING OF WORD
STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY
Some words have stylistic colouring, which is their permanent part – neutral words, formal / literary / bookish words, and colloquial words.
Stylistically neutral words are those used in any style of language, they are not associated with a definite sphere of usage and they are natural under any circumstances (e.g. man, walk , table, etc.). Stylistically colourful words are associated with a certain kind of language or sphere of usage, and they are felt as the elements of the style (e.g. “murder” (neutral) – “homicide” (literary); “kid” (colloquial) – “child” (neutral). Stylistic colouring does not depend on the context. It is conditioned by the existence of the synonymous neutral words, and becomes apparent (clear) only in comparison with them.
Literary vocabulary
It falls into common literary vocabulary and special literary vocabulary.
Common literary words are those that are more lofty than their neutral counterparts (here belong also borrowings) (e.g. hole – cavity; yearly – annual; hint – allusion; begin – commence; go away – depart; talk – converse; smell – aroma; true – authentic; He began his answer. – He commenced his rejoinder.; Send for the doctor . – Call into requisition the services of the family physician.). How these words function in fiction: literary words have elevated overtones (their function), when used in inappropriate situations or to describe a trivial incident or object – their result is humour.
Special literary vocabulary – comprises words that are associated with more or less definite spheres of use:

Terms – part of scientific discourse and are indispensable (необходимый) in developing a science (e.g. “the spiral cord”, “blood vessel”, “molecule”, “atom”, “syntax”, etc.).

Outside their direct application the function of term changes (e.g. in fiction they may be used to reflect the true to life atmosphere of some professionals).

They may suggest character’s educational status or social background.

Their effect may be irony (e.g. R. Aldington’s “Death of a Hero ”).

Their effect may be humour – when terms are applied to everyday concepts (e.g. Leacock’s favourite devices).

Foreign words and barbarisms (barbarisms are borrowed foreign words that are not assimilated but are still English words and are registered in dictionaries: “bizarre”, “stiletto”, “vacuum”, saga”, etc. Foreign words are just facts of other languages and not belong to English: “ Mein Gott!” (German), “avanti” (Italian). Such words appear in Italics. In fiction they are used:

to supply local colouring (usually a couple of such words is enough)
to suggest the speaker’s or character’s nationality
to render the speaker’s or character’s social status
to convey character’s desire to be above the average (to show off)
to soften the utterance – such word, when they are the kind of understatement because English words may sound too rude or undesirable (e.g. “love – amore”).
Because of humour – when these words are used out of place.

Archaic words – words no longer used in everyday speech, words that are outdated (e.g. thou – you, to deem – to think, to woot – to know, timepiece – clock, raymont – clothes, etc.). We should distinguish between natural and deliberate use of archaic words (e.g. Shakespeare – many of the words he used are archaic today but then they were ordinary words – here we speak about natural use of archaic words). Contemporary writers use them deliberately; the function of such words is:

in historical novels to recreate truthfully the atmosphere of the certain period

to parody historical novels (the number of archaic words here is great)

to stress the character’s fondness of the past (e.g. Ch. Dickenson’s “Old Curiosities Shop ”)

in everyday conversation (dialogues), for satirical and humorous purposes

to suggest a foreign nationality of the character (which is uncommon) (e.g. E. Hemingway’s Spanish characters used archaic words).

In poetry theses words are employed just because they sound more elevated.

Poetic diction – these are words traditionally used in poetry and they overlap with archaic words (e.g. goal – blood, steed – horse, hapless – unhappy, albeat – although, anon – presently). Their function is:

to uphold lofty poetic overtones, when they are used in poetry

in prose or in trivial conversation the result is irony, humour, or satire

these words may suggest the character’s education or social status.

Neologisms and nonce words – neologisms are bookish (literary) words as they appear but soon become just ordinary words (e.g. computer, shuttle ). Nonce words are less bookish but because they are unexpected they are very expressive (are usually coined by author) (e.g. creaturehood, studenthood, doee (doer), invitee (to invite ), betweennes, etc.)
Colloquial vocabulary
It falls into common and special colloquial vocabulary.
Common colloquial vocabulary comprises familiar words that occur in everyday familiar talk and are not used in literary speech (when used then their function is irony and humour). Here belong:

Colloquial synonyms of neutral words (e.g. “to limb” – “to hang out”, “clever” – “smart”, “ agree ” – “to jibe”, “man” – “chap”/”guy”).

Interjections – introduce colloquial touch (e.g. gosh, drat, gee).

Neutral words used figuratively (e.g. “windbag” – talkative person, “juicy” – good or fine, “half-baked” – silly, “a big gun” – important person).

Diminutive forms – e.g. “daddy”, “sweetie”, “lambkin”.

Special forms of address (e.g. “ Hello , old thing!”, “sweet heart”, “ honey ”.

Abbreviations (e.g. “op.” – operation, “sis” – sister , “mo” – moment).

Compound words, particularly ablaut combinations, rhyming words, and words based on reduplication are colloquial (e.g. “hoity-toity”, “helter-skelter”, “riff-raff”, “chit- chat ”).

Intensifying adverbs (intensifiers) (e.g. “He was walking terribly slowly.”, “terribly healthy”, “perfectly terrible”, “foolishly smart” – cases of trite oxymoron).

There are words with a wide range of application (e.g. thing, stuff , job – these words may stand for nearly everything and when they are used a text has a colloquial touch).

Phrasal verbs are more colloquial than their one-word counterparts (e.g. “to make up” – comprise, “to take up” – occupy).

Nouns converted from these phrasal verbs are strikingly colloquial (e.g. “a getaway”, “a breakoff”)

Idioms + proverbs + sayings – they normally sound quite colloquial.

There are schwa words (sound fillers) (e.g. “you see”, “I mean”, “well”, “ie...”, “eh” – pauses in speech filled with sounds).
Special colloquial vocabulary falls into several groups:

Slang belongs to low colloquial vocabulary. Slang words are very colourful units that sound quite rude or coarse, and they are used by different social groups. Slang words do not live for a long time; often they loose their colloquial colouring and become just standard words (e.g. skyscraper, taxi, piano , photo, pulp ). Slang is coined by Word Building and by transfer of meaning (e.g. “ upper storey” – head (metaphor), “ bread ” – money (metaphor), “can / jar” – confine place (metaphor), “sawbones” – surgeon (metonymy), “skirt” – woman (metonymy), “ killing ” – astonishing (hyperbole), “as clear as mud” – mud is never clear (irony). Cockney rhyming slang – e.g. “trouble & strife” – wife, “apples & pears ” – steers, “artful dodger” – lodger). Slang has a great number of synonyms, especially for topics or things that are popular (e.g. “excellent” – cold, elegant, fruity, hot-stuff, meaty, nasty, rich , wicked). Slang is divided into general (used in all fields of life) and special slang (used in special spheres of life – e.g. army slang, students ’ slang, stock exchange slang), which is called jargon. Students’ slang: “a river” - an exam, “ screw ” – a difficult exam, “to hit the ceiling ” – to fail). In fiction slang is used:

to give an emotional description by off hand ridicule (the author is never serious). Such words appear in quotation marks to stress their highly colloquial nature.

in a dialogue it individualizes the characters by the vocabulary they use; + some additional information may be gained about characters’ nature.

Cant – the language of the underworld (language of criminals , beggars, prostitutes). It is secret language, where the most important words are disguised. Often neutral words are used in a special meaning (e.g. “mill” – prison , “plant” – theft , “egg” – criminal , “to land / to shop / to run in” – to arrest, “to snow / to grass” - to betray). In fiction cant serves to convey the atmosphere of the social group.

Professional lexis (professionalisms) – are words coined by a professional group (e.g. doctors , butchers). These words stand for concepts and objects typical of this trait. They are new names for established terms. The established terms may be too long or too difficult to pronounce and so other words are used not to sound too business-like or official (e.g. “hypodermic syringe” – the needle or the hypo, “neutron” – neut). Often shortenings take place (e.g. in hunting: “ buff ” – buffalo; in university : “lit” – literature, “fresher” – freshman).

Dialectical words are those that are used locally, hence , they characterize a personage and belonging to a certain geographical area, their education. Some dialectical words have become common colloquial words (e.g. “lad”, “lass”, “daft” (from Scottish). In some dialects “thou” is preserved instead of “you”, “a tell” – gossip, “to mash ” – to pour tea, “addle” – to earn (money), etc. Rendering dialectical speech the author combines such words with cases of faulty grammar.

Vulgarisms – are words or expressions that are too rude or too offensive to be used widely. There are 2 types of vulgarisms:

Lexical vulgarisms – words usually replaced by euphemisms, by scientific terms – some physiological acts , parts of the body.

Stylistic vulgarisms – they do not stand for the vulgar objects, yet, they are inappropriate due to highly contemptuous colour (e.g. “a smeller” – a nose , “to plant” – to bury , “flat-head / ass” – a fool).
6. Curses - they were not printed until World War 1 (e.g. “ damn ”, “darned”, “dashed”, “deuced”: all start with letter “d” – they are equally offensive. “Bloody”, “bloomy”, “blasted”, “blessed”, “blamed” – with letters “bl”).
Some shortenings: “Sob” – son of a bitch , “B” – blither, “F***” words.
Vulgarisms are used in direct speech as a means of speech portrayal of a person’s lack of education, or social status.
In the author’s narrative they rather suggest humour or irony.

Metre:

(2) syllable feet:

* iambus or iambic foot v / | v /
be gin | to work
* trochee or trochaic foot / v | / v
fa-ther | ca-lling
(3) syllable feet:
* dactyl or dactylic foot / v v | / v v
si-lent-ly | pre-sent-ly
* amphibrach or amphibrachic foot v / v | v / v
I hate you | pre-ten-ding
* anapaest or anapaestic foot v v /
in the sun
monometer 1 foot
dimetre 2 feet
trimetre 3 feet
tetrametre 4 feet
pentametre 5 feet
hexametre 6 feet
septametre 7 feet
octametre 8 feet

Modifications of Metre

* pyrrhic foot v v
* spondee / /
* rhythmic inversion / v | v / | v /
(trochee in iambic line or vise versa)
*catalectic line – the last syllable is stressed, unstressed id missing
*hypermetric line – the last syllable is unstressed, stressed is missing
Metre in English poetry (“Rhythm and Text”)
Metre (from Greek “ measure ”) – forms the structural backbone of classical poetry. The laws of metre are studied by prosody (science of versification). English metre is a combination of the number of syllables and the number of stresses regularly occurring throughout poetic lines.
Metrical patterns: in a line stressed and unstressed syllables cling to each other forming a foot (the number of syllables can be 2 or 3, but not less than 2 or more than 3; and the one syllable must be stressed).
There are 5 kinds of feet in English verse:

iambic – iambus (1 unstressed and 1 stressed syllable),

trochaic – trochee (the stressed syllable is followed by the unstressed one),

dactylic – dactyl (1 stressed syllable is followed by 2 unstressed),

amphibrachic – amphibrach (1 stressed syllable between 2 unstressed ones),

anapaestic – anapaest (2 unstressed syllables followed by 1 stressed).
Modifications of metre (“Rhythm and Text”)
Changes in the metrical pattern may be unintentional and deliberate. There are classes of words (articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, link verbs) that are normally unstressed.

Unstressed syllables may result in a pyrrhic foot (containing 2 unstressed syllables). Pyrrhics are very typical and natural modifications in English poetry. They are common substitutes of an iambic or a trochaic foot.

Another kind of modification involves a spondee (a foot of 2 stressed syllables). The poet uses spondees deliberately for the purpose of strong emphasis or solemnity. Spondees slow down the pace of the rhythm and make it jerky.

The third modification of metre is rhythmic inversion. It consists in inverting the order of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line in the iambic or trochaic pattern. The function of rhyming inversion is to accentuate the semantic importance of the word or phrase and to add variety to the predominant measure.

The fourth modification involves the number of syllables in the line. There may be an extra syllable, in which case the line (or the syllable) is called hypermetric. When there is a missing syllable at the end of the line, the latter is called catalectic (common for dactyl and trochee).
Typically English stanzas (“Rhythm and Text”)
Stanzas are the compositional pattern of the poem (usually there are 4-line stanzas). While reading out the poem we must observe a 3-unit pause (corresponding to 3 beats) at the end of every stanza. This pause reflects graphical division and creates an additional rhythmical impact. The student of language must be aware of typically English stanzas – poetic forms that have evolved during the centuries , and are part and parcel of classical English versification. They have a fixed number of lines, a certain pattern of metre and rhyme, and the length of lines. The main stanza patterns in English poetry are:

The heroic couplet – a stanza containing 2 iambic pentametres (5 feet) rhyming: aa bb cc.

The ballad stanza – has 4 lines consisting of alternate iambic tetrametres (4 feet) and trimetres, rhyming: a b c b. NB! The ballad stanza is to be distinguished from the ballade , a verse form consisting of three 8-lined stanzas and a 4-lined envoy (stanza of dedication).

The Spenserian stanza – consists of 9 lines: 8 iambic pentametres (5 feet) followed by 1 iambic hexametre (6 feet), rhyming: a b a b b c b c c.

Ottava rima – is a stanza of 8 iambic pentametres (5 feet), rhyming: a b a b a b c c. It is borrowed from the Italian poetry in the 16th century.

Rhyme Royal – is a stanza of 7 iambic pentametres (5 feet), rhyming: a b a b b c c. The name comes from the use of this stanza by the king James I of Scotland .

Terza rima – a verse written in triplets, lines being iambic pentametres (5 feet), rhyming: aba bcb cdc, etc. – ending with a couplet to avoid 1 word unrhymed.

Sonnet – is a poem that originated in Italy and was adopted in England in the 16th century. There are 2 types of English sonnets – Petrarchan (Italian) and Shakespearean (English). Both contain 14 iambic pentameters. The difference between the 2 is mainly a matter of rhyme.

Limerick – is a funny poem of nonsense comprising 5 anapaestic lines, rhyming: a a b b a; with the 3rd and 4th lines shorter than the other 3.
Rhythm in poetry and in prose (“Rhythm and Text”)
Rhythm is a concept that applies to any phenomenon or process that is characterized by orderly sequences, by harmonic coordination of different elements. In prose rhythm is defined as “the regular alternation of acceleration and slowing down, of length and brevity, of similar and dissimilar elements”. Any written text is rhythmically organized.
Rhythm helps to convey a certain mood; it is a potent means of signaling heightened emotions, increased excitement, speed or slowness. Rhythmical parameters do not usually occur together in one poem.
There are optional rhythmical elements, which may or may not be resorted to by the author. And there are also obligatory parameters in classical versification, without which no poem exists.
Obligatory are: final pauses, anacruses, clausulae, lines, metre, and rhyme (except for
blank verse).
Optional are: framing, epiphora, stanza, syntactic parallelism, anadiplosis, etc.
Rhythm is closely linked with the message of a poem. It is the latter that determines this or that choice of rhythmical elements. And it is rhythm that assists us to bring out this message.
Varieties of language (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
The differentiation of the literary language is predominated by 2 factors:
the actual situation in which the language is being used, and the aim of the communication.
The actual situation of the communication has evolved 2 varieties of language – the spoken and the written. Of the 2 varieties of language the spoken is primary and the written is secondary.
The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used can be described as the presence of an interlocutor (собеседник). The written variety presupposes the absence of an interlocutor. The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written in the form of a monologue.
The spoken language has an advantage over the written because in spoken the human voice comes into play, and this powerful means of modulating the utterance, as all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation, give additional information.
Written language has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to be explicit (подробный) enough. But it is the written variety of language with its careful organization and deliberate choice of words and constructions that can have political , cultural , and educational influence on a wide public.
The gap between the spoken and written varieties of language will always remain apparent (несомненный) due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are used. The spoken language is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting (мимолетный, скоротечный). It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate a thought. The idea remains, the language dissolves in it. The written language, on the contrary, lives together with the idea it expresses.
The spoken variety differs from the written language phonetically, morphologically, lexically and syntactically (e.g. spoken language: “he’d”, “she’s”, “I’d’ve” ↔ written language: “he would”, “she is”, “I would have”).
Difference between spoken and written language lies also in the vocabulary used (e.g. phrases may be typically colloquial or typically bookish). The spoken variety of language is far more emotional than written.

EMOTIVE PROSE (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
The imagery (речевые образы, фигуры речи) here is not so rich as in poetry and the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high as in poetry. All that distinguishes emotive prose from the poetic style is the combination of the literary variant of the language with the colloquial variant.
The language of the writer is expected to conform to the literary norms of the English language. The language of the hero of a novel is chosen in order to characterize the man himself. Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles (e.g. the newspaper style, the official style, the style of scientific prose).
Emotive prose as a separate form of imaginative literature, that is fiction, came into being rather late in the history of the English literary language (e.g. in early Anglo-Saxon literature there was no emotive prose). The first emotive prose, which appeared, were translations from Latin of the Bible stories .
Middle English prose literature was mostly educational, represented mostly by translations of religious works from Latin. In the 12th and 13th centuries appeared “Tales of King Arthur and his Round Table”, some of which were written in verse and others in prose.
Emotive prose began to assume a life of its own in the second half of the 15th century, when romances and chronicles describing the life and adventures of kings and knights began to appear (e.g. “The Death of Arthur”).
In the 16th century English emotive prose progressed rapidly (mostly it influenced the translations from Greek, Latin, also Italian and French). But on the whole the emotive prose of the 16th century had not yet shaped itself as a separate style.
The 17th century saw a considerable development in emotive prose (were introduced not only lexical but also syntactical innovations ). It was puritan time, when simplicity in choice of words was predominant, another peculiarity of this period was a rather poorly developed system of connectives (e.g. “and”, “so”, “then”).
18th century emotive prose is characterized by the predominance of the realistic style. This century is regarded as the century which formed emotive prose. In the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th certain stylistic devices had been refined and continue to be further developed and perfected.
Present-day emotive prose is characterized by the breaking of traditional syntactical designs of the preceding periods.
SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
The language of science is governed by the aim to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. This language tends to be objective, precise, and unemotional, devoid (лишенный) of any individuality. Its features:

The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances.
A second feature is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. The general vocabulary used in scientific prose bears its direct meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. The possibility of ambiguity is avoided. Terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But in spite of this a new term in scientific prose is generally followed by an explanation.
A third characteristic feature of scientific style is sentence-patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative (дискуссионный), and formulative.
A fourth feature of scientific prose is the use of quotations (кавычки) and references (ссылки).
A fifth feature of scientific style is the frequent use of foot- notes (сноски), not of the reference kind, but digressive (отвлекающийся от темы) in character.
A sixth feature of scientific style is the impersonality (frequent use of passive constructions). Impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with such verbs as: suppose, assume, presume, conclude, point out.

The characteristic features enumerated above do not cover all the peculiarities of scientific prose, but they are the most essential ones.
LANGUAGE OF THE DRAMA (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
The language of plays is entirely dialogue. It is not the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language, although the playwright seeks to reproduce actual conversation as far as the norms of the written language will allow . Here the author’s speech is almost entirely excluded (исключена), except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions.
The language is usually stylized (художественный), that is, it strives to retain the modus of literary English, unless the playwright has a particular aim which requires the use of non-literary forms and expressions.
The 16th century plays are mostly written in iambic pentameter, rhymed or unrhymed. The plays of this period were justly called dramatic poetry. The performance kept close to the norms of colloquial language and that tendency affected the verse and resulted in breaking the regular rhythm of the metre. This breaking became one of the characteristic features of the language of dramatic poetry. The great playwrights of this period modulated the rhythmical pattern of blank verse. A popular form of entertainment at the courts of Elizabeth and the Stuarts was the masque (театр масок). These masques are believed to be the earliest forms of what is now known as “spoken drama”. But the drama of the 17th century itself still holds fast to poetic diction up to the decline of the theatre . The revival of drama began only in the second half of the 18th century, but the ultimate shaping of the play as an independent form of literary work with its own laws of functioning and of language features was actually completed only at the end of the 19th century.
The language of plays is a stylized type of the spoken variety of language. In plays the “ signals of attention” (such words as: I see, good, yes, oh, well) are irrelevant. The monologue is never interrupted by any such exclamatory words. The monological character of the dialogue in plays becomes apparent (очевидный) by the fact that two or more questions may be asked one after another. The sequence of sentences reflecting the sequence of thought will not allow any digressions (отклонения от темы) from the course taken, unless this was the deliberate intention of the playwright. The language of plays is already purposeful.
Publicistic Style (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
Unlike other styles, the publicistic style has a spoken variety, namely:

The oratorical substyle.

The development of radio and television has brought into being another spoken variety – the radio and TV commentary .

The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical , literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic ) in newspapers, journals and magazines. Book reviews and pamphlets are generally included among essays .
The general aim of publicistic style is to exert (оказывать влияние на) a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one.
Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose and emotive prose. Its coherent and logical syntactical structure makes its similar to scientific prose. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning; the use of imagery and other stylistic devices makes it similar to emotive prose.
The Style of Official Documents (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
The style of official documents includes the language of business, legal , military and diplomatic documents. It has a definite communicative aim and its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement between two contracting parties (the state and the citizen , or citizen and citizen, etc.). The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style.
The most striking is the system of clichés, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized (e.g. Dear Sir, we remain; I be to inform you). There is also a common feature – the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions (M.P. = Member of Parliament ; ltd. = limited, gvt = government ). Abbreviations are particularly abundant in military documents and used as signs of the military code .
Another feature is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. Words with emotive meaning are not to be bound in the style of official documents either except those which are used in business letters as conventional phrases of greeting or close (e.g. dear sir, yours faithfully).
The most noticeable of all syntactical features are the compositional patterns of the variants of this style. Thus, business letters have a definite compositional pattern. Almost every official document has its own compositional design.
Newspaper Style (I. Galperin “Stylistics”)
It is only by the 19th century that newspaper English may be said to have developed into a system of language media, forming a separate functional style. English newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived (воспринимаемый) by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader.
Information and evaluation co-exist in the modern English newspapers. Information in the English newspapers is conveyed through the medium of brief news items, press reports, articles purely informational in character, and advertisements and announcements. The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters. Elements of appraisal (оценка) may be observed in the very selection and the way of presentation of news, in the use of specific vocabulary, such as “allege” (ссылаться), “claim” (заявлять, утверждать), and syntactic constructions indicating a lack of assurance on the part of the reporter to avoid responsibility (e.g. Mr. X was said to have opposed ….).
The headlines of news items also carry some amount of appraisal. Editorials (передовицы) are characterized by a subjective handling of facts, political or otherwise.
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FGI 1081 Stylistics (I. Ladusseva)

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